how long is phd in europe

Doing a PhD in Europe vs. the US

Are you thinking of doing a PhD abroad? There are some considerable differences between European and American PhD programs that you should know about before applying. Read on to determine which program is right for you.

Qualifications

It is often not possible to do a PhD in Europe without first earning a Master’s degree. In the US, many PhD programs accept applicants who only have a Bachelor's degree. Students usually earn a Master’s as part of the PhD program after they have completed a few years of coursework and passed certain exams. This doesn't mean that all doctoral candidates in American PhD programs have entered the program straight from undergrad. Several still choose to do a Master’s first before applying for a PhD. In some programs students who already have a Master's might not be required to take as many courses as students with just a Bachelor’s, but this isn't always the case.

Time to Degree

European PhD programs are shorter than those in the US. For example, it takes three years to complete a PhD in France, Norway, the UK, and Germany. Across Europe, a three to four year PhD in common. In comparison, six years is the average time to degree in the US with many PhDs in the humanities taking seven or eight years to earn their degree.

Thesis Topic

PhD candidates in Europe must choose their thesis topic and supervisor during the application process. Students apply for specific vacant doctoral projects that are usually tied to a professor’s research. As part of their application, they must create a research proposal for this project. It is also possible (in the UK for example) to apply to a department rather than a specific position, but applicants must still include a research proposal and are advised to contact potential supervisors before applying. In the US, candidates apply to a department’s PhD program, rather than a specific PhD project. While they have to discuss their research interests and identify potential supervisors in their applications, students do not decide on their thesis topic until their second or third year. In fact, many science and engineering programs have students rotate between different labs in their first year before deciding on their supervisor and dissertation project.

Teaching Requirement

PhD candidates occasionally have the opportunity to teach in Europe, although teaching is not a requirement in many countries. In the US, PhD candidates are often required to teach undergraduates, often as teaching assistants for a large lecture class. A teaching assistant leads smaller tutorials for 20-30 students and grades their exams and papers. Most PhD students will TA one class each semester for two to three years. Several American PhD programs also have mandatory pedagogy courses for graduate students.

Many European PhD programs require students to do little to no coursework. Candidates start working on their dissertation projects right away. American PhD programs, regardless of the field, require students to take two to three years of courses and seminars about topics across the discipline before they being working on their dissertation.

Funding and Salary

In several European countries, PhD students are seen as employees and have work contracts. As employees, PhD students pay into health insurance, pension, and unemployment insurance. In countries where PhD students are not employees (such as the UK and Italy) students apply for university scholarships, external fellowships, or research grants for funding. Tuition fees are drastically lower in many European countries compared to the United States. Funding at American universities varies widely, as do tuition fees. Private universities have higher tuition than public state schools (though international students usually higher tuition at state schools). The top schools offer five-year funding packages which cover tuition and fees and provide a monthly stipend. They also often include health insurance and conference travel. At other schools, students must compete for fellowships at the university, state, or national level to fund their PhDs. In some departmnets students will be paid and receive partial tuition credit for take teaching assistantship or research assistantship positions.

Comprehensive Exams

Most European PhD programs do not require students to pass qualifying exams to progress through their PhDs. There are some notable exceptions, like Sweden, where PhD candidates do an oral and written exam at the halfway point of their PhD. In the US, students usually have to pass a series of comprehensive exams before they can start working on their dissertation. The exams test the student’s knowledge of the major fields within their discipline. While every university will have a slightly different exam structure, there is usually an oral and a written component. Sometimes students also have to orally defend their dissertation proposal. After the candidate has completed their coursework and passed all the required exams they are considered ABD (all but dissertation).

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11 Secrets of a PhD in Europe vs USA that Matter

A PHD in Europe or USA?

They’re VERY different!

If you are trying to decide between pursuing a PhD in the USA vs a PhD in the UK, you should think more about which fits you best. There are 11 major differences between the two systems and you need to choose the one that fits you best:

Masters Degree

Typically, in Europe, you would join a PhD program after completing your Master’s degree. In the US, you would spend a few years taking courses (alongside research) to get your Master’s degree.

If you already have a Master’s degree, you may get a course waiver, which could reduce the time needed to complete your PhD.

Most of the US universities ask for GRE and TOEFL in your application for PhD program. But this not mandatory for PhD in europe, including UK and German universities. Though TOEFL, preferably above 90, is highly recommended for international students.

Choose your project before starting your PhD

For PhD in the UK (and Europe) , you need to choose a project before starting your PhD program.

This is different from the US , where you typically apply to a department for your PhD first and your thesis and research evolves in a year or two.

There are no class requirements for a PhD in the UK . You begin your research right away. The assumption is PhD students know their research areas. After all, you start by applying to a professor / lecturer with a research area in mind.

Now, that might be true for some students. Others may want to get exposed to new ideas and potential research topics. In addition, they may also want to have a wider peer group that gets formed in classes.

PhD in US vs Europe: Time to completion

PhD programs in the UK (and rest of Europe) take around 3 to 4 years to complete .

After a PhD in the UK, students generally go on to their postdoctoral research.

In the US , a PhD may take up to 5 or 6 years.

After a PhD in the US , students tend to go directly from graduation to academia or research jobs without a postdoc.

In many UK (and European) universities, there are firm guidelines on just how long a PhD takes and those are more important than individual decisions by a student’s advisers. In comparison, in the US, some students can fly through their PhD in 3 years with tremendous amounts of research, while others can take as long as 8 to 10 years to complete their PhD.

There are different systems within Europe.

In Sweden and other Scandinavian countries, a PhD takes 4 to 5 years and includes additional teaching duties. Students in these schools are considered as employees. They receive monthly salaries which are comparable to the salaries earned by graduate students working in various industries and are taxable as well. A PhD student is allowed to either present or attend at least one conference anywhere in the world, expenses for which are taken care of by the research group.

In Germany, a 4-year PhD is considered too long and funding might not be available after the first three years of the PhD program.

Work-life balance

This point is less about the PhD in question, and more about the cultural difference between the UK (and Europe) and the US, but this could be a factor in your decision making if you are particular about the type of culture around you and the kind of lifestyle you wish to have.

The PhD lifestyle is much more relaxed in the UK (and in Europe). You will have more time for yourself as well as your friends and family in the UK, while pursuing your PhD.

In the US, PhD students are often overworked with more teaching and grading responsibilities. They also have a lot of class work.

PhD in UK vs US: Hierarchical Structure

In the US, PhD students report to and directly interact with their professors, but some of the PhD programs in the UK are headed by the Professor but there is also a Reader and a Lecturer. Students sometimes feel this hampers their flexibility to work, while restricting their exposure to the lab as well as the head of the lab.

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Future opportunities.

Some students feel that the US offers more opportunities to PhD students in academia as well as jobs. This can be true as the US has many universities offering teaching positions as well as companies offering jobs to PhD students.

