learning goals thesis

Creating Learning Outcomes

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A learning outcome is a concise description of what students will learn and how that learning will be assessed. Having clearly articulated learning outcomes can make designing a course, assessing student learning progress, and facilitating learning activities easier and more effective. Learning outcomes can also help students regulate their learning and develop effective study strategies.

Defining the terms

Educational research uses a number of terms for this concept, including learning goals, student learning objectives, session outcomes, and more. 

In alignment with other Stanford resources, we will use learning outcomes as a general term for what students will learn and how that learning will be assessed. This includes both goals and objectives. We will use learning goals to describe general outcomes for an entire course or program. We will use learning objectives when discussing more focused outcomes for specific lessons or activities.

For example, a learning goal might be “By the end of the course, students will be able to develop coherent literary arguments.” 

Whereas a learning objective might be, “By the end of Week 5, students will be able to write a coherent thesis statement supported by at least two pieces of evidence.”

Learning outcomes benefit instructors

Learning outcomes can help instructors in a number of ways by:

• Providing a framework and rationale for making course design decisions about the sequence of topics and instruction, content selection, and so on.
• Communicating to students what they must do to make progress in learning in your course.
• Clarifying your intentions to the teaching team, course guests, and other colleagues.
• Providing a framework for transparent and equitable assessment of student learning. 
• Making outcomes concerning values and beliefs, such as dedication to discipline-specific values, more concrete and assessable.
• Making inclusion and belonging explicit and integral to the course design.

Learning outcomes benefit students 

Clearly, articulated learning outcomes can also help guide and support students in their own learning by:

• Clearly communicating the range of learning students will be expected to acquire and demonstrate.
• Helping learners concentrate on the areas that they need to develop to progress in the course.
• Helping learners monitor their own progress, reflect on the efficacy of their study strategies, and seek out support or better strategies. (See Promoting Student Metacognition for more on this topic.)

Choosing learning outcomes

When writing learning outcomes to represent the aims and practices of a course or even a discipline, consider:

• What is the big idea that you hope students will still retain from the course even years later?
• What are the most important concepts, ideas, methods, theories, approaches, and perspectives of your field that students should learn?
• What are the most important skills that students should develop and be able to apply in and after your course?
• What would students need to have mastered earlier in the course or program in order to make progress later or in subsequent courses?
• What skills and knowledge would students need if they were to pursue a career in this field or contribute to communities impacted by this field?
• What values, attitudes, and habits of mind and affect would students need if they are to pursue a career in this field or contribute to communities impacted by this field?
• How can the learning outcomes span a wide range of skills that serve students with differing levels of preparation?
• How can learning outcomes offer a range of assessment types to serve a diverse student population?

Use learning taxonomies to inform learning outcomes

Learning taxonomies describe how a learner’s understanding develops from simple to complex when learning different subjects or tasks. They are useful here for identifying any foundational skills or knowledge needed for more complex learning, and for matching observable behaviors to different types of learning.

Bloom’s Taxonomy

Bloom’s Taxonomy is a hierarchical model and includes three domains of learning: cognitive, psychomotor, and affective. In this model, learning occurs hierarchically, as each skill builds on previous skills towards increasingly sophisticated learning. For example, in the cognitive domain, learning begins with remembering, then understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and lastly creating. 

Taxonomy of Significant Learning

The Taxonomy of Significant Learning is a non-hierarchical and integral model of learning. It describes learning as a meaningful, holistic, and integral network. This model has six intersecting domains: knowledge, application, integration, human dimension, caring, and learning how to learn. 

See our resource on Learning Taxonomies and Verbs for a summary of these two learning taxonomies.

How to write learning outcomes

Writing learning outcomes can be made easier by using the ABCD approach. This strategy identifies four key elements of an effective learning outcome:

Consider the following example: Students (audience) , will be able to label and describe (behavior) , given a diagram of the eye at the end of this lesson (condition) , all seven extraocular muscles, and at least two of their actions (degree) .

Audience 

Define who will achieve the outcome. Outcomes commonly include phrases such as “After completing this course, students will be able to...” or “After completing this activity, workshop participants will be able to...”

Keeping your audience in mind as you develop your learning outcomes helps ensure that they are relevant and centered on what learners must achieve. Make sure the learning outcome is focused on the student’s behavior, not the instructor’s. If the outcome describes an instructional activity or topic, then it is too focused on the instructor’s intentions and not the students.

Try to understand your audience so that you can better align your learning goals or objectives to meet their needs. While every group of students is different, certain generalizations about their prior knowledge, goals, motivation, and so on might be made based on course prerequisites, their year-level, or majors. 

Use action verbs to describe observable behavior that demonstrates mastery of the goal or objective. Depending on the skill, knowledge, or domain of the behavior, you might select a different action verb. Particularly for learning objectives which are more specific, avoid verbs that are vague or difficult to assess, such as “understand”, “appreciate”, or “know”.

The behavior usually completes the audience phrase “students will be able to…” with a specific action verb that learners can interpret without ambiguity. We recommend beginning learning goals with a phrase that makes it clear that students are expected to actively contribute to progressing towards a learning goal. For example, “through active engagement and completion of course activities, students will be able to…”

Example action verbs

Consider the following examples of verbs from different learning domains of Bloom’s Taxonomy . Generally speaking, items listed at the top under each domain are more suitable for advanced students, and items listed at the bottom are more suitable for novice or beginning students. Using verbs and associated skills from all three domains, regardless of your discipline area, can benefit students by diversifying the learning experience. 

For the cognitive domain:

• Create, investigate, design
• Evaluate, argue, support
• Analyze, compare, examine
• Solve, operate, demonstrate
• Describe, locate, translate
• Remember, define, duplicate, list

For the psychomotor domain:

• Invent, create, manage
• Articulate, construct, solve
• Complete, calibrate, control
• Build, perform, execute
• Copy, repeat, follow

For the affective domain:

• Internalize, propose, conclude
• Organize, systematize, integrate
• Justify, share, persuade
• Respond, contribute, cooperate
• Capture, pursue, consume

Often we develop broad goals first, then break them down into specific objectives. For example, if a goal is for learners to be able to compose an essay, break it down into several objectives, such as forming a clear thesis statement, coherently ordering points, following a salient argument, gathering and quoting evidence effectively, and so on.

State the conditions, if any, under which the behavior is to be performed. Consider the following conditions:

• Equipment or tools, such as using a laboratory device or a specified software application.
• Situation or environment, such as in a clinical setting, or during a performance.
• Materials or format, such as written text, a slide presentation, or using specified materials.

The level of specificity for conditions within an objective may vary and should be appropriate to the broader goals. If the conditions are implicit or understood as part of the classroom or assessment situation, it may not be necessary to state them. 

When articulating the conditions in learning outcomes, ensure that they are sensorily and financially accessible to all students.

Degree 

Degree states the standard or criterion for acceptable performance. The degree should be related to real-world expectations: what standard should the learner meet to be judged proficient? For example:

• With 90% accuracy
• Within 10 minutes
• Suitable for submission to an edited journal
• Obtain a valid solution
• In a 100-word paragraph

The specificity of the degree will vary. You might take into consideration professional standards, what a student would need to succeed in subsequent courses in a series, or what is required by you as the instructor to accurately assess learning when determining the degree. Where the degree is easy to measure (such as pass or fail) or accuracy is not required, it may be omitted.

Characteristics of effective learning outcomes

The acronym SMART is useful for remembering the characteristics of an effective learning outcome.

• Specific : clear and distinct from others.
• Measurable : identifies observable student action.
• Attainable : suitably challenging for students in the course.
• Related : connected to other objectives and student interests.
• Time-bound : likely to be achieved and keep students on task within the given time frame.

Examples of effective learning outcomes

These examples generally follow the ABCD and SMART guidelines. 

Arts and Humanities

Learning goals.

Upon completion of this course, students will be able to apply critical terms and methodology in completing a written literary analysis of a selected literary work.

At the end of the course, students will be able to demonstrate oral competence with the French language in pronunciation, vocabulary, and language fluency in a 10 minute in-person interview with a member of the teaching team.

Learning objectives

After completing lessons 1 through 5, given images of specific works of art, students will be able to identify the artist, artistic period, and describe their historical, social, and philosophical contexts in a two-page written essay.

By the end of this course, students will be able to describe the steps in planning a research study, including identifying and formulating relevant theories, generating alternative solutions and strategies, and application to a hypothetical case in a written research proposal.

At the end of this lesson, given a diagram of the eye, students will be able to label all of the extraocular muscles and describe at least two of their actions.

Using chemical datasets gathered at the end of the first lab unit, students will be able to create plots and trend lines of that data in Excel and make quantitative predictions about future experiments.

• How to Write Learning Goals , Evaluation and Research, Student Affairs (2021).
• SMART Guidelines , Center for Teaching and Learning (2020).
• Learning Taxonomies and Verbs , Center for Teaching and Learning (2021).

How to Write Learning Goals

Main navigation, learning goals overview.

Specific, measurable goals help you design your course and assess its success. To clearly articulate them, consider these questions to help you determine what you want your students to know and be able to do at the end of your course.

• What are the most important concepts (ideas, methods, theories, approaches, perspectives, and other broad themes of your field, etc.) that students should be able to understand, identify, or define at the end of your course?
• What would constitute a "firm understanding", a "good identification", and so on, and how would you assess this? What lower-level facts or information would students need to have mastered and retained as part of their larger conceptual structuring of the material?
• What questions should your students be able to answer at the end of the course? 
• What are the most important skills that students should develop and be able to apply in and after your course (quantitative analysis, problem-solving, close reading, analytical writing, critical thinking, asking questions, knowing how to learn, etc.)?
• How will you help the students build these skills, and how will you help them test their mastery of these skills?
• Do you have any affective goals for the course, such as students developing a love for the field?

A note on terminology: The academy uses a number of possible terms for the concept of learning goals, including course goals, course outcomes, learning outcomes, learning objectives, and more, with fine distinctions among them. With respect for that ongoing discussion, given that the new Stanford course evaluations are focused on assessing learning goals, we will use "learning goals" when discussing what you want your students to be able to do or demonstrate at the end of your class.

A CTL consultant  can help you develop your learning goals.

For more information about how learning goals can contribute to your course design, please see  Teacher-centered vs. Student-centered course design .

Learning Goal Examples

Examples from Stanford’s office of Institutional Research & Decision Support and syllabi of Stanford faculty members:

Languages and Literature

Students will be able to:

• apply critical terms and methodology in completing a literary analysis following the conventions of standard written English
• locate, apply, and cite effective secondary materials in their own texts
• analyze and interpret texts within the contexts they are written

Foreign language students will be able to:

• demonstrate oral competence with suitable accuracy in pronunciation, vocabulary, and language fluency
• produce written work that is substantive, organized, and grammatically accurate
• accurately read and translate texts in their language of study

Humanities and Fine Arts

• demonstrate fluency with procedures of two-dimensional and three-dimensional art practice
• demonstrate in-depth knowledge of artistic periods used to interpret works of art including the historical, social, and philosophical contexts
• critique and analyze works of art and visual objects
• identify musical elements, take them down at dictation, and perform them at sight
• communicate both orally and in writing about music of all genres and styles in a clear and articulate manner
• perform a variety of memorized songs from a standard of at least two foreign languages
• apply performance theory in the analysis and evaluation of performances and texts

Physical and Biological Sciences

• apply critical thinking and analytical skills to interpreting scientific data sets
• demonstrate written, visual, and/or oral presentation skills to communicate scientific knowledge
• acquire and synthesize scientific information from a variety of sources
• apply techniques and instrumentation to solve problems

Mathematics

• translate problems for treatment within a symbolic system
• articulate the rules that govern a symbolic system
• apply algorithmic techniques to solve problems and obtain valid solutions
• judge the reasonableness of obtained solutions

Social Sciences

• write clearly and persuasively to communicate their scientific ideas clearly
• test hypotheses and draw correct inferences using quantitative analysis
• evaluate theory and critique research within the discipline

Engineering

• explain and demonstrate the role that analysis and modeling play in engineering design and engineering applications more generally
• communicate about systems using mathematical, verbal and visual means
• formulate mathematical models for physical systems by applying relevant conservation laws and assumptions
• choose appropriate probabilistic models for a given problem, using information from observed data and knowledge of the physical system being studied
• choose appropriate methods to solve mathematical models and obtain valid solutions

For more information about learning goals, meet with a  CTL consultant .

See more STEM learning goal examples  from the  Carl Wieman Science Education Initiative .

Key dates for end-term feedback

Check the dates for end-term feedback for the academic year.

Frequently asked questions

Get answers to some common questions.

Key principles of evaluation

Key ideas guiding evaluations and student feedback at Stanford.

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• On Learning Goals and Learning Objectives

You will find lots of talk in the literature on teaching and learning about the importance of articulating  learning goals  and  learning objectives  for your students. Indeed, at some universities, faculty are required to submit formal learning objectives when proposing a course and/or to include them in the course catalogue and on the syllabus.

Though we agree on the importance of learning goals and objectives, at the Bok Center we tend to talk about them in slightly different terms when consulting with instructors. There are two reasons for this:

• First, the terms themselves can be unnecessarily confusing. In common parlance, "goal" and "objective" are synonyms; what, then, is the difference between a learning goal and a learning objective?
• Second, these terms can have the ring of bureaucracy about them, particularly to instructors in more humanities-oriented disciplines who may well reject the notion that it is possible to determine in advance where a student's encounter with a text or object may or may not lead. Is the requirement to articulate learning objectives not just part of a plan to reduce the ineffable process of intellectual exploration to something crudely quantifiable?

The first of these two concerns is not, in fact, that severe. The distinction between "learning goals" and "learning objectives" is actually pretty commonsensical: in this context  goals  generally refer to the higher-order ambitions you have for your students, while  objectives  are the specific, measurable competencies which you would assess in order to decide whether your goals had been met. (To give one example: if it were your goal to teach students how to critique theories of state formation, the corresponding objective might be: "By the end of this course, students should be able to write an essay that explains one major theory of state formation and makes an argument about how well it describes the historical experience of a relevant country.")

The second concern is perhaps best countered by acknowledging that while your goals and objectives might not be entirely quantifiable, this is hardly an excuse for not at least engaging in the process of thinking them through. Whether you are a graduate student teaching for the first time, or a senior faculty member with many years of experience behind you, every course you teach presents some mixture of freedom and constraint. Many of the things that we teach, and the ways that we relate to our students, are predetermined by the calendars and status hierarchies of our universities. As a graduate student, for example, you may be free to decide how you will organize the individual discussion sections or labs in the course you are teaching, but most likely not the syllabus itself, which will have been set by your course head. Likewise, as a faculty member, you may be given wide latitude to choose the subjects covered in your courses, the readings you assign, and the terms of your students' assignments, but you almost certainly will have to factor your department's curriculum or the needs of its graduate program into your decisions. Our disciplinary identities impinge upon our teaching still further. It is hard to go against the grain and choose not to assign a term paper in a writing-intensive discipline, or to engage students in a creative art project in a very quantitative STEM field—even when we suspect that an unconventional assignment might be more apt to test our students' mastery. Whether we recognize it or not, we all come to the act of teaching with at least a few stubborn preconceptions about what we and our students are "supposed to" be doing. Pretending that these preconceptions don't exist easily leads one to over-naturalize them—and, therefore, to forget that your students are unlikely to share all of them.

As you think about identifying your goals and objectives, we encourage you to make use of two frameworks: taxonomies of learning , and your own disciplinary identity .

For more information...

Download a copy of our worksheet that walks you through writing learning goals and learning objectives

MIT's Teaching & Learning Lab on learning outcomes

Carnegie Mellon's Eberly Center explains how to set learning objectives

Michigan's Center for Research on Learning and Teaching has resources on course design and planning

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• Putting Evidence at the Center
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Teaching Resources

Writing Effective Learning Goals

Resource overview.

Tips and resources to help you set learning goals for your course

Oftentimes when instructors are developing courses, they start by thinking about a reading list or a list of topics to lecture on. This is considered a forward-thinking process of designing a course. By contrast, Wiggins and McTighe (2005) recommend a backward design approach that encourages you to consider your outcomes (goals) for students first. A learning goal is a statement of what your students should know or be able to do as a result of successfully completing your course.

By clarifying and explicitly stating your learning goals first, you can then design assessments and learning activities that are aligned with those goals. The benefit of following backward design that you can be confident that students who succeed in the course will leave having achieved the goals that you set for them at the beginning.

Identifying Your Learning Goals

Ideally, learning goals for a course are developed through considering contextual factors, as well as the kinds of knowledge production activities (e.g. synthesis, analysis, comparison, etc.) and skills that you want your students to leave your course comfortable performing. Starting from contextual factors, and considering types of learning on a macro-level, should make it easier to identify specific course-level learning goals for your students. As you are exploring the chart below, consider the relationships among the teaching context, types of learning, and beginning draft of learning goals provided:

What’s the Big Deal about Learning Goals?

So, you might be wondering at this point: what’s the big deal about learning goals? You might even be annoyed if you see learning goals as simply an output of the corporatization of higher education. The truth is however that even if you haven’t used the words “learning goals” before to describe your classes, instructors always have in mind what it is they want their students to get out of a course. And, the best, most meaningful classes for students tend to be those in which that foundational set of goals drives every other decision that is made about the course: What assignments should I ask my students to complete? What should they read or watch? What should we do in class? How should they interact with each other? In short, learning goals can be our compass, can keep us from veering off course in ways that don’t support our students’ learning.

In a time when fancy new technologies and all the other considerations seem overwhelming, learning goals are all the more critical. If you are willing to start from your learning goals, the noise of possibilities will begin to die down, and everything that is truly essential for you to know in order to support your students’ learning will become clearer.

Writing a Learning Goal

As you develop and refine your learning goals for students, you’ll want to make sure they are specific and measurable. It’s critical that the goals that you choose are ones that can be measured–that is, that it would be possible for you to assess how well students have been able to accomplish this goal in your class.

A good way to start drafting a specific learning goal is to identify what you want students to actually  do  with the knowledge that you hope they will gain in your course. Examining  a list of verbs can really be helpful for identifying the specific things that you’d like students to be able to do with knowledge acquired.

One common way to break down these cognitive activities (what students are “doing”) is Bloom’s (revised) Taxonomy, a hierarchical framework for constructing and classifying learning goals (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). The revised taxonomy includes the following levels of cognitive engagement: Remember, Understand, Apply, Analyze, Evaluate, and Create. This taxonomy suggests that one isn’t ready to do more complex cognitive tasks (e.g. application, analysis) until one has a firm grasp on the lower-levels (remember, understand).

Traditionally, learning goals are written from the student’s point of view, for example:  “The student should be able to trace the carbon cycle in a given  ecosystem.” 

Click here to see more examples of learning goals.

Characteristics of Effective Learning Goals

It’s relatively easy to write a learning goal, it’s more challenging to write a really effective one! Watch the short video presentation below (~6 minutes) to learn some of the basic principles of effective learning goals.

Further Reading

Nilson, L. (2016). “Outcomes-Centered Course Design” in  Teaching at It’s Best , 4th edition. Jossey-Bass.

Poorvu Center for Teaching and Learning, Yale University. (2017).  Bloom’s Taxonomy .

Fink, L. D. (2005). A Self-Directed Guide to Designing Courses for Significant Learning .

Anderson, L. W. & Krathwohl, D. R. (Eds.). (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing : A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. Longman.

Wiggins, G. & McTighe, J. (2005). Understanding by design . ASCD.

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If you have suggestions of resources we might add to these pages, please contact us:

[email protected] (314) 935-6810 Mon - Fri, 8:30 a.m. - 5:00 p.m.

Learning Goals and Student Learning Outcomes

Learning goals for the ms degree programs.

• Achieve breadth via fundamental knowledge in the field.
• Gain depth via specialized knowledge and research in a chosen specialization area.
• Communicate research findings effectively.

 Student Learning Outcomes (SLOs) for the MS Degree Programs

Learning goals for the phd degree programs.

• Achieve depth of knowledge in a chosen specialization area.
• Make a substantial original contribution to the field.
• Effectively communicate the research findings.

Student Learning Outcomes (SLOs) for the PhD Programs

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Mohammad T. Khasawneh

Suny distinguished prof; department chair; healthcare systems engineering / health systems / manhattan graduate program director; suny distinguished professor; director, erin hornbeck, senior staff assistant to the chair, mark d. poliks, suny distinguished professor; undergraduate director; director, camm;, sarah s. lam, professor, industrial and systems engineering graduate director, hiroki sayama, professor, systems science graduate director.

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Last Updated: 6/22/23

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

When learning goal orientation leads to learning from failure: the roles of negative emotion coping orientation and positive grieving.

• 1 Department of Human Resource Management, Business School, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
• 2 Department of Business Administration, Asper School of Business, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada

Considering failure is a common result in project management, how to effectively learn from failure has becoming a more and more important topic for managers. Drawing on the goal orientation theory and grief recovery theory, the purpose of this paper is to clarify the impact of learning goal orientation on learning from failure. Furthermore, this paper examines the mediating effect of two negative emotion coping orientations (restoration orientation and loss orientation) and the moderating effect of positive grieving in this relationship. The results indicated that: (1) A learning goal orientation is positively related to learning from failure; (2) As a dual-path mediation model, restoration orientation and loss orientation mediate the relationship between a learning goal orientation and learning from failure; and (3) Positive grieving negatively moderates the relationship between a loss orientation and learning from failure.

Introduction

Failure is inevitable in today’s business environment and may bring adverse consequences to the enterprise, but failure can also bring great value and experience to the enterprise. As a result, more and more studies are focusing on failure and individual’s learning behavior after failure. Learning from failure means that “ individuals can gain knowledge and skills from failure and can apply these knowledge and skills in practice ” ( Shepherd et al., 2011 ). Previous studies have shown that learning from failure can have a positive impact on individuals; this includes reducing the risk of future organizational failures ( Ingram and Baum, 1997 ), improving innovation ( Arenas et al., 2006 ), and improving performance ( Argote and Darr, 2001 ). Because of the great value contained in failure, recent studies have begun to explore the antecedent variables (e.g., leadership, organizational culture, and team atmosphere) of learning from failure ( Carmeli and Sheaffer, 2008 ) to make a better failure management for employees to meet the next challenge. However, most scholars focus their research on variables associated with specific failure events (e.g., shame, guilt; according to Wang et al., 2018 ), but pay scant attention to stable psychological variables such as cognition orientation and behavior patterns, which have been found to affect individuals’ learning behavior ( Woolfolk, 1995 ). Specifically, goal orientation theory emphasizes that an individual’s goal orientation, as the cognition and understanding of the achievement, influences behavior responses ( Dweck and Leggett, 1988 ). A learning goal orientation refers to “a tendency for individuals to the desire to develop the self by acquiring new skills, mastering new situations, and improving one’s competence” ( Vandewalle and Cummings, 1997 ). Learning goal orientation has been shown to have a strong driving effect on the motivation of individuals to learn and master skills, and it plays an important role in promoting individuals to make positive behaviors: for example, improving work performance ( Chughtai and Buckley, 2011 ) and promoting innovation behavior ( Hirst et al., 2009 ). However, most of these studies are about its possible important impact on success, ignoring the important role on individual’s behavior after failure. Therefore, exploring the important role of learning goal orientation in the learning behavior of individuals after failure can analyze the psychological process that affects failure from a deeper level, so as to make up for the lack of literature on individual’s learning from failure in the past. As the R&D personnel of high-tech enterprises, as the core component of the enterprise, studying its solutions to failure has a key effect on the stability and sustainable development of the organization ( Wang et al., 2013 ).

In order to deeply explore the role of learning goal orientation on individual’s learning from failure, we need to further explore the mediation variables that may affect this role. Goal-orientation theory believes that goal orientation will affect the individual’s cognitive or emotional tendency toward events, which in turn will trigger behavioral responses ( Dweck and Leggett, 1988 ). In fact, many scholars associate learning goal orientation with the cognitive process at the individual psychological level to explore the specific mechanism of subsequent behavioral responses. With this contention in mind, we focused the present study on investigating the affective mechanisms linking learning goal orientation and learning from failure. Among them, the “grief recovery theory” emphasizes the important influence of negative emotions after failure on learning from failure. And its basic logic is “failure events—negative emotions—learning from failure,” emphasizing the important role of negative emotions represented by grief brought by failure in reducing the quality of learning from failure ( Shepherd, 2003 ). Shepherd (2003) and Shepherd et al. (2009 , 2014 , 2011 ) based on this theory focused on grief and its recovery mechanism, and proposed several coping orientations for individuals to cope with negative emotions: restoration orientation (a kind of emotion-focused coping orientation), loss orientation (a kind of event-focused coping orientation), and oscillation orientation (alternately use restoration orientation and loss orientation). While goal orientation has an important influence on the internal and external motivations and behavioral responses of individuals ( Steele-Johnson et al., 2000 ). Therefore, according to the grief recovery theory and goal orientation theory, we assume that individuals with learning goal orientation may adopt different types of coping orientations to adapt to the negative emotions brought about by the failure, and the emotional coping behaviors may have a further effect on subsequent learning.

Furthermore, is it possible that some boundary variables will accelerate the effect of the above mechanism? We further anticipate that emotion (e.g., grieving caused by failure) may be crucial to the relationship between cognition (i.e., negative emotion coping orientation) and behavior (i.e., learning from failure) after a failure event has occurred ( Dolan, 2002 ; Phelps, 2006 ). Grieving will inevitably arise after failure. According to grief recovery theory, the negative emotions represented by grief will affect the breadth and depth of individuals’ information collection and processing, thus reducing the quality of learning from failure. While positive grieving is a form of grieving first proposed by Blau (2006) , which describes the positive aspects of grieving, usually manifested in acceptance, exploration, etc. Some previous studies have shown that positive grieving will positively related to learning behavior ( Wang et al., 2019 ), but as a bright aspect of the grieving, few studies use it as a moderator to explore its boundary effect on the learning process. Therefore, exploring whether positive grieving can play a positive role in the relationship between the individual’s coping orientations to negative emotions and learning from failure can help us further understand the mechanism of positive grieving.

In summary, we addressed this issue by testing the conceptual model depicted in Figure 1 . First of all, we combined the individual’s deeper-level psychological and cognitive variables to explore the important influence of learning goal orientation on subsequent learning behavior, and further developed the application situation of learning goal orientation mechanism; secondly, by combining with grief recovery theory, we extend the application scope of Shepherd et al. (2011) emotional recovery mechanism, taking the individual’s coping orientation to negative emotions as an mediation variables. Finally, according to the conclusion of Dolan (2002) and Phelps (2006) that emotion plays an important role in the mechanism of behavior, we add a moderation variable, namely positive grieving, which may promote the path of “coping orientation—learning from failure.” Through analyze questionnaire data from high-tech companies in China, in demonstrating the linkages proposed in the model, our results contribute to the literature in several important ways, and also provide practical significance for enterprise management. First, we replicate much of the work reported in Shepherd et al. (2011) , among conceptually similar constructs but at the individual’s cognition and behavior level of analysis. Also, to explore the individuals’ deeper level of psychological and behavioral variables (e.g., learning goal orientation and coping orientations), we make learning goal orientation as an antecedent and make coping orientations as a mediation variable to learning from failure. Hence, the current research answers mounting calls for individual-level studies on goal orientation, coping behavior orientations, and learning behavior within an integrated framework. Second, since grieving is inevitable after failure, it is necessary to explore positive grieving (i.e., the positive side of grief) for the occurrence of learning behavior. Our findings may benefit both applied researchers and practitioners, as they reveal a previously unidentified boundary condition regarding the relationship between coping orientations and learning from failure.

Figure 1. Theoretical model.

Literature Review and Hypotheses

In fact, previous scholars used learning from failure as an outcome variable to explore the individual-level influencing factors that may affect individual’s learning behaviors. Most of these studies focused on the emotional and cognitive variables generated by individuals after failures events. Regarding the influence of emotional response on learning from failure, Shepherd and Cardon (2009) shows that the individual’s negative emotions after failure will have an impact on learning from failure and following tries. Bohns and Flynn (2013) compared the impact of the emotional response caused by failure on the performance output of employees in the next cycle, and they emphasize that for learning from failure, the emotional response of guilt is more positive and effective than shame. Secondly, the individual’s cognition to failure event will also affect learning from failure. For example, Hao et al. (2018) research shows that critical thinking is beneficial to learning from failure. Boss and Sims (2008) researched that employees’ self-efficacy, emotional regulation and self-leadership can help them recover faster from failure. In addition, failure is not changeless. The number of failures experienced by employees has also become an important influencing factor. For example, Boso et al. (2019) believe that business failure experience will significantly predict learning from failure behavior. Although previous studies have analyzed the influence mechanism of learning from failure from multiple perspectives at the individual level, these variables mostly focus on the emotional or cognitive response after failure, and still lack individual stable psychological factors. Exploring the stable characteristics of individuals can better interpret the cognitive and behavioral processes of ordinary individuals in the face of failure. Specifically, goal orientation theory can well explain the psychological process of the generation of individual’s behavior. Previous scholars have confirmed that different goal orientations lead to different cognitive and behavioral patterns. Dweck’s goal orientation theory represents how personal goals and beliefs create the mental framework from which individuals follow avoidance or approach strategies toward goals, being a distinct construct from both goal setting (e.g., personal choices concerning most attractive goals) and goal striving (e.g., behaviors and thoughts directed toward a specific) ( Dweck, 1986 ; Dweck and Leggett, 1988 ; Vandewalle and Cummings, 1997 ). Goal orientation relies on personal beliefs concerning intelligence as either incremental (e.g., learning orientation) or stable (e.g., performing orientation), arguing that these beliefs are responsible for the way individuals apply specific strategies toward the pursuit of goals. performance orientation has shown to possess an avoidance dimension (avoiding failure and to show incompetence) and a performing dimension (choosing to perform easier tasks in order to succeed, showing competence) toward the pursuit of results ( Vandewalle et al., 1999 ; Chen and Mathieu, 2008 ). Previous research has also confirmed that compared with other goal orientation, learning goal orientation has a variety of positive effects on individual cognition and behavior, such as promoting individual internal motivation ( Steele-Johnson et al., 2000 ), promoting innovation ( Hirst et al., 2009 ), and communicating and cooperating with others ( Levy et al., 2004 ). Therefore, learning goal orientation may also have a positive impact on individual learning from failure behavior. We chose to use learning goal orientation as an antecedent variable that affects individual learning from failure. Exploring this logical relationship can further clarify the stable personal characteristics factors that may promote learning from failure.

Furthermore, combined with the coping-oriented mechanism of individuals coping with negative emotions after failure, we added the mediation variable, that is, the coping orientation of individuals coping with negative emotions. Most of the research on coping orientation is based on the grief recovery theory. Based on this, Shepherd (2003) proposed the coping orientation of individuals to cope with negative emotions. Restoration orientation is a coping strategy that focuses on emotional recovery. Loss orientation is a coping strategy that focuses on event resolution. If an individual alternates using two coping orientations, it is called oscillation orientation. In fact, Shepherd et al. (2011) has proposed that every coping orientation play a moderating role in the relationship between negative emotions and learning from failure, but the conclusions in the article have not been fully confirmed after empirical research. Many scholars have also constructed a theoretical framework based on the coping orientation, and explored the key role of coping orientations in entrepreneurial failure or subsequent entrepreneurial processes. However, few scholars have explored how the coping orientation of emotional response directly affects the learning from failure process. In addition, due to the oscillation orientation integrate the characteristics of restoration orientation and loss orientation, and the generation of oscillation orientation has time continuity, usually manifested as a method of coping with negative emotions on a long-term scale ( Shepherd et al., 2011 ). Therefore, in this article, we only consider the mediating effect of a single loss orientation or restoration orientation, and do not consider the possible mediating effect of oscillation orientation. Therefore, based on the Chinese cultural background, we try to solve this research limitation through empirical research. The contextual factors specific to Chinese culture will cause Chinese employees or managers to show different research results from Western scholars. Many scholars have explored Chinese management culture based on Chinese unique values such as “ mianzi. ” The results show that China’s unique cultural factors will affect individual cognition and behavior patterns from many aspects such as attitude and emotion ( Bedford, 2011 ). Whether this will affect employees’ learning from failure behavior, and how the specific mechanism of this process is still not studied by scholars.

In addition, the concept of grieving was first used in research on commercial failure by Shepherd (2003) , who proposed that it is a type of negative emotional response after a failure is experienced. Blau (2006) observes that grieving may be either negative (i.e., denial, anger, and negotiation) or positive (i.e., exploration and acceptance). As a normal emotional response, negative grieving usually appears after a failure event occurs, and often leads to some undesirable consequences such as low performance and low organization citizenship behaviors. There is no doubt that negative grieving will negatively affect the individual’s learning process and behavior. However, as time goes by, there is a transition to positive grieving, which includes an individual’s acceptance and exploration of the event ( Blau, 2006 ); this allows them to make up for the deficiencies caused by negative grieving, which will, in turn, have a positive impact on the individual’s future behavior pattern ( Blau, 2007 ). There are few studies on whether positive grieving has a positive effect or a negative effect on individuals. Some previous studies have shown that positive grieving will positively related to learning behavior ( Wang et al., 2019 ), but as a bright aspect of the grieving, few studies use it as a moderator to explore its effect on the process of “cognition—learning.” When employees are dealing with the impact of negative emotions, can positive grieving have a boundary effect on the learning process? This is very important for employees to learn from failure in a grieving mood. We proposed a different opinion on this question. A coping orientation usually determines the focus of an individual’s use of follow-up resources and strategies, which further influences the occurrence of subsequent behavior patterns ( Shepherd et al., 2011 ), which in turn will be affected by individual emotions. Because positive grieving has been shown to have a positive effect on individuals, we try to further explore its mechanism on learning from failure ( Blau, 2007 ). Therefore, we assume that positive grieving can moderate the process mechanism of the relationship between coping orientation to learning from failure. Based on the above, we have constructed a theoretical model with coping orientation and positive grieving as a mediator and boundary variable, we will systematically explain this model below.

Learning Goal Orientation and Learning From Failure

According to the goal orientation theory, an individual’s learning goal orientation will have a positive impact on that individual’s behavior ( Cury et al., 2006 ). Individuals with a learning goal orientation mainly focus on behavioral processes related to learning and tasks ( Zweig and Webster, 2004 ). Therefore, we believe that a learning goal orientation will promote individual behavior that helps them learn more from failure.