However, irrespective of whether you earn your PhD from Europe or the US, some experts say you may have to hustle to find a great job after your PhD.

Different Stipend (salary)

For most PhD in the UK (and Europe), stipend (or salary) comes centrally from the universities or from Government research organizations. These stipends (or salaries) may be limited to only 3 years.

In the US , stipend (or salary) comes directly from your supervisor without any limitation on the duration of the PhD. Unlike in big US universities, there are fewer TA responsibilities for PhD students in UK universities.

In many cases, you don’t need to pay tax on your income as a graduate student in the UK (and Europe).

In Germany , international PhD students are funded for 3 years by the German government.

Less Publications

In the UK , you have less chances of getting published . Your time is more focused on your thesis document.

Less Chance of Faculty Position Afterwards

In the US , students opt for faculty positions after receiving their PhD .

This isn’t necessarily the case with PhD students in the UK , who opt for postdoc positions to remain in academia.

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More Similarity Than Differences

The UK (and European) universities are being influenced by the US system. Many UK universities’ Computer Science schools have Doctoral Training Programs which are essentially 4-year PhD programs, with the first year focused on teaching. These programs offer more flexibility about what you end up doing and who you end up working with. Also, these programs often are sponsored by industries, which means these have higher stipends and you may get an adviser in industry.

So, which one to choose – UK (or Europe) PhD vs US PhD?

Apart from the factors mentioned above, you should focus on the quality of the research group and reputation of the professor. You should look at the top conferences about your topic of interest and note where the papers come from. That’s your best clue as to which university / school you should choose.

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How to Apply for a PhD in Germany: Programs, Funding, & FAQs

Germany is an excellent destination for both young and experienced researchers.

The European country is third behind the U.S. and China for research & development expenditure . Plus, it is home to some of the most prestigious (and affordable!) research universities in the world.

If you’re considering doing a PhD in Germany, you will need to follow these steps:

The main steps to doing a PhD in Germany:

Find a PhD Program and a Supervisor
Decide Between Individual and Structured PhD Programs
Meet All Requirements & Prepare Your Application
Apply for Doctoral Studies
Secure Funding
Get a Student Visa or Resident Permit
Arrive in Germany and Begin Your PhD Program

Why Pursue a PhD in Germany?

If you’re not yet sure if you should choose Germany for your PhD studies, here are some compelling reasons why you should consider it:

Top-tier universities. Four German universities are ranked in the top 100 global universities, and many more are in the top 200.
Large international student community. Germany welcomes a diverse and thriving international student community. Over 458,210 international students are currently studying in the country.
Quality research institutions. There are over a thousand publicly funded research institutions (universities, universities of applied sciences, research institutes, businesses, and government bodies) that you can choose from in Germany.
High investment in research and development. Germany’s public expenditure in the research and development sector reached a record high of 112.6 billion euros in 2021.
Strong economy. Germany is known for its strong and stable economy. After completing your PhD, there are plenty of employment opportunities in the academic, business, and research sectors.

How to Apply for a PhD in Germany

From finding the perfect program for you to submitting your application and starting your PhD, here are all the steps you need to take:

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1. Find a PhD Program and a Supervisor

After all the years of studying leading up to this step, you most likely have a few areas of interest you want to do your research in.

This is the first important step: define your research focus by considering your interests and academic background. If you need more help, you can consult online resources from research universities. Or, even better, you can discuss your decision to pursue a PhD with academic communities online or offline and seek advice from current PhD students in Germany who can tell you more about their individual experiences.

If you already know what your research direction is, you can begin searching for suitable programs right ahead.

The German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) has an extensive list of current opportunities, which you can look up at the DAAD PhD Database .
Another option is to research universities in Germany individually to find the newest opportunities and offerings at each institution.

You will also have to find a supervisor. The best way to do this is to go to university websites and find faculty directories with profiles of professors and their research fields/current projects. Contact professors whose work aligns with your interests via email to inquire about supervision opportunities.

> Search PhD programs from 31,000 research institutions listed on the GERiT database .

Types of PhD Programs in Germany

There are two different paths you can take when pursuing a PhD: individual PhD programs and structured PhD programs. Each comes with its own set of advantages and requirements.

Individual doctorates are the most common and what is considered the more ‘traditional’ PhD route in Germany, especially in humanities and social sciences.

They are flexible and you’re expected to take charge of your work. You are responsible for finding your supervisor (“Doktorvater” or “Doktormutter”) and proposing your research topic.

These programs don’t have a fixed curriculum, so you’ll have plenty of freedom to design your research timeline and choose the coursework you like.

To succeed, you need a lot of self-discipline and to actively network, be it in doctoral candidate meetings or events related to your research.

Structured PhD programs are ideal for people who want a clear path to completing this degree, although they’re not as common in Germany.

It usually takes three to five years to complete a structured PhD path.

They are called such because they include a curriculum and research proposal that has to fit an existing project, within a set timeline for coursework and research.

Candidates work under the supervision of an advisor and collaborate with peers from different disciplines to get the best possible results.

2. Verify That You Meet All Requirements & Prepare the Application

Requirements and application documents to apply for a PhD in Germany are specific to the institution and research area you’re applying to. But, as a general guideline, you should prepare the following:

Academic degree recognized in Germany. You need a master’s degree or a German state examination (Staatsexamen) in a field relevant to the PhD program to qualify.
Copy of master’s thesis. Submit a copy of your master’s thesis. The work should demonstrate your research skills and the depth of your academic work.
Research proposal. Craft a clear and detailed research proposal that includes your intended research topic, objectives, methodology, and significance.
Statement of purpose. Write a statement of purpose why you want to do a PhD in your chosen field, your academic and career goals, and how this program aligns with them.
Curriculum Vitae (CV). Prepare a detailed CV highlighting your academic achievements, research experience, relevant coursework, publications, and any other qualifications.
Proof of language proficiency. Depending on the language of instruction, you may have to provide proof of language proficiency in English and/or German. You can do this with certificates like TestDaF and DSH for German or TOEFL and IELTS for English. Proof of previous studies in the language is also sufficient.
Academic references. Provide contact information or recommendation letters from professors/ academic advisors who can attest to your academic abilities and potential.
Predoctoral examination. Some programs ask that you pass a predoctoral examination as part of the application process.

3. Apply for Doctoral Studies

After finding a suitable PhD program and mentor, and making sure your academic qualifications are recognized, you can send in your application.

You can send in your application online or by post, depending on the hosting institution’s preferences. To make sure, check their guidelines and specifications. Admission committees are selective, so you may also have to attend an interview soon in the application process.

4. Secure Funding

You must demonstrate access to a minimum of €934 per month (€11,208 per year) to meet visa requirements and live comfortably while you’re in Germany. You can prove this through an admission agreement or relevant PhD contract, or you can open a blocked account with individual funds.

There are many ways to support yourself financially while pursuing a PhD in Germany:

PhD scholarships. DAAD offers the highest number of doctoral scholarships. PhD students get an average monthly stipend of €1,139.
Paid PhD positions. Many universities and research institutions offer paid PhD positions in Germany. You will work on specific research projects on a contract and receive a salary.
Research associate positions. You can also work as a research associate in a university, research institution, or company and receive a salary as compensation.
Part-time jobs. Some PhD students/researchers work part-time jobs that are not related to their studies for extra income.

> Read more about the costs of studying in Germany.

> Discover PhD scholarships in Germany.

5. Get a Student Visa or Resident Permit

If the institution confirms your place in the PhD program, next in line is applying for a student visa or residence permit. The requirements for a German PhD visa or permit can vary depending on your nationality and circumstances:

Visa Requirements

If you’re a citizen of the European Union (EU), the European Economic Area (EEA), or Switzerland, you don’t need a special permit or visa for a PhD in Germany. You can enter the country for research and work purposes with a valid passport or ID card.

Otherwise, you will need a visa and/or a residence permit to do your PhD in Germany. Nationals of some countries, including the United States, Australia, Israel, Japan, and Korea, don’t need a visa but must apply for a residence permit.

Depending on the circumstances, you need one of the following visas:

Study visa. If you’re pursuing a full-time doctoral program.
Research visa. If your focus is on research and you have a formal affiliation with a research institution in Germany.
EU Blue Card. If your PhD contract pays a gross annual salary of at least €45,300 (or €41,041.80 in certain professions), you can apply for an EU Blue Card . This is a special residence title for international academics and other professionals.

Residence Permit Requirements

If you come to Germany on a visa, you will need to apply for a residence permit within three months of arrival. This also applies to nationals of countries outside the EU, EEA, and Switzerland who are exempt from the visa requirement.

You can apply for one of the following residence permits:

Study permit. If you’re accepted into a PhD program at a German university, apply for a study-based residence permit. It lasts up to two years, extendable.
Research permit. If you’re a researcher with the right qualifications for doctoral programs, apply for a research permit. This requires a contract with a research institution for your project.
EU Blue Card. With a PhD offer that has a minimum salary of €45,300 per year, or €41,041.80 for some bottleneck professions , you may be eligible for the EU Blue Card. Apply for this permit if you meet the criteria.

> For more specific information tailored to your situation, we recommend contacting the German embassy or consulate in your home country. You can also use this visa navigator.

6. Arrive in Germany and Begin Your PhD Program

The most exciting step of all is near—time to unpack your bags and begin your life as a PhD student or researcher in Germany. Once you’re settled in, there are some formalities you need to take care of.

The international office at the university or another representative can guide you best on this. However, here are some of the main things you need to do once you arrive in Germany:

Register Your Residence

Shortly after your arrival, you must register your residence at the local registration office (Einwohnermeldeamt or Bürgeramt). This is mandatory, and you typically have a window of two weeks to complete this process.

Get Health Insurance

Everyone in Germany is required by law to have health insurance coverage. This includes international PhD students. Depending on the source of your funding, you are eligible for one of the following health insurance coverages:

Doctoral candidates with an employment contract are automatically insured with a state-regulated health insurance provider (Gesetzliche Krankenversicherung-GKV) in most cases.
Doctoral candidates without an employment contract (with a fellowship or private funding) can choose between:
Voluntary health insurance coverage with a state-regulated provider.
Coverage with a private health insurance company.

There are some exceptions in which you can use your insurance from your home country. These apply to students from a European Union (EU) country or other countries with social security agreements with Germany.

Open a Bank Account

You should open a German bank account as soon as possible. Most financial transactions in Germany, including receiving your stipend or salary, are done through a German bank account.

Enroll at the University

If your PhD program is part of a university degree, you need to enroll as a student at the university. Follow your university’s instructions to submit the necessary documents to the enrollment office. These usually include your admission letter, passport, proof of health insurance, and semester fee.

After you complete this process, you will receive an Enrollment Certificate (Immatrikulationsbescheinigung). This is a very important document that you most likely need in the future.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

There’s a lot of planning involved if you’re considering doing a PhD, especially if it’s in a foreign country. We’re sure you’ve got more questions, and we’re here to help.

How Long Does It Take to Get a PhD in Germany?

A PhD in Germany usually takes between three to six years to complete. Just like in other countries, it can take longer or shorter than expected, depending on several factors. The type of PhD you choose (structured programs can be more rigid), your subject area, and individual progress can all make a difference in the time it takes to get a PhD in Germany.

Are PhD Programs in Germany Tuition-Free?

The majority of PhD programs in Germany are tuition-free, at least for the first six semesters. However, if need to enroll at a university for your PhD, there is a small semester fee you need to cover. The fee can be higher or lower depending on the university, but it usually falls within the range of €100 to €350.

Is German Mandatory to Pursue a PhD in Germany?

You don’t necessarily have to know German to do a PhD in Germany. In fact, most PhD programs in Germany are in English, especially in fields such as science, engineering, and humanities. In these programs, you can both write your thesis and communicate with your advisor and peers in English.

There is of course the chance that the program you’ve chosen is in German or requires knowledge of German (in most cases, in addition to English). In this case, you have to prove your proficiency through a recognized language certificate or proof of previous studies in German.

Even if German isn’t mandatory, we strongly encourage you to learn the basics. They will be super helpful in daily interactions and getting accustomed to life in Germany.

How Much Does a PhD Student Earn in Germany?

Most PhD candidates in Germany receive financial support in the form of a salary or grant. This includes candidates affiliated with universities, research institutes, or company collaborations.

The majority of doctoral positions are structured under either the Collective Agreement for Civil Service TVöD (Tarifvertrag für den öffentlichen Dienst or the Collective Agreement for the Civil Service of Individual Federal States TV-L (Tarifvertrag der Länder). Since universities are funded by their respective federal government, if your PhD is affiliated with one, your salary will be structured under the TV-L.

Doctoral positions fall within the TV-L 13 category, with a salary range spanning from €4,188 (Tier 1) to €6,037 (Tier 6). The difference between the tiers (Stufe) depends on prior experience in the field. If you don’t have any research experience, you will fall under Tier 1 and progress to the other tiers throughout your PhD.

Your salary will ultimately be determined based on a wage agreement that specifies the contract tier (Stufe) and working hours (percentage-based). Many entry-level PhD students start with tier 1 contracts that are not full-time. For example, if your contract places you in Pay Group E-13 Tier 1 of the TV-L and you work at 75% capacity, your monthly gross salary will be €3,141.

> Learn more about pay ranges for PhD students using this convenient calculator .

Can I Work While Pursuing a PhD in Germany?

Part-time work is an option in most cases unless it’s strictly stated otherwise in your contract. Whether or not you are allowed to work on the side as a PhD in Germany depends on the working hours stated in your PhD contract, supervisor, and other specific circumstances.