Individuals with a high learning goal orientation believe that abilities can be improved through learning ( Dweck, 1999 ). With persistence and hard work, anyone can solve and overcome difficulties, develop their ability, and achieve better success in future tasks ( Dweck, 1999 ). Rather than worrying about the adverse effects of failure, they are more interested in improving their ability ( Levy et al., 2004 ). Therefore, people with a high learning goals orientation are more likely to persist in learning after failure events, continue to work hard, summarize their experience in order to further develop their ability, and achieve future improvements.

LGO will affect peoples’ perceptions of event feedback ( Nisan, 1972 ). Individuals with a high LGO view feedback as useful because it provides information about events. Understanding this information and learning from it allows more effective completion of future tasks ( Dahling and Ruppel, 2016 ). For individual with a high LGO, negative feedback is seen as a challenge and provides motivating information. If we can learn from it, we can make ourselves better ( Dweck, 1986 ). When individuals with a high LGO receive negative feedback, they continue to work hard to find solutions ( Dweck and Leggett, 1988 ). Overall, individuals with a high LGO regard failure as an opportunity to develop themselves, and when encountering failure events, they try to learn from them. Therefore, we propose the following hypotheses:

Hypothesis 1: Individual employees who have a high LGO will learn more from failure than individual employees who have a low LGO.

The Mediation of Restoration Orientation

Goal orientation theory says that an individual’s goal orientation will stimulate motivation, which in turn will influence behavior. Therefore, we propose that, as a stable behavioral orientation, the individual’s learning goal orientation will affect the individual’s coping response (e.g., restoration or loss orientation) after failure occurs.

A restoration orientation refers to “the suppression of feelings of loss and proactiveness toward secondary sources of stress that arise from a loss” ( Shepherd et al., 2011 ). Individuals with a strong learning goal orientation pay more attention to the development of abilities ( Dweck, 1986 ). They are willing to try to achieve challenging goals, possess a strong internal motivation and autonomy, and actively look for opportunities for learning and creation in a future work environment ( Van Yperen, 2003 ). Therefore, we assume that a high learning goal orientation will lead to a restoration orientation.

A restoration orientation focuses on recovering from negative events by diverting attention away from failure events and toward other goals ( Shepherd et al., 2011 ). Employees tend to avoid major stressors like project failures and deal with secondary stressors by “cleaning up negative consequences caused by project failures” ( Stroebe and Schut, 1999 ). Seijts and Latham (2006) found that individuals with a high learning goal orientation collect additional information to obtain to improve their capabilities. In addition to the negative impact of project failure, it also brings challenging task requirements and follow-up work tasks ( Shepherd et al., 2011 ), which provides employees with follow-up learning goals and tasks. Thus, the derivative problems caused by failure become an important source of learning, and the experiences and lessons learned from them can become an important source of individual knowledge and skill development ( Stroebe and Schut, 1999 ). Therefore, individuals with a high learning goal orientation may divert their attention from the failure event, and actively engage in the handling of external events (e.g., follow-up challenging tasks and works), that is, take a restoration orientation.

Additionally, individuals with a high learning goal orientation are sensitive to information that may help them ( Dahling and Ruppel, 2016 ). They usually hold the view that “ability can be changed,” thinking that ability can be increased through continuous learning from various events related to failure, so they often have self-confidence in their ability ( Dahling and Ruppel, 2016 ). They are eager to enhance their internal motivation to learn through a series of challenging events brought on by failures, and then improve their abilities ( Dweck and Leggett, 1988 ). For the derivative problems caused by failure, they will also be considered as a way of learning to strengthen the learning of experience in failure to improve personal ability ( Dahling and Ruppel, 2016 ), which will prompt individuals to turn to solve the derivative problems (that is, external events), and continue to pay attention to the “secondary stressors” brought on by failed events. Therefore, we assume that:

Hypothesis 2a: There is a positive relationship between a high learning goal orientation and a restoration orientation.

Eastern culture usually pays attention to “mianzi” (also called “Face” or “Lian”), which is a unique cultural characteristic ( Bedford and Hwang, 2003 ), often be interpreted as both the showing of respect (“giving face”) and ensuring that you do not offend people (causing them to “lose face”). It is a positive public image that a person conveys to others ( Ting-Toomey, 1994 ). Factors such as external stimulus events will increase the individual’s motivation to maintain “mianzi,” and then make corresponding behavioral responses ( Hwang, 1987 ). When facing negative events (i.e., failure events), individuals immerse themselves in a series of negative effects will influence their maintenance of “mianzi,” and increase their fear that they will be looked down upon by others ( Jiang, 2006 ). Implementing a restoration orientation can help people divert attention away from negative events, buffer the negative effects caused by the failure, and thereby provide employees with new information about failures and a new perspective on overcoming failures ( Shepherd et al., 2011 ).

As Yamakawa and Cardon (2015) note, individuals usually produce learning behavior through multiple links such as scanning (i.e., selectively paying attention to, and collecting important information about, failure) and interpretation (processing the scanned information for easy understanding). The two aspects of a restoration orientation—“proactiveness restoration” (i.e., proactively solving the derivative problems caused by a failure) and “avoidance restoration” (i.e., diverting attention away from the failure) are intertwined ( Shepherd et al., 2011 ). When proactively solving a series of problems that derive from a failure, individuals can obtain information about the failure, which is conducive to information scanning ( Cope, 2011 ). When using avoidance restoration, individuals will be free from the negative effects of the failure (such as negative emotions), will enhance the information processing ability, and promote the interpretation of the failure event ( Shepherd et al., 2011 ). Every level can shift the attention to events other than failure, pay more attention to a series of challenges brought by failure, which will reduce the negative emotions caused by loss of “mianzi.” By scanning and interpreting failures and follow-up events, individuals can enhance their ability to construct the meaning of a failure, which helps individuals better understand failures and learn from them ( Shepherd and Cardon, 2009 ). Therefore, we assume that:

Hypothesis 2b: There is a positive relationship between a restoration orientation and learning from failure.

H2a predicted the positive relationship between learning goal orientation and restoration orientation, and H2b predicted the positive relationship between restoration orientation and learning from failure. In conclusion, we also assume that individuals with a high learning goal orientation will trigger a restoration orientation, which will reduce the negative effects of the failure and stimulate positive behavior (i.e., learning from failure). Thus, we assume that a restoration orientation is a mediator in the relationship between learning goal orientation and learning from failure:

Hypothesis 2c: A restoration orientation mediates the relationship between a learning goal orientation and learning from failure.

The Mediation Effect of a Loss Orientation

A loss orientation refers to “working through and processing aspects of a loss” ( Shepherd et al., 2011 ). Some individuals with loss orientation regard failure as an important learning resource ( Shepherd et al., 2011 ). Learning knowledge, skills, and experience from failures will help individuals improve their abilities to deal with similar tasks ( Dweck, 1986 ). We assume that there is a close relationship between a learning goal orientation and loss orientation.

People with a high learning goal orientation value the plasticity of ability, and they believe that they can change the direction of events and improve their ability through their hard work ( Dweck, 1999 ). So they pay more attention to the failure and tend to invest more effort in handling failure events, such as exploring the cause of the failure and suppressing the negative emotions caused by the failure ( Dweck and Leggett, 1988 ). When individuals with a high learning goal orientation deal with work issues, they often use a task involvement strategy, which means actively participating in issue processing in order to meet the needs of the work role. When they experience failure, they will immerse themselves in the event ( VandeWalle et al., 2001 ), that is, adopt a loss orientation.

Failure events usually bring on negative emotions, and these negative emotions will make individuals avoid future failures ( Iyer et al., 2007 ). Individuals with a high learning goal orientation regard negative feedback as an opportunity to make progress in their life. They face the negative feedback with confidence, ignore the negative emotions brought on by failure, and weaken the impact of negative emotions by self-adjusting ( Dweck and Leggett, 1988 ). They investigate the cause of failure and try to determine what went wrong. In doing so, they are sensitive to information that can help them to develop ( Dahling and Ruppel, 2016 ). Although a failure event indicates that the individual’s ability is lacking in some way, it also makes the individual aware of valuable information contained in the failure event ( VandeWalle et al., 2001 ). Rather than regard failure as a blow, individuals are more likely to regard failure as an opportunity to learn new skills. They will explore the reason of failure, search and summarize relevant information to achieve personal development ( Dahling and Ruppel, 2016 ), thus strengthening their loss orientation. Therefore, we assume that:

Hypothesis 3a: A high learning goal orientation has a positive relationship with a loss orientation.

Shepherd et al. (2011) found that a loss orientation includes two dimensions: a “self-dimension” (which focuses on the failure process and investigates the reason for the failure), and an “others-dimension” (which involves communicating with the outside world to discover the reason for the failure). In the “self-dimension,” individuals who adopt a loss orientation after failure will pay more attention to the failure and its reasons. Although they will also face negative emotions such as sadness and inferiority caused by the failure, those who adopt a loss orientation will not mindlessly engage in negative thinking from which they cannot extricate themselves ( Shepherd et al., 2011 ). They are able to quickly break the relationship between a bad mood and failures and make the transition to a stable mood as they reflect on their failure ( Shepherd et al., 2011 ). By exploring the reasons for a failure, individuals can understand failure deeply ( Corbett et al., 2007 ), have a better understanding in the errors or limitations in the failed project ( Birtchnell, 2001 ), and make an objective attribution ( Baron, 2000 ).

In the “others-dimension” of loss orientation, individuals who adopt a loss orientation after failure tend to talk about their feelings regarding the project failure to their friends and family, and find out the reasons for the failure by asking others for their opinions ( Shepherd, 2003 ). This helps them explore and accept the reasons for the failure, increases their confidence, and prepares them to make corresponding adjustments to improve their present situation ( Rybowiak et al., 1999 ). All of this helps them learn from failure.

Investigating the reasons of failure and its solutions will make individuals aware of the potential value of failure and help them to integrate relevant and useful information. Individuals who adopt a loss orientation will tend to regard failure as an opportunity to improve skills and develop themselves ( Tjosvold et al., 2004 ). Such an orientation will help the individual have a positive cognitive assessment of failure, and encourage them to learn from failure. From the perspective of eastern culture, whether people take measures of correct attribution or cognitive assessment, they can maintain their positive images or social status, which is an effective way for them to pursue subsequent learning. Therefore, we assume that:

Hypothesis 3b: A loss orientation has a positive relationship with learning from failure.

H3a predicted the positive relationship between learning goal orientation and loss orientation, and H3b predicted the positive relationship between loss orientation and learning from failure. Together, these hypotheses specify a model in which a learning goal orientation indirectly increase learning from failure by contributing to a loss orientation. We assume that individuals with a high learning goal orientation will devote themselves to the summary of failure events and further participate in the follow-up treatment of failure events will help them become immersive, further explore the experiences and lessons learned from failures, promote them to face failures and learn from failures. Therefore, loss orientation is another mediator in the relationship between learning goal orientation and learning from failure:

Hypothesis 3c: A loss orientation mediates the relationship between a learning goal orientation and learning from failure.

The Moderation Effect of Positive Grieving

Individuals will experience some negative emotions (e.g., guilt, anger, and shame) after a failure ( Carver and Scheier, 1990 ), and these emotions can strengthen or weaken learning behavior ( Zhao and Olivera, 2006 ; Shepherd and Cardon, 2009 ). Dolan (2002) and Phelps (2006) argue that emotion will play an important role in the learning process, and will have an impact on cognition and behavior after a failure occurs. Grief is a negative emotional response ( Shepherd, 2003 ), but positive grieving is the bright side of grief. According to Blau (2007) , positive grieving manifests itself in two ways: exploration (i.e., for hopeful opportunities and new possibilities), and acceptance (i.e., accepting the fact of failure). Individuals with positive grieving will accept the facts of failure, helping them shift the attention away from failure events ( Ellard et al., 2017 ). Individuals with a high restoration orientation are good at dealing with external or derivative information regarding failure, and pay more attention to other goals ( Shepherd et al., 2011 ). Therefore, they can further enhance their motivation to learn from outside the failure event. In addition, individuals with high positive grieving are not afraid of failure, and tend to easily escape from its negative effects ( Blau, 2007 ). From a resource perspective, they will have more cognitive resources to deal with the external or derivative information ( Shepherd, 2003 ). Individuals with positive grieving will show more constructive behaviors, such as communicating with colleagues to conclude the experience and lessons from failure, which will help them invest in the next project task earlier ( Blau, 2007 ). These benefits will help individuals with a restoration orientation to enhance their learning behaviors.

By contrast, individuals with a loss orientation usually focus more on information about the failure event. They tend to explore the reasons for the failure, and continuously search for information about the failure. From two perspectives of positive grieving, in exploration, individuals with high positive grieving usually have a bright view of the future, and pay more attention to future tasks and work opportunities ( Blau, 2007 ). Limited cognition resources will not be used to obsess about the failure, and less attention will be paid to the failure. This will weaken the motivation of such individuals to learn from the failure, which in turn will weaken the relationship between loss orientation and learning from failure. With respect to acceptance, accepting the fact of failure will help individuals to shift their attention from concentrating on the negative events to reflecting on the significance of the event ( Ellard et al., 2017 ). With an acceptance, individuals will reduce their excessive attention on the failure, and they will come to regard failures as “normal events,” This will weaken the motivation of learning from failure events. Therefore, we propose the following hypotheses:

Hypothesis 4a: Positive grieving positively moderates the relationship between a restoration orientation and learning from failure, i.e., the relationship will be stronger when positive grieving is higher, rather than when it is lower.

Hypothesis 4b: Positive grieving negatively moderates the relationship between a loss orientation and learning from failure, i.e., the relationship will be weaker when positive grieving is higher, rather than when it is lower.

Materials and Methods

Participants and procedure.

As the R&D teams of high-tech companies are more likely to encounter setbacks and failures in the R&D process, most technology-based employees may have experienced failures, and the sample is more representative than other industries. Therefore, we focus on high-tech firms in China as our research participants. We define a firm as “high-tech” if 60% or more of its annual sales revenues come from high-tech products and services, and if 10% or more of its employees have engaged in R&D in the past year. According to this standard, we randomly selected 400 high-tech enterprises from the list of Beijing high-tech enterprises provided by the Beijing Municipal Science and Technology Commission, and we invited them to participate in the research during an introductory telephone conversation. The participants are members of the R&D teams in these companies. These teams are required to have participated in project development in the past 3 years and have had the experience of project failure. During the phone call, we emphasized the purpose of the research and the confidentiality of data collection. We then asked the CEO to write an endorsement to encourage employees to participate in a questionnaire survey, and we promised to give the final research results to the companies’ leaders.

The distribution and recovery of the questionnaires was accomplished using the following steps. First, the firms that participated in the study selected a coordinator (usually a human resource manager) who provided our research assistant with a list of research teams (usually R&D teams). With the help of the coordinator, the research assistant distributed questionnaires to the staff before the weekly (or monthly) regular meeting of the team. To ensure everyone’s participation, the research assistant obtained contact information from the coordinator for any members who missed meetings. An envelope was left for these absentees to fill out and return to the research assistant. In order to improve the recovery rate of the research questionnaire, we also distributed small gifts and the endorsement of the CEO. After answering the questionnaire, all participants signed a confidentiality agreement to ensure that the questionnaire was not used for other purposes.

The final sample included 22 companies in Beijing area technology industry (750 responses in total). All team leaders and members provided completed questionnaires. The average team size, including the team leader, was 5.43, and ranged from 3 to 10 ( SD = 1.60). The mean respondent age was 31.67 years (age range was 20–56 years, SD = 5.525), with 577 men (79%) and 173 women (21%). About 51.2% of the respondents had bachelor’s degrees and 38.5% had a master’s or doctor’s degrees, and the remaining samples are all college degrees.

In this study, we defined project failure depending on the results of research projects. Following previous studies, we defined project failure as ‘the termination of an initiative to create organizational value that has fallen short of its goals’ ( McGrath, 1999 ; Hoang and Rothaermel, 2005 ), and we gave this definition in the introduction section of our questionnaires. We first arrange and organize the original scales, and then use the back-translation method ( Brislin, 1970 ) to ensure that there will be no translation errors. All coefficient alpha is Cronbach’s alphas. All scales are scored by using the Likert-6 scale.

Learning Goal Orientation

We used the five-item scale developed by Vandewalle and Cummings (1997) to measure learning goal orientation. It asks employees to explain how they learn from a project failure. Sample items include “I am willing to choose those challenging tasks,” and “I often seek opportunities to develop new skills and learn new knowledge.” Response options ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree). The coefficient alpha of the scale was 0.852.

Restoration Orientation

We used the six-item scale developed by Shepherd et al. (2011) to measure restoration orientation. It asks employees to explain to what extent they agree with each behavior statement after a failure. Sample items include “I intentionally divert my attention, not thinking about the problem of the project failure” and “After the project fails, I try to sort out my thoughts.” Response options range from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree). The coefficient alpha of the scale was 0.636.

Loss Orientation

We used the six-item scale developed by Shepherd et al. (2011) to measure loss orientation. It asks employees the extent to which they agree with the behavior statement after a failure. Sample items include “I worked with my colleagues to find the cause of the failure” and “I worked hard to overcome the negative emotions associated with the failure of the project.” Response options range from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree). The coefficient alpha of the scale was 0.696.

Positive Grieving

We used the six-item scale developed by Blau (2007) to measure positive grieving. It asks employees to state their personal acceptance of failed projects. Sample items include “I accept the reality of project failure” and “I am willing to explore other possibilities from failed projects.” Response options range from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree). The coefficient alpha of the scale was 0.833.