However, since the PhD is considered a job in itself, it’s usually frowned upon to have a side hustle. Even if you have a 50% contract, a PhD is demanding and requires long hours of work and research. If you choose to work on the side, make sure to find the right balance between work and your PhD commitments. To be on the safe side, it’s best to talk to your supervisor and go over all the legal and contractual obligations related to your PhD.

What Is the Process for Defending a PhD Thesis in Germany?

Here are the main steps to defending your PhD thesis in Germany:

Submit your thesis. The first step is submitting submit your thesis and supporting documents in adherence to all the formal requirements. A commission will be formed, and in some cases, you can suggest reviewers.
Oral defense. The next step is preparing and undergoing an oral defense, which can take between 30 minutes to 2 hours. During this time, you will present your research and discuss it with the committee. The defense can be either public or private.
Receive the title and publish your work. The outcome of the discussion determines your final grade, to be received after the defense. If everything goes well, you’re granted the Ph.D. title and have about two years to publish your dissertation.

What Are the Career Prospects Like After Doing a PhD in Germany?

Career prospects after a PhD in Germany are quite promising.

The most common paths for PhD holders in Germany are either in academia as professors or post-doctorate researchers or in industry positions.

Technology, healthcare, and finance, in particular, are some of the most in-demand industries in Germany. The country’s strong economy and research-oriented environment make it an attractive place to develop your career.

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How to apply for doctoral studies in Europe

Find out how to apply for doctoral studies, including a PhD, in Europe.

Getting started

In Europe, every university sets its own application criteria for doctoral studies.

To successfully enter the world of research, it´s very important to be proactive and start your preparation early.

The enrollment procedures take time. Prepare early, check entry requirements and collect your documents.

Choose your topic

Choose your research topic well before starting your studies.

Find out which university or programme meets your research interests and your academic background.

Find a supervisor

Finding a supervisor before applying could be either compulsory or advisable and it is usually the applicant’s responsibility.

Check the research teams in the university and look at the publications written by your potential supervisor, as well as their research projects and supervised dissertations to ensure that his or her research areas match your plans.

Check language requirements

Examine the language skills needed for enrollment. It might be necessary to take a test or present internationally validated test results.

Recognition of qualifications

Find out what documents need to be translated before applying and which ones may need ENIC-NARIC evaluation.

Some documents might need to be certified by a notary, with an apostille attached.

Prepare your documents

The required documents vary. Usually, you need to prepare the following:

official copy of the previous diploma(s)
curriculum vitae (CV)
research proposal for your PhD
motivation letter
references and/or recommendation letters

Find a position and funding

EURAXESS is a European Commission portal providing information on research positions and funding to help researchers come to Europe to study, work in another European country and more.

Why Do Your PhD Abroad?

There are many benefits to studying abroad.

Some PhD students do so as a way to develop a new language, discover more about a different culture, and to meet new people.

Besides personal reasons, undertaking a doctorate degree abroad can also for academic purposes. For example, in some countries, a particular research field may not be very popular and so there may not be many doctorate options available. In these cases, undertaking a PhD abroad will open up many more opportunities. It could also offer greater funding, lower tuition fees, better laboratory equipment and more experienced supervisors. Not only would these factors result in a more enjoyable PhD, but they could also contribute to greater career prospects. For example, you will likely have more opportunities to write publications, attend conferences and collaborate with other researchers. All of these will help you establish yourself as a respectable researcher within your field.

Is It Difficult to Apply to PhDs Abroad?

It’s not as difficult as you would imagine when it comes to applying to a PhD in a foreign country. Regardless of whether you’re applying to a university within the EU, such as the UK, Finland or Spain, or to universities within the US or Asia, the processes are relatively similar.

The differences in the application process can be categorised into three areas.

the documents you need to provide,
the prerequisite tests you need to sit,
how much you need to communicate with the potential supervisors before applying.

We’ve provided a basic outline of the application processes below. Although this will provide you with a good starting point, we highly recommend you look at the university websites for specific instructions and guidance before applying.

Will I Need a Student Visa?

This will depend on what country you are applying to. For example:

In the UK, applicants from outside the EU will need a Visa Tier 4 (Student). This will allow them to undertake a full-time PhD. However, due to UK visa restrictions, international students are unlikely to be able to enrol onto a part-time degree.
In Germany, most students will not require a student visa but will require a residence permit.
In the US, applicants will need to hold an F-1 Student Visa.
In Asia, the requirements differ depending on the specific country. For example, in China, you will require an X1 Student Visa whereas in Singapore you will require a Student Pass.

Because of the significant differences between countries, we highly recommend it is highly that you check the requirements on an individual case-by-case basis. This is best done by checking the government website of the country you wish to apply to.

General Process for Applying to PhDs Abroad

When applying to a PhD position, most universities regardless of where they’re located will require:

Online Application – An electronic form to provide your details and attach all supporting documents. You will also need to make any application fees during this process if required.
Academic Transcripts – Most universities need a scanned copy of your transcripts when applying. You will only have to submit official hard copies once they have accepted your admission.
CV – This should include details of your previous education, undergraduate degree and any experiences revenant to the field you’re applying to.
Statement of Purpose/Personal Statement – A letter which outlines why you’re applying to the PhD and why you believe you’re suitable for the project.
Letters of Recommendation – this should preferably be provided by your undergraduate degree course tutor or a professor who knows you well.

Language Tests

If your PhD is to be undertaken in English and English isn’t your first language, most universities will require you to sit an English language proficiency test. The most common tests, in order of popularity, are:

IELTS (International English Language Testing Systems)
TOEFL (Test of English as a Foreign Language)
PTE (Pearson Test of English)

The minimum test scores will change from university to university. They will also vary depending on the research field. For example, research projects related to English Literature or Law will require relatively high scores whilst projects in Science and Engineering will require slightly lower scores. To provide an example, the University of Leicester in the UK requires a minimum overall IELTS score of 7 for Law PhDs but has a lower overall score requirement of 6 for Engineering PhDs.

Finding a PhD has never been this easy – search for a PhD by keyword, location or academic area of interest.

How to Apply for PhDs in EU Countries

For UK universities, there are generally two ways of applying. You can either apply directly through the university’s website or you can make an application through the UCAS Postgraduate system .

In Spain, Italy and Germany, before applying to a PhD you will first need to pass a pre-application process. This involves checking that your qualifications meet their eligibility requirements. Before undergoing this pre-screening process, it would be beneficial to first speak to your government. They may offer advice on how your countries qualification system corresponds to the qualification system in the country hosting the PhD.

Once you’ve made your application, the university will review it and get in contact with you. For most EU institutions, they will invite you for a Skype or telephone interview with them if they believe you may be a suitable candidate.

If you require a student visa to study in an EU country, it’s recommended that you submit your application at least 3-4 months before the proposed PhD start date.

How to Apply for PhDs in USA

In addition to the English language exams mentioned previously, international applicants will also need to sit additional exams to be eligible for PhDs in the USA. These are the GRE General Exam and GRE Subject Exam(s). The GRE Subject Exam(s) you will need to undertake will be specific to your field and will be specified by the university as part of their edibility requirements.

Securing a PhD position in the United States is considered relatively difficult compared to other countries. As a result, it is commonly recommended that you apply to at least 9 different universities to increase your chances of securing a position.

How to Apply for PhDs in Asia

As Asia covers a wide range of countries such as China, Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, UAE and India, their application processes naturally differ from one another. Therefore, check the specific application process for each university you’re interested to get the most accurate information.

To summarise:

China – uses two centralised application services, CUAC and CUCAS. Both these services help international students find and apply to a PhD project in China. Students can also apply directly to a University if they wish to.
Singapore – rather than applying to a specific research project, you will have to apply to a faculty or department within a University. Only once you have been accepted into the university department will their research projects become available to you. Like US universities, most universities in Singapore will have required you to have sat a GRE Exams prior to applying to them.
UAE – you must apply directly to your chosen university. To be eligible for a PhD in UAE, you must hold a Master’s degree and it must be from a university recognised by their government. You will also be required to undertake GRE Exams before making your application.

How to Apply for PhDs in Australia

To apply to a PhD in Australia, you will first be expected to find and email a potential supervisor. If you’re an international student and you make an application directly to the university without doing this first, it’s highly likely that you won’t be considered for the position.

Upon discussing the project with the supervisor, they will instruct you to put in a formal application. This formal application will require the information previously outlined above.

Similar to EU institutions, if an Australian university believes you’re a strong candidate, they will likely invite you to a Skype or telephone interview.

Unlike EU universities, PhDs in Australian universities can start at any time of the year. Therefore, unless a specific funding requirement is attached to the project, there are usually no deadlines associated with applying to their PhDs. However, try to apply 3 to 4 months before you intend to start your studies.

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Find your PhD position in Germany

Before you start your search ....

Before you start your search you should know that there are different PhD models:

Individual doctorate or
Structured PhD programmes

What's the difference? Check out our overview of the various ways to do your PhD in Germany

Find your individual doctorate

Two young researchers are sitting on a lab desk listening to a standing professor and taking notes. The professor holds a molecular model in his hands.

The "traditional" or "individual" path to a PhD remains the most common in Germany. An individual doctorate involves a thesis or dissertation that is produced under the supervision of one professor . This form of PhD study offers a great deal of flexibility , but demands a high degree of personal initiative and responsibility.

How to find your PhD supervisor

In Germany there is no central admissions or selection office for doctoral students. Therefore, your first step is to find a suitable professor who is willing to be your supervisor.

One way to find a supervisor is to look for a university institute that matches your area of research. The following online search engines might help you find a suitable supervisor:

GERiT – German research institutions GERiT is a website containing information on approximately 29,000 research institutions in Germany. GERiT allows the user to search easily by location or subject. It provides all the information needed to choose an institution at which to research, study or do a doctorate. www.gerit.org
Finding a PhD position PhDGermany publishes PhD openings in Germany that specifically target international applicants. Accordingly, in most cases the working language is English. Fluent knowledge of German is only required for certain special positions. PhDGermany helps you find the right PhD opening or supervisor for your doctoral thesis and assists you with the online application process. www.phdgermany.de
Higher Education Compass This database provides up-to-date information from universities about doctoral opportunities in Germany. The search engine enables you to carry out targeted searches on the basis of departments, admission requirements and form of doctoral thesis. www.higher-education-compass.de

Furthermore, your contacts with your professors or previous university could help direct you to a suitable department or potential supervisor in Germany.

It is also helpful to attend academic conferences in your own subject area. There you will be able to exchange information and make contacts – and perhaps even find a future PhD supervisor.

Find your structured PhD programme

Students are sitting in a modern study hall on red chairs at grey desks.

DAAD/Ausserhofer/Himsel

Structured PhD programmes in Germany are frequently very similar to the PhD programmes in English-speaking countries, in which a team of supervisors look after a group of doctoral students . Around 12,000 doctoral students from abroad – roughly one in four – do their PhDs in structured programmes. As a rule, it is possible to complete a doctorate in four to five years.

Where to find your PhD programme

There is no central database of all structured PhD programmes in Germany. You can usually find these programmes directly through the respective universities, graduate schools or non-university research institutions. The German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) database is also a good place to look. Here you will find a large number of PhD programmes that are specially aimed at international doctoral students.

International doctoral programme database

Are you interested in an international doctoral programme in Germany? This DAAD database presents a selection of roughly 230 international doctoral programmes in Germany. The database can be searched according to different criteria. www.daad.de/international-programmes

Doctoral programmes at universities

Many universities offer structured doctoral programmes, which they publicise on their websites. The Student Advisory Service or Graduate Centre at the respective university will also provide help here. You can find the relevant addresses using the Higher Education Compass provided by the German Rectors’ Conference. www.higher-education-compass.de

DFG-funded research training groups

Research training groups are also funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (German Research Foundation, DFG) for a period of up to nine years. Their key emphasis is on the qualification of doctoral researchers within the framework of a focused research programme and a structured training strategy. www.dfg.de > Current Research Training Groups

Helmholtz Research Schools, Colleges and Graduate Schools

The Helmholtz Association is Germany’s largest scientific organisation. In collaboration with various institutions of higher education, Helmholtz Association research centres have established structured PhD programmes under the auspices of Helmholtz Graduate Schools, Helmholtz Research Schools and Colleges. www.helmholtz.de > PhD Candidates

Leibniz Graduate Schools

The Leibniz Association connects 97 research institutes that conduct problem-oriented research and provide scientific infrastructure of national and international importance. Together with universities they run structured PhD programmes in Leibniz Graduate Schools. www.leibniz-association.eu > Leibniz Graduate Schools

International Max Planck Research Schools

The Max Planck Society specialises in innovative basic research and its institutes are able to offer up-and-coming researchers excellent infrastructure and support. The website lists the programmes available at International Max Planck Research Schools (IMPRS): www.mpg.de > International Max Planck Research Schools

Max Planck Schools

In Germany, the best researchers in a specific field are often work at different universities and non-university research institutions spread throughout the country. The Max Planck Schools serve as hubs which gather this distributed knowledge. Here, the brightest minds in their fields have come together from within the scientific community to interconnect in faculties made up of active researchers. Students gain access to these unique networks, learn in close personal exchange from leaders in their fields and their peers, and enjoy access to outstanding infrastructure. Currently, three Schools are operating in the fields of Cognition, Matter to Life, and Photonics. www.maxplanckschools.de

Where can I find out about requirements?