Learning From Failure

We used the eight-item scale developed by Shepherd et al. (2011) to measure learning from failure. Employees are asked to explain the degree of change in their own behavior after a failure, including both personal and project dimensions. Sample items include “I have learned to execute the project plan better” and “I have improved my ability to make more contributions to new projects.” Response options ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree). The coefficient alpha of the scale was 0.907.

Control Variables

Beyond the demographic variables (i.e., gender, age, education level, and tenure in the firm and on a project), we also controlled for the critical factors in project failure and the parallel variables of the variables in the following model: performance-approach goal orientation, performance-avoidance goal orientation, oscillation orientation, and negative grieving. These are described below.

Critical factors in project failure

We used the two-item scale adapted by Dilts and Pence (2006) (According to the results of exploratory factor analysis (EFA), the original 13 items are divided into two items for internal and external factors) to measure the critical factors in project failure. The instrument asks employees to explain why they think the project failed. Sample items include “change in the importance of the entire project in the organization,” and “changes in user needs.” Response options ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree). The coefficient alpha of the scale was 0.656.

Performance-approach goal orientation

We used the four-item scale developed by Vandewalle and Cummings (1997) to measure performance-approach goal orientation. It asks employees to explain their personal strategy for improving their performance after a failure has occurred. Sample items include “I tried to find a way to prove my ability to colleagues” and “I am willing to do projects that can prove my ability to others.” Response options ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree). The coefficient alpha of the scale was 0.789.

Performance-avoidance goal orientation

We used the four-item scale adapted by Vandewalle and Cummings (1997) to measure performance-avoidance goal orientation. Because the reliability of the original scale in our research is not enough, we deleted one of the items to improve the reliability. The instrument asks employees to state their personal strategy for avoiding the possibility of failure. Sample items include “I am not willing to take on a task that may show my lack of ability” and “When performing a task, I just try to avoid showing incompetence.” Response options ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree). The coefficient alpha of the scale was 0.820.

Oscillation orientation

An oscillation orientation involves moving between using the restoration orientation and using the loss orientation. We used the three-item scale developed by Shepherd et al. (2011) to measure oscillation orientation. It asks employees the extent to which they agree with their statement of behavior after a failure has occurred. Sample items include “After giving my emotions a rest, I confront my negative feelings arising from the project’s failure” and “After thinking about the failure for a period of time, I try not to think about it as much as possible.” Responses options ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree). The coefficient alpha of the scale was 0.580. Because the alpha of this variable is low, we removed this variable and did another data test. The results showed that the existence of this variable did not have much impact on the data test results (the data results are shown in the Appendix ).

Negative grieving

We used the six-item scale adapted by Blau (2007) to measure negative grieving. Because the reliability of the original scale was low, we deleted one of the items to improve the reliability. The instrument asks employees to state their acceptance of failed projects. Sample items include “I can’t believe this will happen to me” and “I’m depressed for the failure of the project.” Responses options ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree). The coefficient alpha of the scale was 0.864.

In this study, we used Amos 24.0, SPSS 25.0, and Stata 12.0 for data analysis and hypothesis testing. We analyzed the validity of the measurement model, the basic distribution of data, the correlation between variables, and the reliability of the scale. We also do multiple linear regression analysis to test our hypotheses. We use Harman’s single factor analysis to test whether the data has serious common method bias. The results show that the interpretation rate of the first common factor is less than 40% (18.66%, so our data does not have serious common method bias).

Confirmatory Factor Analysis

We first conducted a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). As shown in Table 1 , our theoretical model (10-factor model) fits better (CMIN/df = 2.470, CFI = 0.909, RMSEA = 0.044) than other models, indicating the construct distinctiveness of our measurements.

Table 1. Comparison of measurement model.

Descriptive Statistics

Table 2 shows the descriptive statistics and the correlations among the variables. As shown in the table, learning goal orientation is significantly related to restoration orientation ( r = 0.145, p < 0.01), loss orientation ( r = 0.174, p < 0.01), and learning from failure ( r = 0.368, p < 0.01). Restoration orientation is significantly related to learning from failure ( r = 0.390, p < 0.01), and loss orientation is significantly related to learning from failure ( r = 0.439, p < 0.01). The data results indicate that there may be a close relationship between learning goal orientation, coping orientation, and learning from failure.

Table 2. Means, standard deviations, reliability, and correlations among study variables.

Hypothesis Testing

Since the research participants come from different companies, in order to test whether the company environment will affect the research results, we compared the results of the hierarchical regression in SPSS 25.0 and the results of the hierarchical regression after using the cluster statement to control the company variables in Stata 12.0. We found that there is a slight difference between the two regression results (results of Stata are shown in the Appendix ), but the effect of learning goal orientation on learning from failure behavior is similar in different companies’ employees. We used SPSS 25.0 for data processing to test our hypotheses, and the result of the hierarchical regression is shown in Table 3 .

Table 3. Hierarchical regression analysis for models.

Hypothesis 1 proposed a positive relationship between a learning goal orientation and learning from failure. As shown in Table 3 , the coefficient between learning goal orientation and learning from failure is significant ( b = 0.322, p < .001, Model 3.2); this supports Hypothesis 1. Hypothesis 2a posited that learning goal orientation is positively associated with restoration orientation. As shown in Table 3 , the relationship between learning goal orientation and restoration orientation is significant ( b = 0.150, p < 0.01, Model 1.2). Hypothesis 2b posited that restoration orientation is positively associated with learning from failure. In Table 3 , the relationship between restoration orientation and learning from failure is significant ( b = 0.126, p < 0.01, Model 3.3). These results provide support for both hypotheses 2a and 2b. Hypothesis 3a proposed that learning goal orientation is positively associated with loss orientation. As shown in Table 3 , the relationship between learning goal orientation and loss orientation is significant ( b = 0.132, p < 0.01, Model 2.2). Hypothesis 3b proposed that loss orientation is positively associated with learning from failure. In Table 3 , the relationship between loss orientation and learning from failure is significant ( b = 0.253, p < 0.001, Model 3.3). These results provide support for hypotheses 3a and 3b. Hypothesis 2c and 3c assumed a mediating role of restoration orientation and loss orientation. We use the Macro program Process developed by Hayes for Bootstrap test to further examine the mediating role of restoration orientation and loss orientation. Our results show that the indirect effect of restoration orientation is.0173 (95% CI [0.0042–0.0361]) and the indirect effect of loss orientation is.0353 (95% CI [0.0102–0.0603]); these results provide support for hypothesis 2c and 3c.

Hypotheses 4a and 4b proposed a moderating role of positive grieving. As shown in Table 3 , when the interactive items (positive grieving × restoration orientation and positive grieving × loss orientation) are entered at the same time, the coefficients of the two are both significant ( b RO = 0.052, p RO < 0.05, b LO = –0.115, p LO < 0.001, Model 3.7). When the interaction items are entered separately, the coefficient of positive grieving × loss orientation is also significant ( b = –0.08, p < 0.001, Model 3.6), but the coefficient of positive grieving × restoration orientation is not significant ( b = –0.016, p > 0.05, Model 3.5). Thus, hypothesis 4b is supported, but hypothesis 4a is rejected. We also test the moderated mediation effect by Process. The results show that the moderating effect of positive grieving on the relationship between restoration orientation and learning from failure is not supported (index 1 = 0.006, 95% CI [–0.0005–0.0145]). Instead, the moderating effect of positive grieving on the relationship between loss orientation and learning from failure is supported (index = –0.0143, 95% CI [–0.029 to –0.0034]).

In order to better interpret the moderating role of positive grieving between loss orientation and learning from failure, following Cohen and Cohen (1983) , we define high and low positive grieving as plus and minus one standard deviation from the mean. As shown in Figure 2 , for individuals with a higher level (1 SD above the mean) of positive grieving, their loss orientation will take more learning from failure behaviors ( b = 0.349, p < 0.05) than those with a lower level of positive grieving ( b = 0.119, p < 0.05).

Figure 2. The moderating role of Positive Grieving between Loss Orientation and Learning from Failure.

Analysis and Discussion

In this study, we analyzed how a learning goal orientation promotes learning among team members after a project failure occurs. Our results show that both a restoration coping orientation and a loss coping orientation mediate the relationship between a learning goal orientation and learning from failure. Positive grieving negatively moderates the relationship between a loss orientation and learning from failure, but a hypothesis that positive grieving moderates the relationship between a restoration orientation and learning from failure is not supported.

Theoretical Contribution

The theoretical contributions of the current study are threefold. First, our study enriches the research on the antecedent variables of learning from failure. Past research has focused mostly on the cognitive reactions after failure ( Zhao and Olivera, 2006 ; Shepherd and Cardon, 2009 ), little is known about the effects of a stable mindset on failure (i.e., goal orientation). This study focuses on the impact of individual behavior orientation on learning from failure. The results of the study validate the role of individual learning goal orientation in promoting learning after a failure. According to the goal orientation theory, an individual’s behavioral orientation will directly or indirectly affect the individual’s behavior ( Dweck and Leggett, 1988 ). However, previous studies tend to pay more attention to variables at the surface-level (such as team atmosphere and individual personality), and there is little research that is focused on individuals’ deep-level attributes such as behavioral orientation. Therefore, this research provides a new research direction.

Second, combined with the theory of grief recovery theory, we extend the application environment of the theory. Shepherd et al. (2011) used grief recovery as a boundary variable to explore the moderating role of emotional coping orientation in the recovery of negative emotions, and believed that loss orientation can promote learning from failure while restoration orientation cannot promote learning. However, after empirical testing, the results have not been fully confirmed. Based on the Chinese cultural background, we propose and test that loss orientation and restoration orientation both have a positive mediating effect in the relationship between learning goal orientation and learning from failure. This expands the context of the grief recovery theory, and subsequent scholars can carry out qualitative research such as case analysis to further confirm its reliability.

Third, an emotional response after failure will influence individuals’ behavior responses ( Dolan, 2002 ; Phelps, 2006 ). We explored the important role of positive grieving generated by individuals interacting with projects. Regarding to the boundary factors that affect the learning from failure process, previous scholars usually limit the moderating variables to the individual’s stable emotions (e.g., shame, shame, etc.), the organization’s management style (e.g., error management culture), and individual characteristics (e.g., resilience), there is little research on the role of failure-induced transitional emotions (i.e., positive grieving) in individual learning process ( Zhao, 2011 ; Fang He et al., 2018 ). As a normal emotion after negative events occur, previous research shows that positive grieving may have an impact on learning behaviors ( Wang et al., 2019 ). However, few scholars use it as a moderating variable to study its influence on the mechanism of individual behavior and its antecedent variables. We further expand the research field of positive grieving. After data testing, the negative moderating role on the relationship between loss orientation and learning from failure has been supported. This is very different from the research conclusions of previous scholars. Most of the previous scholars have confirmed that positive grieving has a positive effect (e.g., learning from failure) ( Wang et al., 2019 ). Our research confirms that positive grieving may also have a negative effect, which provides a theoretical and practical basis for follow-up scholars to further explore. However, the moderating role on the relationship between restoration orientation and learning from failure hasn’t been supported. We contend that our cross-section design contributes to this result. In fact, the benefits of a restoration orientation require time to manifest ( Shepherd et al., 2011 ). Such an orientation cannot buffer the negative effects of failure in the short-term in the way that a loss orientation can. Therefore, our findings reveal the potential difference between loss and restoration orientation, which bears further empirical examination in the future.

Practical Contributions

In terms of management practice, this study suggestions the following recommendations. First, the research results show that individuals with a higher learning goal orientation are more concerned about the development of their abilities and are willing to work hard to improve them ( VandeWalle et al., 2001 ) so that they can learn better from failure. Therefore, team leaders and managers can introduce incentives to encourage staff members to improve themselves. Such a system will increase performance and rewards, motivate a learning goal orientation, and help individuals to learn from failure.

Our research also shows that both restoration and loss orientations can promote learning behavior. Managers should guide and encourage employees to take appropriate countermeasures after a failure occurs. Employees should consciously adopt appropriate treatment methods to maximize the value of their experience and skill learning that failure events provide.

Finally, managers need to realize that positive grieving affects the relationship between loss orientation and learning from failure, and that appropriate grieving can promote individual learning behavior. If individual has an overly optimistic attitude toward the failed project too soon after the failure, this is not conducive to learning from the failure. Managers can encourage employees to “get out of the shadow” so they can more effectively from failure.

Limitations and Future Directions

We recognize that this study has several limitations. First, the data used in this study were cross-sectional, and participants were asked to recall a recent project failure, which may contribute to some biases. In fact, commercial failure often appears random, and it is therefore hard to trace the chain of events that led to the failure. Thus, previous studies usually ask employees to recall such an experience via questionnaires or interviews. To better understand individuals’ reactions after failure, future research should integrate field research and neuroscience-based experiments ( Metcalfe, 2017 ). The key advantage of applying neuroscience methods is to provide more robust conclusions and interpret human behavior from a more fundamental level (i.e., neural processes). Furthermore, in order to further explore the various influencing factors of success and failure in the progress of the project, and further deepen the research, future research can collect data during the project.

Second, the data we collected were from a single point in time and from a single resource (i.e., self-reports of employees). Though we tested Harman’s one factor analysis and CFA to test the risk of CMB, we still recommend that future research use data from multiple sources to make the influence of CMB minimum. We can use coworker or leader reports to see the change of employees’ behavior.

Third, the emotion variable considered in the research model is positive grieving, which is a transitional emotion after an individual experiences a negative event. We only considered one kind of grieving emotion in the study, and did not take into account the mechanism of other emotional variables such as psychological safety ( Tjosvold et al., 2004 ), so future research should also examine other emotional variables as moderators.

Finally, our research considered the role of “mianzi” and other Eastern cultures in the process of learning from failure in the Chinese culture background. Is it possible that there are other Chinese cultural contextual factors that will affect the relationship between individual cognition and behavior? In recent years, many scholars have put forward some Chinese native cultural concepts such as traditionality and Chaxu climate. Are these factors likely to influence individual’s learning process as boundary variables? Additionally, does Western culture have characteristics similar to Chinese contextual factors, and can the research conclusions on Eastern culture be applied to Western culture? Follow-up scholars can further explore from the aspects of cultural differences and commonalities.

Because failure is a common occurrence in the turbulent world of business, learning from failure is an important research topic. This study validates the effect of a learning goal orientation on learning from failure, and examines the moderating role of positive grieving in the process. We not only enrich the theoretical knowledge of learning from failure, but also provide suggestions on how to promote individual learning after a failure has occurred.

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics Statement

Written informed consent was obtained from the individual(s) for the publication of any potentially identifiable images or data included in this article.

Author Contributions

WW and SS substantially contributed to the conception and the design of the work as well as in the analysis and interpretation of the data. XC and WY prepared the draft and reviewed it critically. All the authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

This research was supported by MOE (Ministry of Education in China) Project of Humanities and Social Sciences (Grant No. 19YJA630082).

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

• ^ This index refers to the moderated mediation effect of the path. If its interval does not contain 0, the moderated mediation effect is significant. What needs to be noted here is the moderator only affects this path.

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Appendix Table 1. Hierarchical regression analysis in Stata.

Appendix Table 2. Hierarchical regression analysis without oscillation orientation.

Keywords : learning from failure, learning goal orientation, loss orientation, restoration orientation, positive grieving

Citation: Wang W, Song S, Chen X and Yuan W (2021) When Learning Goal Orientation Leads to Learning From Failure: The Roles of Negative Emotion Coping Orientation and Positive Grieving. Front. Psychol. 12:608256. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.608256

Received: 19 September 2020; Accepted: 06 April 2021; Published: 29 April 2021.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2021 Wang, Song, Chen and Yuan. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Wenlong Yuan, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Creating Measurable Learning Objectives

Sara Bakker

Music Department, Utah State University

E-mail: [email protected]

Received June 2019

Peer Reviewed by: Abigail Shupe, Daniel Blim

Accepted for publication September 2019

Published September 2, 2020

https://doi.org/10.18061/es.v7i0.7369

This essay argues for the articulation of learning goals at all levels of teaching in music theory, from the curriculum to the individual lesson plan. It summarizes the use of cognitive-process verbs from the field of learning theory and acknowledges a confusing overlap between common music theory tasks and cognitive-process verbs. It suggests a model for stating learning goals in music theory that blends our current terminology with more universal and established terms. It concludes with a detailed discussion of several models of learning goals at the assignment, course, and curricular levels.

Keywords: goals, objectives, outcomes, Bloom's taxonomy, verbs, curriculum

Introduction

"[A]ll aspects of theory teaching—from the presentation of lecture material and drill practice to the construction of curricular models and statements of objectives—should be patterned by design and not by chance ."

"While a philosophy may remain unspoken, it should never remain unknown ."

These statements come from the second edition of Michael Rogers's (2004, 15–16, emphasis added) foundational book on music theory pedagogy. They emphasize, much like the book more broadly, the importance of intention in every aspect of teaching: lessons, practice, curricula, and learning goals. These are indeed laudable, almost superfluous aims in teaching, and yet the book, and indeed the field more broadly, has not developed them evenly. While the field of music theory pedagogy has flourished in the development of innovative and effective ways of teaching, I argue that it has grossly neglected learning goals. There is a critical lack of research in music theory to assist in selecting or articulating them. I hypothesize that articulating learning goals is especially challenging because many common music-theory tasks do not fit neatly in the most commonly used model for creating learning goals, the Bloom taxonomy. Finally, I provide sample learning goals and critique real-world examples of learning goals at three levels of learning—assignment, course, and curriculum.