Application procedures differ from programme to programme . The precise requirements and deadlines can be found on the website of the respective university, research training group or graduate school. You should therefore first choose a PhD programme and/or graduate school.

You've found the position you want to apply for, but how does applying to a potential supervisor or structured PhD programme work in Germany? Find out more here.

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We help you navigate through the large number of job portals that specialise in openings for academics and scientists. These are some of the sites that may get you started.

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Doing a phd in germany (2019, 40 pages).

This booklet for (prospective) international doctoral students presents the different options for doing a doctorate in Germany. It explains the formal requirements and gives some practical advice on finding the right supervisor or doctoral programme. It also outlines different sponsorship and funding options.

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Planning To Do A PhD In Europe?

Here’s what you need to research

There may have never been a better time to study for a PhD in Europe . Many European universities are expanding, and opening up to a world beyond national borders. There can be significant cost savings as well. If you are a world-class student, there is likely to be a world-class opportunity for you.

Portability and quality.

Research-based doctorates are usually seen as equivalent the world over, but some kinds of professional doctorates, such as medical degrees, can come with licensing issues. Before you apply for a PhD in Europe, make sure the programme will give you equivalent professional status in your country of origin.

Of course, you must ensure that you have chosen an accredited university. Unfortunately, some overseas students have been caught out by fraudulent firms posing as PhD providers. All European countries have national accreditation schemes for universities, including private education institutions.

You should also ensure that the programme you choose compares well internationally in your field.

Degree check.

In most European countries, you must have the suitability of your foreign bachelors and masters degrees checked by a national organisation before you can apply for a PhD programme. You may need to submit a record of your module marks and information about course structure as well as your degree certificates. A small fee will be charged, and you should allow plenty of time for this process.

Language matters.

You’ll also need to look at language issues. Some PhD programmes are taught in English, and for research-based PhDs language is not always an issue, as long as your supervisor agrees. For others, you may need to take a specific language exam.

If English is your second language, you may also need to take an exam to establish your level of fluency—which exam and which level will depend on the university and the course. Each country has a language exam framework and will only accept certain qualifications as equivalent: the IELTS is the most commonly used, but you will need to check.

Another possibility is taking a pre-sessional language course followed by an exam. This can usually be arranged directly with the university if you have been accepted as a provisional student.

Visa issues.

EU students can study anywhere within the EU region without a student visa, but for non-EU applicants, this can be a lengthy process. Part of the visa process may include proving that you already have enough money to support yourself (and partner/children if they will come with you) before arriving.

Funded PhD in Europe students may receive help from the university in making visa arrangements as part of their package, but self-funding students should begin working as early as possible to ensure everything is in place. The university will, of course, provide you with proof that you have been accepted onto the course, but there will be additional paperwork to prepare and submit.

Be sure that you understand the terms of your visa: Some European countries allow students to work during their studies (usually a limited number of hours), and some allow new graduates to work. Others expect you to leave immediately after completing your degree.

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Study in Europe /

Find the best PhD in Europe to study

Updated on
Dec 7, 2023

The globally acclaimed educational institutions of Europe are founded on the principle of research and innovation and the continent is also home to the headquarters of several renowned multinational enterprises as well as state-of-the-art centres of scientific exploration. Geneva, Berlin and Paris are amongst the top preferred study destinations in Europe. Moreover, offering international-level exposure and knowledge into a varied range of fields and specialisations, the continent attracts an immense number of students from all nooks and corners of the world every year who enrol across an array of bachelor’s, master’s and PhD programmes . Particularly, a PhD in Europe is a highly specialized degree program provided in a multitude of specialised disciplines. If you are planning to pursue a doctoral degree in the continent, here is a detailed guide on the key essentials you should know before applying for a PhD in Europe .

This Blog Includes:

Phd in europe: eligibility requirements, research proposal, phd in europe: how to apply, phd in europe: top study destinations.

A doctoral degree like a PhD is undertaken as research in a particular topic within a subject, such as a PhD in English on ‘Shakespearean Literature’ or a PhD in Economics on ‘Market Volatility’. European institutions offer flexibility as to the constituents of a PhD degree in terms of duration, thesis, the language of instruction, coursework, and teaching requirements, amongst others. Usually, a PhD in Europe lasts for a minimum of 3 years extending to 5-6 years and the application requirements mandate submission of a research proposal to the professor, department or at the application portal. Prospective students are advised to visit course websites for the latest information.

Applicants need to fulfil some minimum eligibility conditions in order to pursue a PhD in Europe. Many universities generally require candidates to have a master’s degree in their chosen field of study. However, in some cases, institutions may also admit students on the basis of a high-ranking bachelor’s degree. Further, a minimum score is required throughout all postsecondary qualifications, for instance, in the UK, a first or upper-second-class UK honours degree or its international equivalent.

A considerable number of European institutions require prospective applicants to submit a research proposal which details the intended topic of research that the applicant wishes to pursue at the institution. Further, it also delineates the professors under which the applicant wishes to work and how it will help him in developing his interest. The university strives for a balance between the expectations of the applicant and the facilities it is providing so as to promote student development.

In comparison to institutions in USA , Canada and Australia , a PhD in Europe is affordable in terms of tuition fees, living costs and other expenses. Further, besides university-based funding in the form of scholarships, assistantships etc, the country of study also offers diverse funding opportunities like monthly stipends, research assistantships, tuition fee waivers and country-based scholarships.

GRE Scholarships
Education Loan without Collateral

The process of application for a PhD in Europe can be undertaken in two ways. One, through direct professor approach and recommendation (only a few students get admission through this way) and the other through the traditional application process. The former method requires you to approach a professor at the university from your field and ask for an admission recommendation. If the professor is impressed by your academic qualifications and experience, you will be offered a PhD admission to the university. On the other hand, the conventional application process is similar to the regular application procedure and requires you to upload all the necessary documents such as LOR , SOP and resume amongst others along with submitting the application fee. After a month or two encompassing the evaluation process, the university will provide the list of selected students on their admission portal.

There are a plethora of study destinations in Europe that offer quality educational programs in an array of fields and specializations. The continent is home to some of the best academic institutions in the world and is home to an immense number of research centres and universities. Here is a list of major study destinations in Europe and their renowned institutions along with other specific details about PhD programs offered.

Home to one of the top universities in the world, the United Kingdom (UK) provide a huge number of PhD and research opportunities spanning a multitude of specialisations from Business Administration to disciplines of Liberal Arts. Most UK universities will essentially need a master’s degree as well as English language proficiency tests such as IELTS and TOEFL as key eligibility prerequisites for a PhD program.

Duration: Minimum 3 years; full-time

Institutions: University of Bristol , University of Manchester , University of Sussex etc.

Also Read: Cost of Studying in UK for Indian Students

German universities are internationally renowned for their offered range of Science and Engineering programs. Providing courses with low or almost no tuition fees, Germany also has an array of government grants for international students aspiring to pursue a PhD. These grants are availed by DAAD and Excellence Initiative with an aim to equip meritorious students with financial assistance for PhD programs.

Duration: 3-4 years

Institutions: Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitat Munchen ; TU Munchen, Humboldt University Berlin etc.

Also Read: Study in Germany Without IELTS

France is another prominent European study destination for those aspiring to pursue PhD programs in technical fields such as Engineering, Information Technology, amongst others. The tuition fees for PhD courses in French universities are typically low and students are allowed to pursue independent research programmes at the elitist institutions of the country. Further, you can also go for dual-degree courses that are an exceptional combination of a master’s degree and a PhD.

Institutions: Université PSL , Ecole Polytechnique, etc

With the perks of affordable education and living costs, Finland is home to two of the world’s renowned research universities, i.e. the University of Helsinki and the Aalto University. Further, major PhD courses are offered in English and you don’t necessarily need to learn Finnish to pursue a course in the country.

Institutions: University of Helsinki , Aalto University, University of Eastern Finland etc.

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How Long Does a PhD Take?

How Long is a PhD?

Written by Kristine Bagdassarian

A full-time PhD in the UK usually takes between three and four years, while a part-time project typically lasts between five and six years.

The the length of a PhD depends on a range of factors, such as your funding arrangements, your country and institution of study, and the nature of your research topic. For example, if you’re doing a funded PhD you’re more likely to face completion deadlines than self-funded PhD students.

Increasingly, the type of programme you’re enrolled in can also affect the duration of your doctorate degree. Some projects or programmes now include additional training, teaching or projects that can extend your overall PhD registration period.

This page explains some of the factors that can affect how many years a PhD degree lasts.

Why three to four years?

Compared to other qualifications, a PhD takes a considerable amount of time.

When you are just starting, three to four years may seem like a long time to work on a single project, but the volume of work required to obtain a doctorate is substantial and many students find that the time goes by faster than anticipated.

By the end of this period, you’ll be expected to have completed any training required by your funding body and / or institution, gained research skills and conducted original research and, finally, submitted and defended your thesis. Some universities and projects may also expect (or even require) you to present your work at conferences or publish some of it during your doctorate.

In addition to this, it’s advisable to have engaged in extra-curricular activities and projects to boost your professional and academic skillset. Between three and four years is plenty of time to do this, but it’s nowhere near as long as it might seem.

For more information on what you can expect during your project, take a look at our introduction to PhD study .

PhD registration period and writing-up period

The stated length of your PhD normally refers to the ‘registration period’ you set with your university at the start. This is the time period you intend to complete your PhD in and it will normally determine the ‘deadline’ for submitting your final thesis.

In the UK, the PhD registration period for full-time students is normally between three and three and a half years . In some departments and institutions, there is an understanding that students might enter a ‘writing-up’ period towards the end of their PhD. This is usually an extension to your registration, during which you don’t carry out any more research and just work on finalising your thesis and editing it for submission – writing it up, basically.

Can you complete a PhD in fewer than three years?

It’s technically possible to complete some PhDs in two years, if you have a very clear idea of the questions you want your project to answer and you’ve already done a lot of preparatory reading. This is very uncommon, however, and something that you should discuss with your supervisor. Some universities won’t let you submit a thesis before a certain point.

How many hours should I work while doing my PhD?

If you’re doing a full-time PhD, it’s wise to treat it like you would a full-time job, working the equivalent of 35 hours a week. However, you should be prepared to work longer hours during particularly busy stages of your doctorate, such as the writing up period and when you’re preparing for your viva.

Can you extend the length of a PhD?

Yes, it’s usually possible to extend the length of a PhD. You’ll need to apply to your university for an extended thesis submission date and have a valid reason for doing so (for example, a delay caused by something out of your control, COVID-19, a medical emergency or a bereavement). You should bear in mind that an extension isn’t guaranteed – particularly if it’s been caused by poor planning on your part. If your PhD has funding attached, there will usually be stricter deadlines than if you’re self-funding.

How long is an integrated PhD programme?

It’s quite common in STEM subjects to do an integrated PhD that includes a Masters qualification, usually taken after an undergraduate degree and referred to as a 1+3 PhD. These kinds of PhD typically take four years to complete.

PhD length in different countries

If you have your eyes on doing research abroad, there are a few things you need to be aware of in terms of study length. The three to four year PhD model is typical for the UK and most of Europe, with some countries in Asia also adopting a similar system (specific information on PhD studies in various countries can be found in our study abroad section ).

Length of a full-time PhD
	3 to 4 years
	4 to 6 years
	3 to 6 years
	3 years
	3 to 4 years
	3 to 4 years
	3 to 4 years
	3 to 4 years

In the USA, a PhD takes four to six years . There are several reasons for this. While in the UK, you tend to apply for a specific project, in the US, your application is aimed at a certain department and your actual proposal takes shape in the first couple of years of PhD study. The US model involves a two-phase programme, wherein the first phase is focused on coursework and training and the second phase (typically from the third year onward) is when the bulk of the research is done. At the end of the second year, a US student would be expected to have developed a research proposal to be defended in front of a research committee and to have passed a ‘qualifying exam’ in order to present their defence.

How long does a part-time PhD take?

Part-time PhDs normally take about twice the time of full-time PhDs (around five to six years in the UK ). You’ll do everything a full-time PhD student does across your doctorate, but your PhD work will be a less intensive part of your weekly routine.

This type of PhD is a good way to accommodate other employment and / or family commitments alongside your research.

In some cases, it may even be possible to start on a part-time PhD and switch to full-time study (or vice versa) if your situation changes.

How long does a distance learning PhD take?

Distance learning is an option if you’re unable to be physically present at your university. Most distance learning PhDs are also studied part-time and take around five to six years .

This option is increasing in availability, but can be trickier to manage in some fields that require regular lab work or access to specialist facilities. As a long-distance PhD student, you can expect to communicate with your supervisor via email, Skype or other electronic means as well as potentially attend the institution of your study for a couple of weeks each year.

The length of PhD funding

However you study your PhD, your funding situation can play a big role in determining how long your registration lasts – and / or how long you can afford to research for. Most scholarships and studentships have set lengths (which won’t necessarily cover writing up).

In some cases, funding can also add extra elements to a PhD, and potentially increase its overall length. Alternatively, limitations set by your department or research group funding could urge you to finish your thesis in the three-year period without additional extensions, while self-funded PhDs could greatly depend on your own resources.

Structured PhDs

In the UK, many PhD programmes funded by the Research Councils are offered as ‘structured’ or ‘new route’ PhDs. These incorporate additional training projects, professional internships and other elements.

Such elements may take place alongside your research, or specific time may be set aside for them. In some cases, students are only matched up with a supervisor at the end of the first year. These sorts of programmes are often offered within Centres for Doctoral Training (CDTs) or Doctoral Training Centres (DTCs) .