Education researchers distinguish between learning objectives and learning outcomes , both of which are examples of goal-setting for learning. Learning objectives focus on a specific skill and are most appropriate at the lesson- or assignment-level, whereas learning outcomes focus on more synthetic skill sets and are most appropriate at the course- or curriculum-level. In the literature, these are treated as distinct categories. Individual studies and articles tend to address either objectives or outcomes. I have found it helpful in my own teaching, however, to group them together. I understand objectives and outcomes as different by degree, but not in kind, and will use "learning goal" as an umbrella term to refer to goal-setting for learning at any level. Learning goals are statements of the knowledge and skills that students are expected to demonstrate as a result of learning. They can address learning at any level, from individual lessons and assignments to whole courses and curricula. Thinking of learning goals more holistically is helpful in coordinating different levels of teaching, ensuring a good fit between curricular and course goals on the one hand and day to day classroom activities on the other.

According to renowned specialist in course design Allen Miller (1987) , learning goals serve three main purposes. They (1) clarify for students the instructor's expectations of learning so that students can direct their efforts and monitor their own progress, (2) assist instructors in selecting and organizing appropriate teaching and learning activities, and (3) assist instructors in selecting appropriate ways to assess student-learning. In addition to this, I would add that they (4) can also be used to coordinate instructors, both across sections of a single course and across a curriculum to ensure students are prepared for subsequent courses.

In music theory pedagogy, we have no foundational references to assist with selecting or articulating learning goals. Anna Gawboy (2013) confronts the issue in a syllabus-writing workshop. She is stumped by its most fundamental question, "What do you want your students to be able to do after taking your class?" Gawboy seeks models from the syllabi of courses she has taken and ones her colleagues taught, but finds that none describe the course from the perspective of student-doing. Instead, she finds descriptions of what the class will cover, answering a related, but different question, "What do you want your students to know after taking your class?" Essentially, Gawboy is describing a common confusion between content goals and learning goals. The difference is subtle: one frames a class from the perspective of teacher-input (this is what I will teach you), while the other frames it with student-output (this is what you will be able to do because of what you have learned). Without adequate models and resources, Gawboy frames the course she is designing at the workshop with content-goals instead of learning-goals, and realizes retrospectively that in so doing she "managed to sidestep the most profound question facing every theory teacher."

Had she looked to contemporary music theory literature for guidance, she would have found only two sources, neither of which would have been much help. Rogers (2004) underscores the importance of learning goals with statements such as those quoted at the outset of this article, but does not go into enough detail to even provide a workable definition. Deborah Rifkin and Phillip Stoecker (2011) address learning from a student-doing perspective, but they only address the aural skills classroom in their model. Indeed, music theory literature on learning goals remains an underrepresented area. Editors Rachel Lumsden and Jeffrey Swinkin (2018) include over twenty essays on music theory pedagogy, only one of which address learning goals with any intentionality. Although they are central to Brian Alegant's chapter, readers would not know to look for them based on the title, "Teaching Post-Tonal Aural Skills." Echoes of the concept of learning goals are also present in essays by Janet Bourne and Elizabeth West Marvin, but learning goals are not the central point of any chapter. Leigh VanHandel (2020) similarly lacks dedicated essays on learning goals. Searches of keywords "goal," "objective," and "outcome" return no hits on the Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy 's website. Perhaps it is telling that the two sources that foreground learning goals, do so in relation to aural skills pedagogy. Maybe we feel that skills classes are where students do things, as opposed to learn things. This is a false distinction, however, because learning should always be framed as something students can do because of information, reflection, teaching, and so on.

Designing Learning Goals

Most recommendations for articulating learning goals emphasize three main issues. Learning goals should (1) be student-centered, (2) emphasize the appropriate cognitive task using codified verbs, and (3) name the applicable course content. Some also recommend (4) clarifying any constraints, such as time, approved reference material, etc., and (5) listing the specific instruction that prepares students, such as a lesson, reading, module, course, etc. To read a few examples parsed according to these categories, please see Example 2.

One of the most crucial elements of a learning goal is a verb that clearly defines the intended task. These verbs both focus attention on student-doing and indicate possible methods of assessment. The most commonly referred to taxonomy of such verbs is by learning theorists Harold Bloom and David Krathwohl (1956) , updated by Lorin Anderson and David Krathwohl (2001) . Their taxonomy codifies six hierarchical categories of knowledge, each of which is named by a "hallmark" verb and exemplified by similar verbs. Each category subsumes all categories to its left, modeling increased processing of information, incorporation of educated opinions, use of originality, and general cognitive load with each leftward category. Example 1 reproduces an especially concise list, although the information in the taxonomy is widely available in a variety of formats , including automated builders , and in Rifkin and Stoecker (2011) with modifications for aural-skills tasks.

Designing Music Theory Learning Goals

Two special issues confront teachers of music theory who wish to write clear learning goals: verb-fit for music theory learning and unfamiliarity with appropriate models of goals at various levels of learning.

Verb-Fit for Music Theory

Choosing appropriate verbs is essential to the success and clarity of learning goals, yet there are issues with applying Bloom-verbs to music theory. One challenge is that many common music theory tasks are actually quite complex, relying on multiple component cognitive tasks. Labeling nonchord tones, for example, requires an understanding of Roman numerals, which itself requires an understanding of keys, scales, chords, and inversions. We might think that naming nonchord tones is an "Understand" task, when in most contexts it would more likely be an "Evaluate" task. Other music theory tasks may also be surprisingly complex to instructors, including stylistic composition ("Create"), harmonic dictation and sight singing ("Evaluate," where the most complex element involves judging the fit between the given stimulus and what the student produces), or resolving chordal 7ths properly ("Apply").

A second complication with using Bloom verbs in music theory is that "Analyze" is a category unto itself. Analysis is perhaps the quintessential music theory task, one we know, love, and assign frequently. Yet as my previous example suggests, we must be careful not to conflate analytical tasks with "Analyze" tasks. Here are some common analytical tasks that are not "Analyze" tasks:

• Analyzing Roman numerals in contexts without nonchord tones; analyzing pre-segmented set classes ("Understand")
• Analyzing or realizing figured bass ("Apply")
• Analyzing Roman numerals in contexts with nonchord tones; set class analysis where the segmentation is not given; analyzing form ("Evaluate")
• Schenkerian analysis; analytical essays ("Create")

A final complication for using Bloom verbs in music theory is that some of the most common music theoretical tasks, such as "harmonization," "sight singing," and "notate" are not represented in the verb list at all. Instructors are on their own to determine where these fit. Below, I present a method to aid in determining the most appropriate Bloom verb for common music theory tasks.

To identify where a given task falls on the Bloom chart, one must carefully determine the subskills involved, perhaps through listing them, rewording the task using only verbs from the Bloom chart (imagining that you can't say "harmonize," for example), or finding substitute verbs from the Bloom chart. Next, determine which of the subskills involved in the target task is the most leftward on the Bloom chart. Finally, reword the target task using a verb from the appropriate category. Additionally, it will be helpful to students and instructors alike if the traditional music theory verb also appears in the learning goal, perhaps in parentheses, to clarify instructor expectations. Example 2 shows some common music theory tasks articulated first with the traditional music theory verb and the most appropriate Bloom verb in parentheses.

Assignment-Level Learning Goals

Learning goals at the assignment level should use carefully chosen verbs and make the learning task as explicit as possible. The models above do this by including common music theory verbs that are not on Bloom lists, as well as a representative Bloom verb, and puts that verb in the second position of the learning goal. Michaelsen 2020 discusses ways to assess progress on learning goals using the concept of mastery learning. Below, I demonstrate how to revise existing learning goals, using examples from Daniel Stevens's keynote for the Pedagogy into Practice conference in May 2019.

His handouts use the heading "Outcome" for a series of five tasks he asked participants to do. Two of these are reproduced below as Example 3. The presence of outcomes at the top of the handout shows that Stevens is thoughtful and intentional about his purpose, yet the clarity of those outcomes varies. Example 3a is excellent: It is "participant-centered," focuses on an appropriate verb, and includes information about constraints. This learning goal could be strengthened by emphasizing the action-verb. The "Compare" version, which I have written, suggests one way to focus on the main verb by reordering. Example 3b is somewhat less clearly articulated. The main verb is "track," with modifiers for where (a sonata-form development) and how (by ear). "Track," however, is not a clearly defined learning task—What does it mean to "track by ear?"—and it is not a Bloom verb, either. Additionally, "large-scale harmonic design" could be more specific. The "Compare" version suggests a revision that clarifies the intended task and highlights the main verb.

Example 3. Learning Goals at the Assignment Level (Stevens)

• Outcome for Challenge 2: Participants will "break" a poetic text and recombine its phonetic and rhythmic materials to create a new piece of music. Compare: Participants will create a new piece of music by "breaking" and recombining the phonetic and rhythmic materials of a poetic text.
• Outcome for Challenge 5: Participants will track the large-scale harmonic design of a sonata-form development section by ear. Compare: Participants will sing do or ti while listening to a sonata-form development section to track changes in tonic.

To be fair, Stevens is an expert at articulating clearly stated, measurable learning goals—he includes nine of them on his rubric for Challenge 2 .

Course-Level Learning Goals

At the course level, it is important to balance different ways of demonstrating learning. Ideally, no course is only about "Remembering" or "Creating," but rather blends and cultivates different kinds of knowing. Cognitive science research, summarized in Brown, Roedinger, and McDaniel (2014) , suggests that using knowledge in different ways strengthens the learning and makes it more durable.

One way to ensure a balanced course is to choose tasks from at least four Bloom categories. Example 4a compares course descriptions of a single course as it transitions from content goals (2014) to learning goals (2019). The course is Music Theory I, taught by Timothy Chenette. First, notice Chenette's verb choices (underlined). The 2014 actions are "learn" or "gain," verbs that emphasize learning and improvement and are even called "learning objectives" on the syllabus. They are actually framing content goals, however, because they are largely saying students will learn about some abstract concept (voice leading, harmonic progressions, etc.), rather than learn to do something concrete with knowledge. Neither verb is included in the list of codified verbs. The 2019 actions are much more varied, and all clearly align with a cognitive category. Relatedly, notice how much more clearly the tasks themselves are defined in 2019 of Example 4a. What would it mean to know "how diatonic harmony works," or to "gain in your appreciation of common-practice music?" Those are completely valid things for students to learn, but in 2014 they are framed too broadly and without attention to how the learning might be evaluated to serve as learning goals.

Example 4b provides a framework for evaluating the balance of learning tasks in a course. Learning-goal verbs for Chenette's 2019 syllabus are listed in the left column and the corresponding category name from the Cognitive-Process Verbs in Example 1 are on the right. This course has five types of tasks (verbs) that correspond to four or five different Bloom categories. (The difference between four and five will rely on the types of context in which "Describe" is used, whether it is oriented more toward "Listing" or "Explaining.") This represents an excellent balance of types of learning, which suggests that it will help students develop robust, durable knowledge that they can readily apply in different ways.

Curricular-Level

At the level of the entire music theory curriculum, learning goals tend to be broader than those at the course level. Curricular learning goals are helpful because they provide an element of cohesion among courses with different types of content and levels of detail and also because they can help prepare students for a robust future in their discipline. Several essays in this volume demonstrate the value of goal-setting at various levels of learning when updating the curriculum ( Gades 2020 , Lavengood 2020 , and Peebles 2020 ).

To meet such broad goals, curricular goals are ideally comprehensive, but also visionary and actionable: they should identify wide-ranging priorities that will help students be resilient. The process of generating curricular goals should also include a discussion of how they relate to individual courses.

Example 5 reproduces the curricular learning goals by Ann Stutes and Scott Strovas (2019) for the four-semester music theory sequence at Wayland Baptist University. It has several visionary, future-oriented elements, including its emphasis on communication, collaboration, and problem-solving in different situations. These are varied enough that they could apply to aural skills and written courses, introductory and capstone courses alike, and they are ultimately transferable skills. These curricular goals would be stronger, however, if they used cognitive verbs to clarify the goals ("progress," "navigate," "engage" are unnecessarily vague), and especially if they clarified the connection to courses. Such a connection could be made through a statement that recommends, for example, that each course have at least one course learning goal that supports each curricular learning goal. Ideally, individual curricular goals would be met through multiple courses. While curricular goals may or may not be widely known or intentionally incorporated into courses at any given institution or by any given instructor, building in a connection between curricular learning goals and course learning goals helps to prevent the curriculum from becoming divorced from practice.

Example 5. Curricular Learning Goals (Stutes and Strovas)

Through conceptual inquiry into and hands-on engagement with assigned music literature, individuals actively preparing for the profession will progress in their ability to…

• Communicate effectively in the language of the profession of music;
• Critically engage in the craft of music as informed listeners and creative artists;
• Collaborate with peers in solving musical problems through an evolving collective understanding of musical material;
• Navigate musical situations confronted in the applied studio, in ensembles, through professional opportunities, and through independent creative exploration

This article focuses on the importance of considering learning goals in the process of curriculum reform. This is useful whether that change is oriented toward broadening the types of music we study, incorporating more socially or ecologically conscious analytical perspectives, or including opportunities for student-choice. Using clear, verb-oriented learning goals at every stage of planning for learning (lessons, assignments, courses, and curricula) is a concrete way of turning a vision into a formal curriculum, while emphasizing learning. Furthermore, learning goals are most effective when they are coordinated across all levels of learning, from curriculum to course to assignment and even to lessons, and that coordination is easiest to implement in the curricular-redesign phase. Without actively, intentionally choosing learning goals, we risk treating student-learning as a byproduct of our teaching, rather than its main purpose, and leaving what is arguably the most important part of what we do "unknown" and "patterned by chance."

Acknowledgements

This content was initially delivered in workshop format for the Pedagogy into Practice conference in Santa Barbara. I would like to thank the participants of that workshop for their probing and engaged discussions on this topic and for an especially provocative debate on the cognitive tasks involved in sight singing.

Bibliography

• Alegant, Bryan. 2018. "Teaching Post-Tonal Aural Skills." In The Norton Guide to Teaching Music Theory , edited by Rachel Lumsden and Jeffrey Swinkin, 147-60. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.
• Ambrose, Susan, Michael W. Bridges, Michele DiPietro, Marsha C. Lovett, Marie K. Norman. 2010. How Learning Works: Seven Research-Based Principles for Smart Teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
• Anderson, Lorin, and David Krathwohl. 2001. A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives . New York: Longman.
• Brown, Daniel, Henry Roediger, and Mark McDaniel. 2014. Make it Stick: The Science of Successful Learning. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press.
• Bloom, Harold, and David Krathwohl. 1956. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goals. New York: Longman.
• Gawboy, Anna. 2013. "On Standards and Assessment." Engaging Students: Essays in Music Pedagogy 1. https://doi.org/10.18061/es.v1i0.7162
• Lumsden, Rachel, and Jeffrey Swinkin, eds. 2018. The Norton Guide to Teaching Music Theory. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.
• Miller, Allen. 1987. Course Design for University Lecturers . London: Kogan Page.
• Rifkin, Deborah, and Phillip Stoecker. 2011. "A Revised Taxonomy for Music Learning." Music Theory Pedagogy Online 25.
• Rogers, Michael R. 2004. Teaching Approaches in Music Theory: An overview of Pedagogical Philosophies . Second edition. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press.
• "Tips on Writing Course Goals/Learning Outcomes and Measurable Learning Objectives." Center for Excellence in Learning and Teaching, Iowa State University. Accessed September 11, 2019.
• VanHandel, Leigh. 2020. The Routledge Companion to Music Theory Pedagogy . New York: Taylor & Francis Group.

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Learning goals.

The maintenance of academic quality resides primarily with graduate field faculty and directors of graduate study, working through the special committee—the group of faculty providing primary advisement and academic oversight for each graduate student. The Graduate School leadership works closely with field faculty in establishing and articulating intended outcomes, objectives, and rubrics through which the aims of graduate education can be met.   Monitoring time-to-degree and other program metrics , and supporting faculty mentoring and student teaching are additional ways in which the Graduate School establishes and uphold standards. 

Faculty assess student performance through a variety of direct and indirect measures, including: 

• Student progress reviews
• Official milestones and special  exams , such as qualifying exams (Q exams), administered early in an academic program; admission to candidacy exams (A exams), which assess breadth and depth in the discipline; and the defense of the thesis or dissertation (B exams)
• Public presentations of scholarly work
• Semesters of  registration  

While intended learning outcomes vary across the many academic programs , a set of overarching goals (listed below) characterize the graduate educational experience. 

Learning Proficiencies for all Graduate Students

• Serve as an ambassador for research and scholarship
• Effectively engage in one’s broader community through various forms of outreach
• Focus on plural contexts and cultures
• Respect research in other areas
• Understand and articulate the impact of research on society

Research Master’s Proficiencies

A candidate for a research master’s degree is expected to demonstrate knowledge in the chosen discipline and to synthesize and create new knowledge, making a contribution to the field in an appropriate timeframe.