Registration period and funding period

Sometimes your registration period can also be tied to your PhD funding. Most studentships only last for a certain time (even if your doctorate ends up taking longer) and payments for a doctoral student loan will be based on the stated length of your project or programme.

Self-funded PhDs

Self-funding (unsurprisingly) is not restricted by funder deadlines and can be more flexible – particularly if you need to extend for writing up. However, self-funded PhDs require careful planning for tuition and living costs alongside any ‘hidden’ expenses, such as equipment and travel to events / conferences.

Although self-funding can ease the stress surrounding a strict final deadline, it is important to keep in mind that resources for support can place pressure on completion of the project. In addition, universities also still tend to set a maximum registration period.

The best way to find out how long a PhD is in your subject is to have a look around. Check our PhD database or, for more information on PhDs, explore the rest of our advice section !

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Why is an European PhD considered shorter than an American PhD when an American PhD is really a Masters + PhD?

Most European PhD programs require a Master's degree, which takes 1-3 years, whereas an American PhD can be started after a Bachelor's degree. So even if an American PhD is typically 5 years, shouldn't it be regarded as 2+3 years, thus essentially being the same in length as a 3-year European PhD? But why do so many people perceive European programs as shorter?

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Normal age range for PhD graduation, postdoc, and professorship in Europe, UK and US

When do people normally graduate from a PhD? What is the normal range for postdocs, and the first research group leaderships or assistant/junior professorships?

Some context: I completed my PhD which took 9 years at the age of 36, but I also worked full-time (I have 14 years of experience in academia and -mostly- in industry). The predefined duration of a PhD is 4 to 6 years in my home country since it consists of the US-like course/qualification/thesis phases, but also longer durations are not uncommon. AFAIK in some places, an engineering degree (bachelor's) takes 3 years, a master's 1, and a PhD 3. That would be extremely unusual in my home country.

I completed one postdoc fellowship that didn't help making a great network, and I ended up unemployed. I am currently trying to decide what I should do, another postdoc or going back to industry (which I don't want much). But I feel that I might be ignored because I am 38 with a PhD that took extremely long, from somewhere without a great reputation (Turkey). And my work experience, though it included research team management and grant applications etc., might also be ignored for academic jobs.

2 There is quite a spread in "normal" age ranges, at least in the US. – Jon Custer Commented Jun 1, 2023 at 21:41
That's what I thought, but I heard from a few PIs that my background was unusual (maybe in a bad way), and they were kind of shocked with the duration of my PhD (I can understand and it's long even for Turkey), but also they weren't much accustomed to having a -research- career along with (but apart from) PhD. – groove Commented Jun 1, 2023 at 22:37

3 Answers 3

In my experience, there is at least a 10-15 year range of possibilities. First, there is the common crowd who start a PhD straight out of undergrad, who are typically 22-23, and so graduate around 28-29 on average. While these may be around half of students (in my experience), there are also many who start a PhD after a gap year of a few years, or even after a decade or two of working in industry. So as a result, you have many who are graduating at 31-32, and then the (smaller, but certainly not unheard of) group who have returned to complete a PhD after working, and graduate in their late 30s or 40s.

Additionally, there are those who take 7-10 years for their PhD rather than the 5-6 average, so that adds another 2 to 5 years.

After graduation, some go directly to a faculty position, so they may start a faculty position as early as age 28-29. While others do a postdoc, or two (depending on the field), in which case you start a faculty position in your early-to-late 30s. And again, there are those hired to a faculty position after a stint in industry, so these can be 10-20 years older.

In short, I hope all of this makes it clear that looking at age is a rather pointless exercise! There are people of all ages at all academic ranks. All that matters is that you are taking the right step in your career for what you want to do next.

2 I heard similar things about the US before, so maybe it is more welcoming, but of course it's just a hunch with my limited experience with Europe. I don't have any idea about the UK though. Brian May's PhD took longer than mine, so I might still have some chance to find something despite the fact that my PhD is not in astrophysics and I never got knighted, among other things. – groove Commented Jun 2, 2023 at 1:07

As others have said, this depends greatly on country and I would think even more so on the field. And, like for all other things, there is always a spread so there is very little value in fixating yourself on absolute age, which you cannot control anyway.

I know you are not asking what I am writing next, but... I would try to be honest with yourself and ask what you really want. Now and in the immediate future, for starters, as well as in the long run. Do you value certainty and long-term planning or do you just want to enjoy what you are doing for the next couple of years? Either is fine, it's your life/career, and this will affect your choices (and their associated consequences).

You say you don't want to return to industry: why not? What is it that makes you lean towards academia? You also mention professorship: What is it about academia that attracts you? You mention a long PhD, which is not a deal breaker in and by itself, but also a postdoc that didn't really help to build a network. So how do you see yourself positioned? And where do you want to be/go next? Do you want to be in your home country or abroad?

As hard as it is, face the reality of the situation and see what you can do under the given circumstances: if you want to continue in academia, you either will need a strong network (in a given geographic area or scientific field) so you will be in the know of who is hiring/where opportunities for employment are, or - if you strive towards full independence - a solid scientific track record with good visibility in your field, solid publications/output and some sort of funding track record.

In Europe It actually depends on the country. In the U.K. for exmaple, most people go straight from 3 years undergraduates, 1 year masters and 3-4 years phd, meaning that most people graduate around the age of 25 - 29 depending on when they began University. In other European countries like Germany the age range is higher and varies. So they have 3-4 years undergraduate, 2 years of masters and 3-5years PhD. However, most Germans go for an overseas experience before they begin university so the age range could vary from 27-36.

Answering your second question about whether industry or academia. My straight up verdict will be go to industry for two main reasons. Firstly you get a permanent job, which can help you plan your life better and you earn more money, which can also help you buy a house faster if you have not yet done so. The main problem with persisting to remain in academia is the unavailability of permanent roles. So you may have to continue to do a series of short-lived postdoc in which you will travel from city to city or country to country and that makes settling down difficult and also, the salaries are not that great and in some places you don’t even get a relocation allowance, meaning that all your savings may go to paying for your relocation bills.

Finally, which you stay so much in academia, without getting a permanent role, you turn to be less attractive to industry and also getting a permanent academic job.

Side comment Regarding the statement you made about your country of origin, as fair as that may sound, I think you should stop seeing yourself as a victim of your origin. Competent people will always find a job regardless of their origins. Keeping such a mindset is not very healthy especially if you intend remaining in academia. You may easily get depressed from thinking that you are not getting a permanent job because of your origin meanwhile the job market is tight for everyone.

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I completed my PhD which took 9 years at the age of 36, but I also worked full-time (I have 14 years of experience in academia and -mostly- in industry). The predefined duration of a PhD is 4 to 6 years in my home country since it consists of the US-like course/qualification/thesis phases, but also longer durations are not uncommon.