• Make a contribution to the scholarship of the field.
• Synthesize existing knowledge, identifying and accessing appropriate resources and other sources of relevant information and critically analyzing and evaluating one’s own findings and those of others
• Apply existing research methodologies, techniques, and technical skills
• Communicate in a style appropriate to the discipline
• Keep abreast of current advances within one’s field and related areas
• Show commitment to personal professional development through engagement in professional societies and other knowledge transfer modes
• Show a commitment to creating an environment that supports learning   through teaching, collaborative inquiry, mentoring, or demonstration
• Adhere to ethical standards in the discipline
• Listen, give, and receive feedback effectively 

Doctoral Proficiencies

A candidate for a doctoral degree is expected to demonstrate mastery of knowledge in the chosen discipline and to synthesize and create new knowledge, making an original and substantial contribution to the discipline in an appropriate timeframe. 

• Think originally and independently to develop concepts and methodologies
• Identify new research opportunities within one’s field
• Master application of existing research methodologies, techniques, and technical skills
• Show commitment to personal professional development through engagement in professional societies, publication, and other knowledge transfer modes
• Show a commitment to creating an environment that supports learning through teaching, collaborative inquiry, mentoring, or demonstration

What is a PLG (Personal Learning Goals)?

A PLG stands for Personal Learning Goals. 

The PLG tool in Evidence for Learning allows you to create and mange sets of individualised learning outcomes or intentions for your Learners.

They are great for supporting an holistic approach to evidencing, assessing and tracking progress over time against any short, medium and long term individualised goals or targets for a single learner including EHC plans.

As you create a PLG, a Framework is automatically generated containing the outcomes and intentions. This Framework can be used just like your other Frameworks for making observations and linking evidence.

PLG Frameworks can be edited, meaning that it can be adapted over time as the Learner’s needs and aims change.

You can quickly and easily activate an Assessment Book for any of your PLGs. This Assessment Book has all the benefits of the multi-Learner Assessment Books, enabling you to customise the system to reflect the assessment model used by your school or setting, it’s is especially handy for:

• Showing how short term steps, align with medium term outcomes and longer term aspirations and goals
• Seeing where you have evidence and notes against learning outcomes and then linking through to a timeline where you can review these in detail.
• Tracking lateral progress or small steps
• Formative and summative assessment

There is an option to create a PDF snapshot of the data in the Assessment Book. In the PDF you can choose to show just the learning outcomes or you can also include evidence counts and/or Assessment data. These PDFs can also be easily shared with other stakeholders via the Learner Profile, including with parents and carers.

PLGs can be created and managed using the iOS app or via the Web Console. 

Here's a video that gives you an overview of how you use PLGs to track progress against Individualised outcomes, including those from EHCPs.

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• Learning Goals
• Course Design
• UDL Syllabus
• Learning Goals (Currently Selected)
• Emotion and Learning
• UDL and Assessment
• Executive Functioning in Online Environments
• Social Learning
• Blended Courses
• Case-Based Learning
• Working with Industry Partners
• Using LMS Data to Inform Course Design

What is this resource about? This resource discusses the ways in which learning goals can be constructed through the lens of Universal Design for Learning . Within instructional design, goals are expectations for knowledge, skills, or outcomes. These expectations can be communicated as performance goals -- which focus on proving ability -- or as learning goals (also known as mastery goals), which emphasize developing and improving an ability. 1 Read more about Learning Goals from a UDL Perspective , and Separating the Means from the Ends .

Why is this important in higher education? Learners at all stages benefit from being aware of their own goals and the goals instructors and institutions hold for them. 2 Some instructional circumstances call for performance goals; but learning goals, oriented towards growth, are more likely to support course completion, persistence through challenging transitions, and change in deeply-held conceptions. 3

UDL Connections

Consider how goals are articulated and communicated: goals that unnecessarily prescribe narrow means of achievement will inadvertently privilege, exclude, and under-engage learners. 4 Clear goals are the cornerstone of well-designed curricula, as only through clarification of what learners are expected to accomplish, and by when, can instructors begin to consider which assessments , methods and materials will be most effective.

Learning Goals from a UDL Perspective

In the UDL model, goals move beyond their traditional role in curriculum planning as mere content or performance markers. A UDL approach seeks to create clear learning goals and support the development of expert, lifelong learners that are strategic, resourceful, and motivated. 5 A UDL approach to effective learning goals in postsecondary settings consists of three key components:

• separating the means from the ends
• addressing variability in learning
• providing UDL options in the materials, methods, and assessments

Separating the Means from the Ends

From a UDL perspective, goals and objectives should be attainable by different learners in different ways. In some instances, linking a goal with the means for achievement may be intentional; however, often times we unintentionally embed the means of achievement into a goal, thereby restricting the pathways students can take to meet it.

The following sample curricular goal is articulated as: “Write a paragraph about how the circulatory system works.” What are the barriers this goal might pose for students?

Writing a paragraph is an additional task layered over mastery of the content knowledge that you want your students to attain. Rephrasing this goal into something like, “Describe a complete cycle in the circulatory system” is more explicit about what students should be able to explain, and allows flexibility in terms of how students convey their knowledge (create a diagram, label an image, write out the steps in the process, make a short video explaining an image, etc.). It is also more of a learning goal than a performance goal in that it invites students to demonstrate the fullest extent of their understanding – rather than asking them to prove that they can write a paragraph.

In your College Writing Seminar, the learning goal (learning how to write strong essays) is frequently linked to the production means (writing essays). Given the wide variability of writing abilities in the classroom, you want to be sure that your students first get a strong understanding of the concept of a thesis statement first before adding the additional challenge of writing one.

In the case of this learning objective, the desired outcome is that students understand the concept of a strong thesis statement--perhaps as a prerequisite to writing one. Therefore, the means by which students demonstrate this ability can be more flexible, since the concept of a thesis statement and the ability to write one are not always one in the same. Students could write a thesis statement, but they could also put forward a video with a narrative, or some sort of visual. Requiring that students fulfill this objective through only one modality would, for some students, add task-irrelevant demands that pose a barrier to their fundamental understanding of a thesis statement.

The solutions above illustrate a key characteristics of well-designed goals: to make explicit the desired outcomes, rather than the means of achieving those outcomes. By focusing on the desired outcomes, instructors are able to maintain high expectations for students while opening multiple pathways towards achievement. This focus also capitalizes on the varied strengths of a wider range of students. Such support encourages persistence and content mastery that otherwise might be inadvertently deterred.

Goals need to be relevant to students. Especially at the postsecondary level -- where there is a focus on functioning independently in professions or life after school -- educators must consider that “students will never use knowledge they don't care about, nor will they practice or apply skills they don't find valuable.” 6

1 Dweck, C. S. (1986). Motivational processes affecting learning. American Psychologist, 41(10), 1040; Rusk, N., Tamir, M., & Rothbaum, F. (2011). Performance and learning goals for emotion regulation. Motivation and Emotion, 35(4), 444-460. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11031-011-9229-6

2 Simon, B., & Taylor, J. (2009). What is the value of course-specific learning goals. Journal of College Science Teaching, 39(2), 52-57. https://testwww2.bc.edu/maya-tamir/download/rusk%20et%20al_201

3 Yeager, D. S., & Dweck, C. S. (2012). Mindsets that promote resilience: When students believe that personal characteristics can be developed. Educational Psychologist, 47(4), 302-314; Ranellucci, J., Muis, K. R., Duffy, M., Wang, X., Sampasivam, L., & Franco, G. M. (2013). To master or perform? Exploring relations between achievement goals and conceptual change learning. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 83(3), 431-451. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23822530

4 Meyer, A., Rose, D. H., & Gordon, D. (2014). Universal design for learning: Theory and practice. Wakefield MA: CAST Professional Publishing. http://udltheorypractice.cast.org/login

6 Rose, D. H., Harbour, W. S., Johnston, C. S., Daley, S. G., & Abarbanell, L. (2006). Universal Design for Learning in Postsecondary Education: Reflections on Principles and their Application. Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability, 19(2), 135-151. https://www.cast.org/products-services/resources/2006/udl-postsecondary-education-reflections-principles-application-rose-johnston-daley

UDL is an educational approach based on the learning sciences with three primary principles—multiple means of representation of information, multiple means of student action and expression, and multiple means of student engagement.

Assessment is the process of gathering information about a learner’s performance using a variety of methods and materials in order to determine learners’ knowledge, skills, and motivation for the purpose of making informed educational decisions.

Video is the recording, reproducing, or broadcasting of moving visual images.

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9 10 Academic Goals Examples to Supercharge Your Student Success

Becoming a successful student involves more than just going to classes and remembering facts for the test. It is about establishing a mentality of learning and evolving continuously, and distinct academic goals are a key aspect of that. These are the lights that lead the way and help you stay on track as you navigate through the trials and tribulations of your studies, whether it’s the demands of testing or the stuff that life throws at you. But, just as importantly, by clearly defining and outlining your academic objectives, you give your study a sense of intention and purpose. Whether it’s achieving a particular GPA, mastering a challenging topic, or participating in enriching extracurricular, strong academic Goals are the foundation of both short- and long-term academic success.  

Establishing concrete goals and the quest of excellence are frequently linked in the academic sphere. Before delving into these Academic Goals Examples, it is important to recognize services like Scholarly Help that provide workable ways to handle several Tasks. With options like pay someone to do my online class , Scholarly Help ensures you stay on track without compromising other responsibilities. This comprehensive guide explores ten powerful academic goals examples designed to elevate your student success to unprecedented heights. Whether your academic goals are designed to improve your critical thinking habits, advance your time management skills, or explore interdisciplinary thinking to further your academic career, they should provide students with a path toward overall intellectual and personal development. Rounding up different students through carefully structured college academic goals. All must necessarily form the basis of individual reality and opportunities.

Mastering Time Management

One of the building blocks for academic achievement is the effective management of time. The ability allows students to combine studies with other activities, namely work, daily life, or personal life. To manage time effectively, learners are recommended to:

• Plan a Weekly Schedule: set certain hours and days to work, study, and engage in other activities; 
• Set Priorities: determine poses that are urgent and important, then focus on a solution; 
• Do not Get Distracted: if some activities or processes are distracting, generate disadvantages.

Enhancing Study Skills

Improving study abilities might result in better comprehension and recall of course material. Students should focus on:

• Active Learning Techniques: Engage with the material such as holding discussions, teaching others, and transforming what one learned to real-life application. 
• Effective Note-Taking: Employ methods like Cornell Note-taking System to organize and refresh notes. 
• Regular Review Sessions: Set regular study dates to refresh one’s memory and prepare for exams.

Setting Specific Academic Targets

Setting clear, specific targets helps students stay motivated and measure progress. Examples of specific academic goals include:

• Achieve Specific GPA:   Aim to reach or maintain a specific grade point average each semester.
• Improving Grades in Challenging Subjects: Identify subjects where improvement is needed and set goals accordingly.
• Completing Assignments Ahead of Deadlines: Plan to finish assignments before the due date to allow time for revisions.

Expanding Knowledge beyond the Classroom

Gaining knowledge outside the classroom can enhance academic performance and provide a broader perspective. Students can achieve this by:

• Reading Extensively: Explore Books, Journals, and articles related to their field of Study.
• Attending Seminars and Workshops: Participate in events offering additional insights and networking opportunities.
• Engaging in Research Projects: Collaborate with professors or peers on research projects to deepen understanding of specific topics.

Developing Critical Thinking Skills

Critical thinking is vital for problem-solving and making informed decisions. Students can cultivate these skills by:

• Questioning Assumptions: Always ask why and consider alternative viewpoints.
• Analyzing Arguments: Evaluate the evidence and logic in different arguments.
• Reflecting on Learning: Regularly review what has been learned and how it applies to real-world situations.

Building Effective Communication Skills

Strong communication skills are essential for academic and professional success. Students can enhance these skills by:

• Participating in Class Discussions: Engage actively in discussions to practice articulating thoughts clearly.
• Writing Regularly: Practice writing essays, reports, and articles to improve writing abilities.
• Presenting Projects: Take opportunities to present work in front of an audience to build confidence and clarity.

Fostering Collaboration and Teamwork

Collaboration with peers can lead to better understanding and innovative solutions. Students should focus on:

• Joining Study Groups: Collaborate with classmates to discuss topics and solve problems together.
• Participating in Group Projects: Develop teamwork and leadership skills by working on group assignments.
• Engaging in Extracurricular Activities: Join clubs and organizations that encourage teamwork and collective problem-solving.

Seeking Feedback and Continuous Improvement

Constructive feedback helps identify areas for improvement and guide academic growth. Students should:

• Ask for Feedback: Request feedback from professors and peers on assignments and presentations.
• Reflect on Criticism: Use feedback to identify strengths and weaknesses, developing action plans for improvement.
• Commit to Lifelong Learning: Embrace continuous learning and improvement in all aspects of life.

Utilizing Academic Resources

Taking full advantage of available academic resources can enhance learning and performance. Students should:

• Visit the Library Regularly: Utilize resources for research and study.
• Use Online Databases: Access academic journals and articles online to support studies.
• Seek Academic Support Services: Utilize tutoring, writing centers, and academic advising offered by the institution.

Preparing for Future Careers with Academic Goals

Setting academic goals with future careers in mind provides direction and motivation. Students should:

• Identify Career Goals: Determine career aspirations and align academic goals accordingly.
• Gain Relevant Experience: Pursue internships, part-time jobs, and volunteer opportunities related to the field of study.
• Develop Professional Skills: Focus on skills like resume writing, interviewing, and networking to prepare for the job market.

Setting and meeting academic goals necessitates dedication, strategic planning, and consistent effort. By focusing on these ten academic goal examples, students can improve their learning experience, and performance, and set themselves up for future success. Remember that the key to academic success is to set specific, attainable goals and work hard to meet them.

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Nursing students’ stressors and coping strategies during their first clinical training: a qualitative study in the United Arab Emirates

• Jacqueline Maria Dias 1 ,
• Muhammad Arsyad Subu 1 ,
• Nabeel Al-Yateem 1 ,
• Fatma Refaat Ahmed 1 ,
• Syed Azizur Rahman 1 , 2 ,
• Mini Sara Abraham 1 ,
• Sareh Mirza Forootan 1 ,
• Farzaneh Ahmad Sarkhosh 1 &
• Fatemeh Javanbakh 1  

BMC Nursing volume  23 , Article number:  322 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Understanding the stressors and coping strategies of nursing students in their first clinical training is important for improving student performance, helping students develop a professional identity and problem-solving skills, and improving the clinical teaching aspects of the curriculum in nursing programmes. While previous research have examined nurses’ sources of stress and coping styles in the Arab region, there is limited understanding of these stressors and coping strategies of nursing students within the UAE context thereby, highlighting the novelty and significance of the study.

A qualitative study was conducted using semi-structured interviews. Overall 30 students who were undergoing their first clinical placement in Year 2 at the University of Sharjah between May and June 2022 were recruited. All interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim and analyzed for themes.

During their first clinical training, nursing students are exposed to stress from different sources, including the clinical environment, unfriendly clinical tutors, feelings of disconnection, multiple expectations of clinical staff and patients, and gaps between the curriculum of theory classes and labatories skills and students’ clinical experiences. We extracted three main themes that described students’ stress and use of coping strategies during clinical training: (1) managing expectations; (2) theory-practice gap; and (3) learning to cope. Learning to cope, included two subthemes: positive coping strategies and negative coping strategies.

Conclusions

This qualitative study sheds light from the students viewpoint about the intricate interplay between managing expectations, theory practice gap and learning to cope. Therefore, it is imperative for nursing faculty, clinical agencies and curriculum planners to ensure maximum learning in the clinical by recognizing the significance of the stressors encountered and help students develop positive coping strategies to manage the clinical stressors encountered. Further research is required look at the perspective of clinical stressors from clinical tutors who supervise students during their first clinical practicum.

Peer Review reports

Nursing education programmes aim to provide students with high-quality clinical learning experiences to ensure that nurses can provide safe, direct care to patients [ 1 ]. The nursing baccalaureate programme at the University of Sharjah is a four year program with 137 credits. The programmes has both theoretical and clinical components withs nine clinical courses spread over the four years The first clinical practicum which forms the basis of the study takes place in year 2 semester 2.

Clinical practice experience is an indispensable component of nursing education and links what students learn in the classroom and in skills laboratories to real-life clinical settings [ 2 , 3 , 4 ]. However, a gap exists between theory and practice as the curriculum in the classroom differs from nursing students’ experiences in the clinical nursing practicum [ 5 ]. Clinical nursing training places (or practicums, as they are commonly referred to), provide students with the necessary experiences to ensure that they become proficient in the delivery of patient care [ 6 ]. The clinical practicum takes place in an environment that combines numerous structural, psychological, emotional and organizational elements that influence student learning [ 7 ] and may affect the development of professional nursing competencies, such as compassion, communication and professional identity [ 8 ]. While clinical training is a major component of nursing education curricula, stress related to clinical training is common among students [ 9 ]. Furthermore, the nursing literature indicates that the first exposure to clinical learning is one of the most stressful experiences during undergraduate studies [ 8 , 10 ]. Thus, the clinical component of nursing education is considered more stressful than the theoretical component. Students often view clinical learning, where most learning takes place, as an unsupportive environment [ 11 ]. In addition, they note strained relationships between themselves and clinical preceptors and perceive that the negative attitudes of clinical staff produce stress [ 12 ].

The effects of stress on nursing students often involve a sense of uncertainty, uneasiness, or anxiety. The literature is replete with evidence that nursing students experience a variety of stressors during their clinical practicum, beginning with the first clinical rotation. Nursing is a complex profession that requires continuous interaction with a variety of individuals in a high-stress environment. Stress during clinical learning can have multiple negative consequences, including low academic achievement, elevated levels of burnout, and diminished personal well-being [ 13 , 14 ]. In addition, both theoretical and practical research has demonstrated that increased, continual exposure to stress leads to cognitive deficits, inability to concentrate, lack of memory or recall, misinterpretation of speech, and decreased learning capacity [ 15 ]. Furthermore, stress has been identified as a cause of attrition among nursing students [ 16 ].

Most sources of stress have been categorized as academic, clinical or personal. Each person copes with stress differently [ 17 ], and utilizes deliberate, planned, and psychological efforts to manage stressful demands [ 18 ]. Coping mechanisms are commonly termed adaptation strategies or coping skills. Labrague et al. [ 19 ] noted that students used critical coping strategies to handle stress and suggested that problem solving was the most common coping or adaptation mechanism used by nursing students. Nursing students’ coping strategies affect their physical and psychological well-being and the quality of nursing care they offer. Therefore, identifying the coping strategies that students use to manage stressors is important for early intervention [ 20 ].

Studies on nursing students’ coping strategies have been conducted in various countries. For example, Israeli nursing students were found to adopt a range of coping mechanisms, including talking to friends, engaging in sports, avoiding stress and sadness/misery, and consuming alcohol [ 21 ]. Other studies have examined stress levels among medical students in the Arab region. Chaabane et al. [ 15 ], conducted a systematic review of sudies in Arab countries, including Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Jordan, Iraq, Pakistan, Oman, Palestine and Bahrain, and reported that stress during clinical practicums was prevalent, although it could not be determined whether this was limited to the initial clinical course or occurred throughout clinical training. Stressors highlighted during the clinical period in the systematic review included assignments and workload during clinical practice, a feeling that the requirements of clinical practice exceeded students’ physical and emotional endurance and that their involvement in patient care was limited due to lack of experience. Furthermore, stress can have a direct effect on clinical performance, leading to mental disorders. Tung et al. [ 22 ], reported that the prevalence of depression among nursing students in Arab countries is 28%, which is almost six times greater than the rest of the world [ 22 ]. On the other hand, Saifan et al. [ 5 ], explored the theory-practice gap in the United Arab Emirates and found that clinical stressors could be decreased by preparing students better for clinical education with qualified clinical faculty and supportive preceptors.

The purpose of this study was to identify the stressors experienced by undergraduate nursing students in the United Arab Emirates during their first clinical training and the basic adaptation approaches or coping strategies they used. Recognizing or understanding different coping processes can inform the implementation of corrective measures when students experience clinical stress. The findings of this study may provide valuable information for nursing programmes, nurse educators, and clinical administrators to establish adaptive strategies to reduce stress among students going clinical practicums, particularly stressors from their first clinical training in different healthcare settings.

A qualitative approach was adopted to understand clinical stressors and coping strategies from the perspective of nurses’ lived experience. Qualitative content analysis was employed to obtain rich and detailed information from our qualitative data. Qualitative approaches seek to understand the phenomenon under study from the perspectives of individuals with lived experience [ 23 ]. Qualitative content analysis is an interpretive technique that examines the similarities and differences between and within different areas of text while focusing on the subject [ 24 ]. It is used to examine communication patterns in a repeatable and systematic way [ 25 ] and yields rich and detailed information on the topic under investigation [ 23 ]. It is a method of systematically coding and categorizing information and comprises a process of comprehending, interpreting, and conceptualizing the key meanings from qualitative data [ 26 ].

Setting and participants

This study was conducted after the clinical rotations ended in April 2022, between May and June in the nursing programme at the College of Health Sciences, University of Sharjah, in the United Arab Emirates. The study population comprised undergraduate nursing students who were undergoing their first clinical training and were recruited using purposive sampling. The inclusion criteria for this study were second-year nursing students in the first semester of clinical training who could speak English, were willing to participate in this research, and had no previous clinical work experience. The final sample consisted of 30 students.

Research instrument

The research instrument was a semi structured interview guide. The interview questions were based on an in-depth review of related literature. An intensive search included key words in Google Scholar, PubMed like the terms “nursing clinical stressors”, “nursing students”, and “coping mechanisms”. Once the questions were created, they were validated by two other faculty members who had relevant experience in mental health. A pilot test was conducted with five students and based on their feedback the following research questions, which were addressed in the study.

How would you describe your clinical experiences during your first clinical rotations?

In what ways did you find the first clinical rotation to be stressful?

What factors hindered your clinical training?

How did you cope with the stressors you encountered in clinical training?

Which strategies helped you cope with the clinical stressors you encountered?

Data collection

Semi-structured interviews were chosen as the method for data collection. Semi structured interviews are a well-established approach for gathering data in qualitative research and allow participants to discuss their views, experiences, attitudes, and beliefs in a positive environment [ 27 ]. This approach allows for flexibility in questioning thereby ensuring that key topics related to clinical learning stressors and coping strategies would be explored. Participants were given the opportunity to express their views, experiences, attitudes, and beliefs in a positive environment, encouraging open communication. These semi structured interviews were conducted by one member of the research team (MAS) who had a mental health background, and another member of the research team who attended the interviews as an observer (JMD). Neither of these researchers were involved in teaching the students during their clinical practicum, which helped to minimize bias. The interviews took place at the University of Sharjah, specifically in building M23, providing a familiar and comfortable environment for the participant. Before the interviews were all students who agreed to participate were provided with an explanation of the study’s purpose. The time and location of each interview were arranged. Before the interviews were conducted, all students who provided consent to participate received an explanation of the purpose of the study, and the time and place of each interview were arranged to accommodate the participants’ schedules and preferences. The interviews were conducted after the clinical rotation had ended in April, and after the final grades had been submitted to the coordinator. The timings of the interviews included the month of May and June which ensured that participants have completed their practicum experience and could reflect on the stressors more comprehensively. The interviews were audio-recorded with the participants’ consent, and each interview lasted 25–40 min. The data were collected until saturation was reached for 30 students. Memos and field notes were also recorded as part of the data collection process. These additional data allowed for triangulation to improve the credibility of the interpretations of the data [ 28 ]. Memos included the interviewers’ thoughts and interpretations about the interviews, the research process (including questions and gaps), and the analytic progress used for the research. Field notes were used to record the interviewers’ observations and reflections on the data. These additional data collection methods were important to guide the researchers in the interpretation of the data on the participants’ feelings, perspectives, experiences, attitudes, and beliefs. Finally, member checking was performed to ensure conformability.

Data analysis

The study used the content analysis method proposed by Graneheim and Lundman [ 24 ]. According to Graneheim and Lundman [ 24 ], content analysis is an interpretive technique that examines the similarities and differences between distinct parts of a text. This method allows researchers to determine exact theoretical and operational definitions of words, phrases, and symbols by elucidating their constituent properties [ 29 ]. First, we read the interview transcripts several times to reach an overall understanding of the data. All verbatim transcripts were read several times and discussed among all authors. We merged and used line-by-line coding of words, sentences, and paragraphs relevant to each other in terms of both the content and context of stressors and coping mechanisms. Next, we used data reduction to assess the relationships among themes using tables and diagrams to indicate conceptual patterns. Content related to stress encountered by students was extracted from the transcripts. In a separate document, we integrated and categorized all words and sentences that were related to each other in terms of both content and context. We analyzed all codes and units of meaning and compared them for similarities and differences in the context of this study. Furthermore, the emerging findings were discussed with other members of the researcher team. The final abstractions of meaningful subthemes into themes were discussed and agreed upon by the entire research team. This process resulted in the extraction of three main themes in addition to two subthemes related to stress and coping strategies.

Ethical considerations

The University of Sharjah Research Ethics Committee provided approval to conduct this study (Reference Number: REC 19-12-03-01-S). Before each interview, the goal and study procedures were explained to each participant, and written informed consent was obtained. The participants were informed that participation in the study was voluntary and that they could withdraw from the study at any time. In the event they wanted to withdraw from the study, all information related to the participant would be removed. No participant withdrew from the study. Furthermore, they were informed that their clinical practicum grade would not be affected by their participation in this study. We chose interview locations in Building M23that were private and quiet to ensure that the participants felt at ease and confident in verbalizing their opinions. No participant was paid directly for involvement in this study. In addition, participants were assured that their data would remain anonymous and confidential. Confidentiality means that the information provided by participants was kept private with restrictions on how and when data can be shared with others. The participants were informed that their information would not be duplicated or disseminated without their permission. Anonymity refers to the act of keeping people anonymous with respect to their participation in a research endeavor. No personal identifiers were used in this study, and each participant was assigned a random alpha-numeric code (e.g., P1 for participant 1). All digitally recorded interviews were downloaded to a secure computer protected by the principal investigator with a password. The researchers were the only people with access to the interview material (recordings and transcripts). All sensitive information and materials were kept secure in the principal researcher’s office at the University of Sharjah. The data will be maintained for five years after the study is completed, after which the material will be destroyed (the transcripts will be shredded, and the tapes will be demagnetized).

In total, 30 nursing students who were enrolled in the nursing programme at the Department of Nursing, College of Health Sciences, University of Sharjah, and who were undergoing their first clinical practicum participated in the study. Demographically, 80% ( n  = 24) were females and 20% ( n  = 6) were male participants. The majority (83%) of study participants ranged in age from 18 to 22 years. 20% ( n  = 6) were UAE nationals, 53% ( n  = 16) were from Gulf Cooperation Council countries, while 20% ( n  = 6) hailed from Africa and 7% ( n  = 2) were of South Asian descent. 67% of the respondents lived with their families while 33% lived in the hostel. (Table  1 )

Following the content analysis, we identified three main themes: (1) managing expectations, (2) theory-practice gap and 3)learning to cope. Learning to cope had two subthemes: positive coping strategies and negative coping strategies. An account of each theme is presented along with supporting excerpts for the identified themes. The identified themes provide valuable insight into the stressors encountered by students during their first clinical practicum. These themes will lead to targeted interventions and supportive mechanisms that can be built into the clinical training curriculum to support students during clinical practice.

Theme 1: managing expectations

In our examination of the stressors experienced by nursing students during their first clinical practicum and the coping strategies they employed, we identified the first theme as managing expectations.

The students encountered expectations from various parties, such as clinical staff, patients and patients’ relatives which they had to navigate. They attempted to fulfil their expectations as they progressed through training, which presented a source of stress. The students noted that the hospital staff and patients expected them to know how to perform a variety of tasks upon request, which made the students feel stressed and out of place if they did not know how to perform these tasks. Some participants noted that other nurses in the clinical unit did not allow them to participate in nursing procedures, which was considered an enormous impediment to clinical learning, as noted in the excerpt below:

“…Sometimes the nurses… They will not allow us to do some procedures or things during clinical. And sometimes the patients themselves don’t allow us to do procedures” (P5).

Some of the students noted that they felt they did not belong and felt like foreigners in the clinical unit. Excerpts from the students are presented in the following quotes;

“The clinical environment is so stressful. I don’t feel like I belong. There is too little time to build a rapport with hospital staff or the patient” (P22).

“… you ask the hospital staff for some guidance or the location of equipment, and they tell us to ask our clinical tutor …but she is not around … what should I do? It appears like we do not belong, and the sooner the shift is over, the better” (P18).

“The staff are unfriendly and expect too much from us students… I feel like I don’t belong, or I am wasting their (the hospital staff’s) time. I want to ask questions, but they have loads to do” (P26).

Other students were concerned about potential failure when working with patients during clinical training, which impacted their confidence. They were particularly afraid of failure when performing any clinical procedures.

“At the beginning, I was afraid to do procedures. I thought that maybe the patient would be hurt and that I would not be successful in doing it. I have low self-confidence in doing procedures” (P13).

The call bell rings, and I am told to answer Room No. XXX. The patient wants help to go to the toilet, but she has two IV lines. I don’t know how to transport the patient… should I take her on the wheelchair? My eyes glance around the room for a wheelchair. I am so confused …I tell the patient I will inform the sister at the nursing station. The relative in the room glares at me angrily … “you better hurry up”…Oh, I feel like I don’t belong, as I am not able to help the patient… how will I face the same patient again?” (P12).

Another major stressor mentioned in the narratives was related to communication and interactions with patients who spoke another language, so it was difficult to communicate.

“There was a challenge with my communication with the patients. Sometimes I have communication barriers because they (the patients) are of other nationalities. I had an experience with a patient [who was] Indian, and he couldn’t speak my language. I did not understand his language” (P9).

Thus, a variety of expectations from patients, relatives, hospital staff, and preceptors acted as sources of stress for students during their clinical training.

Theme 2: theory-practice gap

Theory-practice gaps have been identified in previous studies. In our study, there was complete dissonance between theory and actual clinical practice. The clinical procedures or practices nursing students were expected to perform differed from the theory they had covered in their university classes and skills lab. This was described as a theory–practice gap and often resulted in stress and confusion.

“For example …the procedures in the hospital are different. They are different from what we learned or from theory on campus. Or… the preceptors have different techniques than what we learned on campus. So, I was stress[ed] and confused about it” (P11).

Furthermore, some students reported that they did not feel that they received adequate briefing before going to clinical training. A related source of stress was overload because of the volume of clinical coursework and assignments in addition to clinical expectations. Additionally, the students reported that a lack of time and time management were major sources of stress in their first clinical training and impacted their ability to complete the required paperwork and assignments:

“…There is not enough time…also, time management at the hospital…for example, we start at seven a.m., and the handover takes 1 hour to finish. They (the nurses at the hospital) are very slow…They start with bed making and morning care like at 9.45 a.m. Then, we must fill [out] our assessment tool and the NCP (nursing care plan) at 10 a.m. So, 15 only minutes before going to our break. We (the students) cannot manage this time. This condition makes me and my friends very stressed out. -I cannot do my paperwork or assignments; no time, right?” (P10).

“Stressful. There is a lot of work to do in clinical. My experiences are not really good with this course. We have a lot of things to do, so many assignments and clinical procedures to complete” (P16).

The participants noted that the amount of required coursework and number of assignments also presented a challenge during their first clinical training and especially affected their opportunity to learn.

“I need to read the file, know about my patient’s condition and pathophysiology and the rationale for the medications the patient is receiving…These are big stressors for my learning. I think about assignments often. Like, we are just focusing on so many assignments and papers. We need to submit assessments and care plans for clinical cases. We focus our time to complete and finish the papers rather than doing the real clinical procedures, so we lose [the] chance to learn” (P25).

Another participant commented in a similar vein that there was not enough time to perform tasks related to clinical requirements during clinical placement.

“…there is a challenge because we do not have enough time. Always no time for us to submit papers, to complete assessment tools, and some nurses, they don’t help us. I think we need more time to get more experiences and do more procedures, reduce the paperwork that we have to submit. These are challenges …” (P14).

There were expectations that the students should be able to carry out their nursing duties without becoming ill or adversely affected. In addition, many students reported that the clinical environment was completely different from the skills laboratory at the college. Exposure to the clinical setting added to the theory-practice gap, and in some instances, the students fell ill.

One student made the following comment:

“I was assisting a doctor with a dressing, and the sight and smell from the oozing wound was too much for me. I was nauseated. As soon as the dressing was done, I ran to the bathroom and threw up. I asked myself… how will I survive the next 3 years of nursing?” (P14).

Theme 3: learning to cope

The study participants indicated that they used coping mechanisms (both positive and negative) to adapt to and manage the stressors in their first clinical practicum. Important strategies that were reportedly used to cope with stress were time management, good preparation for clinical practice, and positive thinking as well as engaging in physical activity and self-motivation.

“Time management. Yes, it is important. I was encouraging myself. I used time management and prepared myself before going to the clinical site. Also, eating good food like cereal…it helps me very much in the clinic” (P28).

“Oh yeah, for sure positive thinking. In the hospital, I always think positively. Then, after coming home, I get [to] rest and think about positive things that I can do. So, I will think something good [about] these things, and then I will be relieved of stress” (P21).

Other strategies commonly reported by the participants were managing their breathing (e.g., taking deep breaths, breathing slowly), taking breaks to relax, and talking with friends about the problems they encountered.

“I prefer to take deep breaths and breathe slowly and to have a cup of coffee and to talk to my friends about the case or the clinical preceptor and what made me sad so I will feel more relaxed” (P16).

“Maybe I will take my break so I feel relaxed and feel better. After clinical training, I go directly home and take a long shower, going over the day. I will not think about anything bad that happened that day. I just try to think about good things so that I forget the stress” (P27).

“Yes, my first clinical training was not easy. It was difficult and made me stressed out…. I felt that it was a very difficult time for me. I thought about leaving nursing” (P7).

I was not able to offer my prayers. For me, this was distressing because as a Muslim, I pray regularly. Now, my prayer time is pushed to the end of the shift” (P11).

“When I feel stress, I talk to my friends about the case and what made me stressed. Then I will feel more relaxed” (P26).

Self-support or self-motivation through positive self-talk was also used by the students to cope with stress.

“Yes, it is difficult in the first clinical training. When I am stress[ed], I go to the bathroom and stand in the front of the mirror; I talk to myself, and I say, “You can do it,” “you are a great student.” I motivate myself: “You can do it”… Then, I just take breaths slowly several times. This is better than shouting or crying because it makes me tired” (P11).

Other participants used physical activity to manage their stress.

“How do I cope with my stress? Actually, when I get stressed, I will go for a walk on campus” (P4).

“At home, I will go to my room and close the door and start doing my exercises. After that, I feel the negative energy goes out, then I start to calm down… and begin my clinical assignments” (P21).

Both positive and negative coping strategies were utilized by the students. Some participants described using negative coping strategies when they encountered stress during their clinical practice. These negative coping strategies included becoming irritable and angry, eating too much food, drinking too much coffee, and smoking cigarettes.

“…Negative adaptation? Maybe coping. If I am stressed, I get so angry easily. I am irritable all day also…It is negative energy, right? Then, at home, I am also angry. After that, it is good to be alone to think about my problems” (P12).

“Yeah, if I…feel stress or depressed, I will eat a lot of food. Yeah, ineffective, like I will be eating a lot, drinking coffee. Like I said, effective, like I will prepare myself and do breathing, ineffective, I will eat a lot of snacks in between my free time. This is the bad side” (P16).

“…During the first clinical practice? Yes, it was a difficult experience for us…not only me. When stressed, during a break at the hospital, I will drink two or three cups of coffee… Also, I smoke cigarettes… A lot. I can drink six cups [of coffee] a day when I am stressed. After drinking coffee, I feel more relaxed, I finish everything (food) in the refrigerator or whatever I have in the pantry, like chocolates, chips, etc” (P23).

These supporting excerpts for each theme and the analysis offers valuable insights into the specific stressors faced by nursing students during their first clinical practicum. These insights will form the basis for the development of targeted interventions and supportive mechanisms within the clinical training curriculum to better support students’ adjustment and well-being during clinical practice.

Our study identified the stressors students encounter in their first clinical practicum and the coping strategies, both positive and negative, that they employed. Although this study emphasizes the importance of clinical training to prepare nursing students to practice as nurses, it also demonstrates the correlation between stressors and coping strategies.The content analysis of the first theme, managing expectations, paves the way for clinical agencies to realize that the students of today will be the nurses of tomorrow. It is important to provide a welcoming environment where students can develop their identities and learn effectively. Additionally, clinical staff should foster an environment of individualized learning while also assisting students in gaining confidence and competence in their repertoire of nursing skills, including critical thinking, problem solving and communication skills [ 8 , 15 , 19 , 30 ]. Another challenge encountered by the students in our study was that they were prevented from participating in clinical procedures by some nurses or patients. This finding is consistent with previous studies reporting that key challenges for students in clinical learning include a lack of clinical support and poor attitudes among clinical staff and instructors [ 31 ]. Clinical staff with positive attitudes have a positive impact on students’ learning in clinical settings [ 32 ]. The presence, supervision, and guidance of clinical instructors and the assistance of clinical staff are essential motivating components in the clinical learning process and offer positive reinforcement [ 30 , 33 , 34 ]. Conversely, an unsupportive learning environment combined with unwelcoming clinical staff and a lack of sense of belonging negatively impact students’ clinical learning [ 35 ].

The sources of stress identified in this study were consistent with common sources of stress in clinical training reported in previous studies, including the attitudes of some staff, students’ status in their clinical placement and educational factors. Nursing students’ inexperience in the clinical setting and lack of social and emotional experience also resulted in stress and psychological difficulties [ 36 ]. Bhurtun et al. [ 33 ] noted that nursing staff are a major source of stress for students because the students feel like they are constantly being watched and evaluated.

We also found that students were concerned about potential failure when working with patients during their clinical training. Their fear of failure when performing clinical procedures may be attributable to low self-confidence. Previous studies have noted that students were concerned about injuring patients, being blamed or chastised, and failing examinations [ 37 , 38 ]. This was described as feeling “powerless” in a previous study [ 7 , 12 ]. In addition, patients’ attitudes towards “rejecting” nursing students or patients’ refusal of their help were sources of stress among the students in our study and affected their self-confidence. Self-confidence and a sense of belonging are important for nurses’ personal and professional identity, and low self-confidence is a problem for nursing students in clinical learning [ 8 , 39 , 40 ]. Our findings are consistent with a previous study that reported that a lack of self-confidence was a primary source of worry and anxiety for nursing students and affected their communication and intention to leave nursing [ 41 ].

In the second theme, our study suggests that students encounter a theory-practice gap in clinical settings, which creates confusion and presents an additional stressors. Theoretical and clinical training are complementary elements of nursing education [ 40 ], and this combination enables students to gain the knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary to provide nursing care. This is consistent with the findings of a previous study that reported that inconsistencies between theoretical knowledge and practical experience presented a primary obstacle to the learning process in the clinical context [ 42 ], causing students to lose confidence and become anxious [ 43 ]. Additionally, the second theme, the theory-practice gap, authenticates Safian et al.’s [ 5 ] study of the theory-practice gap that exists United Arab Emirates among nursing students as well as the need for more supportive clinical faculty and the extension of clinical hours. The need for better time availability and time management to complete clinical tasks were also reported by the students in the study. Students indicated that they had insufficient time to complete clinical activities because of the volume of coursework and assignments. Our findings support those of Chaabane et al. [ 15 ]. A study conducted in Saudi Arabia [ 44 ] found that assignments and workload were among the greatest sources of stress for students in clinical settings. Effective time management skills have been linked to academic achievement, stress reduction, increased creativity [ 45 ], and student satisfaction [ 46 ]. Our findings are also consistent with previous studies that reported that a common source of stress among first-year students was the increased classroom workload [ 19 , 47 ]. As clinical assignments and workloads are major stressors for nursing students, it is important to promote activities to help them manage these assignments [ 48 ].

Another major challenge reported by the participants was related to communicating and interacting with other nurses and patients. The UAE nursing workforce and population are largely expatriate and diverse and have different cultural and linguistic backgrounds. Therefore, student nurses encounter difficulty in communication [ 49 ]. This cultural diversity that students encounter in communication with patients during clinical training needs to be addressed by curriculum planners through the offering of language courses and courses on cultural diversity [ 50 ].

Regarding the third and final theme, nursing students in clinical training are unable to avoid stressors and must learn to cope with or adapt to them. Previous research has reported a link between stressors and the coping mechanisms used by nursing students [ 51 , 52 , 53 ]. In particular, the inability to manage stress influences nurses’ performance, physical and mental health, attitude, and role satisfaction [ 54 ]. One such study suggested that nursing students commonly use problem-focused (dealing with the problem), emotion-focused (regulating emotion), and dysfunctional (e.g., venting emotions) stress coping mechanisms to alleviate stress during clinical training [ 15 ]. Labrague et al. [ 51 ] highlighted that nursing students use both active and passive coping techniques to manage stress. The pattern of clinical stress has been observed in several countries worldwide. The current study found that first-year students experienced stress during their first clinical training [ 35 , 41 , 55 ]. The stressors they encountered impacted their overall health and disrupted their clinical learning. Chaabane et al. [ 15 ] reported moderate and high stress levels among nursing students in Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Oman, Pakistan, Palestine, Saudi Arabia, and Sudan. Another study from Bahrain reported that all nursing students experienced moderate to severe stress in their first clinical placement [ 56 ]. Similarly, nursing students in Spain experienced a moderate level of stress, and this stress was significantly correlated with anxiety [ 30 ]. Therefore, it is imperative that pastoral systems at the university address students’ stress and mental health so that it does not affect their clinical performance. Faculty need to utilize evidence-based interventions to support students so that anxiety-producing situations and attrition are minimized.

In our study, students reported a variety of positive and negative coping mechanisms and strategies they used when they experienced stress during their clinical practice. Positive coping strategies included time management, positive thinking, self-support/motivation, breathing, taking breaks, talking with friends, and physical activity. These findings are consistent with those of a previous study in which healthy coping mechanisms used by students included effective time management, social support, positive reappraisal, and participation in leisure activities [ 57 ]. Our study found that relaxing and talking with friends were stress management strategies commonly used by students. Communication with friends to cope with stress may be considered social support. A previous study also reported that people seek social support to cope with stress [ 58 ]. Some students in our study used physical activity to cope with stress, consistent with the findings of previous research. Stretching exercises can be used to counteract the poor posture and positioning associated with stress and to assist in reducing physical tension. Promoting such exercise among nursing students may assist them in coping with stress in their clinical training [ 59 ].

Our study also showed that when students felt stressed, some adopted negative coping strategies, such as showing anger/irritability, engaging in unhealthy eating habits (e.g., consumption of too much food or coffee), or smoking cigarettes. Previous studies have reported that high levels of perceived stress affect eating habits [ 60 ] and are linked to poor diet quality, increased snacking, and low fruit intake [ 61 ]. Stress in clinical settings has also been linked to sleep problems, substance misuse, and high-risk behaviors’ and plays a major role in student’s decision to continue in their programme.

Implications of the study

The implications of the study results can be grouped at multiple levels including; clinical, educational, and organizational level. A comprehensive approach to addressing the stressors encountered by nursing students during their clinical practicum can be overcome by offering some practical strategies to address the stressors faced by nursing students during their clinical practicum. By integrating study findings into curriculum planning, mentorship programs, and organizational support structures, a supportive and nurturing environment that enhances students’ learning, resilience, and overall success can be envisioned.

Clinical level

Introducing simulation in the skills lab with standardized patients and the use of moulage to demonstrate wounds, ostomies, and purulent dressings enhances students’ practical skills and prepares them for real-world clinical scenarios. Organizing orientation days at clinical facilities helps familiarize students with the clinical environment, identify potential stressors, and introduce interventions to enhance professionalism, social skills, and coping abilities Furthermore, creating a WhatsApp group facilitates communication and collaboration among hospital staff, clinical tutors, nursing faculty, and students, enabling immediate support and problem-solving for clinical situations as they arise, Moreover, involving chief nursing officers of clinical facilities in the Nursing Advisory Group at the Department of Nursing promotes collaboration between academia and clinical practice, ensuring alignment between educational objectives and the needs of the clinical setting [ 62 ].

Educational level

Sharing study findings at conferences (we presented the results of this study at Sigma Theta Tau International in July 2023 in Abu Dhabi, UAE) and journal clubs disseminates knowledge and best practices among educators and clinicians, promoting awareness and implementation of measures to improve students’ learning experiences. Additionally we hold mentorship training sessions annually in January and so we shared with the clinical mentors and preceptors the findings of this study so that they proactively they are equipped with strategies to support students’ coping with stressors during clinical placements.

Organizational level

At the organizational we relooked at the available student support structures, including counseling, faculty advising, and career advice, throughout the nursing program emphasizing the importance of holistic support for students’ well-being and academic success as well as retention in the nursing program. Also, offering language courses as electives recognizes the value of communication skills in nursing practice and provides opportunities for personal and professional development.

For first-year nursing students, clinical stressors are inevitable and must be given proper attention. Recognizing nursing students’ perspectives on the challenges and stressors experienced in clinical training is the first step in overcoming these challenges. In nursing schools, providing an optimal clinical environment as well as increasing supervision and evaluation of students’ practices should be emphasized. Our findings demonstrate that first-year nursing students are exposed to a variety of different stressors. Identifying the stressors, pressures, and obstacles that first-year students encounter in the clinical setting can assist nursing educators in resolving these issues and can contribute to students’ professional development and survival to allow them to remain in the profession. To overcome stressors, students frequently employ problem-solving approaches or coping mechanisms. The majority of nursing students report stress at different levels and use a variety of positive and negative coping techniques to manage stress.

The present results may not be generalizable to other nursing institutions because this study used a purposive sample along with a qualitative approach and was limited to one university in the Middle East. Furthermore, the students self-reported their stress and its causes, which may have introduced reporting bias. The students may also have over or underreported stress or coping mechanisms because of fear of repercussions or personal reasons, even though the confidentiality of their data was ensured. Further studies are needed to evaluate student stressors and coping now that measures have been introduced to support students. Time will tell if these strategies are being used effectively by both students and clinical personnel or if they need to be readdressed. Finally, we need to explore the perceptions of clinical faculty towards supervising students in their first clinical practicum so that clinical stressors can be handled effectively.

Data availability

The data sets are available with the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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Jacqueline Maria Dias, Muhammad Arsyad Subu, Nabeel Al-Yateem, Fatma Refaat Ahmed, Syed Azizur Rahman, Mini Sara Abraham, Sareh Mirza Forootan, Farzaneh Ahmad Sarkhosh & Fatemeh Javanbakh

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JMD conceptualized the idea and designed the methodology, formal analysis, writing original draft and project supervision and mentoring. MAS prepared the methodology and conducted the qualitative interviews and analyzed the methodology and writing of original draft and project supervision. NY, FRA, SAR, MSA writing review and revising the draft. SMF, FAS, FJ worked with MAS on the formal analysis and prepared the first draft.All authors reviewed the final manuscipt of the article.

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Dias, J.M., Subu, M.A., Al-Yateem, N. et al. Nursing students’ stressors and coping strategies during their first clinical training: a qualitative study in the United Arab Emirates. BMC Nurs 23 , 322 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12912-024-01962-5

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The title of my thesis is “Archipelago of the Line.” It investigates the creative process by distilling our built world down to the most fundamental element: the line. It was an exploration of how the line manifests both in two and three dimensions and how we inhabit the spaces that line creates. In a storybook-like narrative, the protagonist travels to islands in an archipelago, each island a host to a concept of the line in architecture whether it be a physical feature or a metaphorical circumstance: a path, a barrier, an armature, a tether, an event. The story becomes a glossary of architectural concepts, a reference to evaluate form and order, and a tool to generate one’s own architectural language.

Q: What have been your best experiences during your program?

There are a few memories that stand out: studying abroad in Japan or hosting over 250 high school students from the ACE Mentor Program with our AIAS Vice President Grace Poillucci. However, I think my favorite part about the program are the experiences with the talented and passionate people I’ve met along the way, from newfound, lifelong friends to the professors that have made a serious impact on how I think about architecture and challenge the world around me.

Q: What are you hoping to pursue after graduation?

My goal is to become a registered architect and develop and design my own projects. I want to make an impact on our current housing crisis. I’m confident what I have learned here at USC from both the Master of Architecture program and the Certificate in Real Estate Development from the Price School of Public Policy has given me the skills to make a difference.

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Latest News

2024 Best Doctoral Dissertation Advances Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering, Seismic Design

• by Molly Bechtel
• May 21, 2024

Sumeet Kumar Sinha is this year's recipient of the University of California, Davis, College of Engineering Zuhair A. Munir Award for Best Doctoral Dissertation. The award recognizes the methods, findings and significance of Sinha's research, which featured several first-of-its-kind approaches and analyses in the field of geotechnical earthquake engineering and is actively informing seismic design practices.   

The college established the annual award in 1999 in honor of Zuhair A. Munir, the former dean of engineering who led the college from 2000 to 2002 and acted as associate dean for graduate studies for 20 years. The award recognizes a doctoral student, their exemplary research and the mentorship of their major professor.  

A two-time Aggie alum, Sinha received his master's degree in 2017 and Ph.D. in 2022 from the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, where he was mentored by Associate Professor Katerina Ziotopoulou and Professor Emeritus Bruce Kutter . He is now an assistant professor in the Department of Civil Engineering at the Indian Institute of Technology Delhi and co-founder of BrahmaSens, a startup that specializes in the development of sensing technologies and solutions for application in various sectors including health-monitoring of civil infrastructures.  

"It's really a special honor to get this [award]," said Sinha. "It acknowledges both the depth and significance of the research I conducted during my Ph.D."   

Sinha's dissertation is of notable significance in California, where agencies like the Department of Transportation, or Caltrans, which funded his research, are eager to identify improved design methods in seismically active regions of the state.  

In " Liquefaction-Induced Downdrag on Piles: Centrifuge and Numerical Modeling, and Design Procedures ," Sinha focuses on the effects of earthquakes on deep foundations, like piles, in soils that can liquefy. Liquefaction occurs when wet sand-like soils lose their strength due to increased pore water pressure during earthquake shaking. This causes the soil to behave like a liquid, leading to significant ground deformations.   

After the shaking stops, the soil slowly regains its strength as the water drains out, but this settling and densifying process, called reconsolidation, can drag down piles downward. Additional downdrag loads have not always been properly accounted for in conventional design.   

Through centrifuge model tests at the UC Davis Center for Geotechnical Modeling , Sinha developed numerical models to evaluate scenarios. His findings include procedures for accurately estimating downdrag loads and the corresponding demands on pile foundations, as well as practical methods to design bridges in a more efficient and economical way.  

"Dr. Sinha's methods, approaches, documentation, results and overall findings have been, by any standards, novel and meticulous," said Ziotopoulou in her nomination letter. "His research represents a significant and original contribution to the field of geotechnical earthquake engineering, and his findings have already been implemented into practice by major design firms."  

Sinha's research was recognized with a DesignSafe Dataset Award , an Editor's Choice in his field's top journal and the Michael Condon Scholarship from the Deep Foundations Institute. He has published seven papers in peer-reviewed journals.  

Of perhaps greater meaning to Sinha is making improvements in the design codes to make them more informed, feasible, economical, resilient and sustainable through the complete understanding of the mechanism obtained through his findings from experiments, developed numerical models and design procedures, which are available publicly via platforms such as GitHub and DesignSafe.   

"My philosophy has always been to convert whatever I'm doing into a product, a tool which has a wider impact," explained Sinha. "During my Ph.D., I tried to go beyond the deliverables so that I maximize the impact of [my research]."  

Sinha is grateful for his mentors' and peers' influence and support during the five-year Ph.D. program at UC Davis.  

"I have learned a lot from [Professors Katerina Ziotopoulou and Bruce Kutter] academically as well as professionally," said Sinha. "The Geotechnical Graduate Student Society also had a very important role in my overall experience at UC Davis."  

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