genetic essay examples

204 Genetics Research Topics & Essay Questions for College and High School

Genetics studies how genes and traits pass from generation to generation. It has practical applications in many areas, such as genetic engineering, gene therapy, gene editing, and genetic testing. If you’re looking for exciting genetics topics for presentation, you’re at the right place! Here are genetics research paper topics and ideas for different assignments.

🧬 TOP 7 Genetics Topics for Presentation 2024

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• Advantages and Disadvantages of Genetic Testing
• The Importance of Heredity and Genetics
• Should Parents Have the Right to Choose Their Children Based on Genetics?
• Cause and Effect of Genetically Modified Food
• Genetically Modified Pineapples and Their Benefits
• Genetic and Environmental Factors Causing Alcoholism and Effects of Alcohol Abuse
• Simulating the Natural Selection and Genetic Drift
• Link Between Obesity and Genetics Obesity affects the lives through limitations implemented on the physical activity, associated disorders, and even emotional pressure.
• Genetic and Environmental Impacts on Teaching Work If students do not adopt learning materials and the fundamentals of the curriculum well, this is a reason for reviewing the current educational regimen.
• GMO Use in Brazil and Other Countries The introduction of biotechnology into food production was a milestone. Brazil is one of the countries that are increasingly using GMOs for food production.
• Human Genetics: Multifactorial Traits This essay states that multifactorial traits in human beings are essential for distinguishing individual characteristics in a population.
• Genetic and Social Behavioral Learning Theories Learning and behavioral habits in human beings can be influenced by social, environmental and genetic factors. Genetic theory describes how genes help in shaping human behaviors.
• Genetic Counseling for Cystic Fibrosis Some of the inherited genes may predispose individuals to specific health conditions like cystic fibrosis, among other inheritable diseases.
• The Potential Benefits of Genetic Engineering Genetic engineering is a new step in the development of the humans’ knowledge about the nature that has a lot of advantages for people in spite of its controversial character.
• Restricting the Volume of Sale of Fast Foods and Genetically Modified Foods The effects of fast foods and genetically modified foods on the health of Arizona citizens are catastrophic. The control of such outlets and businesses is crucial.
• Plant Genetic Engineering: Genetic Modification Genetic engineering is the manipulation of the genes of an organism by completely altering the structure of the organism.
• Genetic Engineering: Dangers and Opportunities Genetic engineering can be defined as: “An artificial modification of the genetic code of an organism. It changes radically the physical nature of the being in question.
• Genetic Modifications: Advantages and Disadvantages Genetic modifications of fruits and vegetables played an important role in the improvement process of crops and their disease resistance, yields, eating quality and shelf life.
• Convergent Evolution, Genetics and Related Structures This paper discusses the concept of convergent evolution and related structures. Convergent evolution describes the emergence of analogous or similar traits in different species.
• DNA and the Birth of Molecular Genetics Molecular genetics is critical in studying traits that are passed through generations. The paper analyzes the role of DNA to provide an ample understanding of molecular genetics.
• Decision Tree Analysis and Genetic Algorithm Methods Application in Healthcare The paper investigates the application of such methods of data mining as decision tree analysis and genetic algorithm in the healthcare setting.
• Ban on Genetically Modified Foods Genetically modified (GM) foods are those that are produced with the help of genetic engineering. Such foods are created from organisms with changed DNA.
• Family Pedigree, Human Traits, and Genetic Testing Genetic testing allows couples to define any severe genes in eight-cell embryos and might avoid implanting the highest risk-rated ones.
• Technology of Synthesis of Genetically Modified Insulin The work summarizes the technology for obtaining genetically modified insulin by manipulating the E. coli genome.
• Genetically Modified Food Safety and Benefits Today’s world faces a problem of the shortage of food supplies to feed its growing population. The adoption of GM foods can solve the problem of food shortage in several ways.
• Genetic Counseling and Hypertension Risks This paper dwells upon the peculiarities of genetic counseling provided to people who are at risk of developing hypertension.
• Gene Transfer and Genetic Engineering Mechanisms This paper discusses gene transfer mechanisms and the different genetic engineering mechanisms. Gene transfer, a natural process, can cause variation in biological features.
• Type 1 Diabetes in Children: Genetic and Environmental Factors The prevalence rate of type 1 diabetes in children raises the question of the role of genetic and environmental factors in the increasing cases of this illness.
• Mendelian Genetics and Chlorophyll in Plants This paper investigates Mendelian genetics. This lab report will examine the importance of chlorophyll in plants using fast plants’ leaves and stems.
• Genetically Modified Fish: The Threats and Benefits This article’s purpose is to evaluate possible harm and advantages of genetically modified fish. For example, the GM fish can increase farms’ yield.
• Darwin’s Theory of Evolution: Impact of Genetics New research proved that genetics are the driving force of evolution which causes the revision of some of Darwin’s discoveries.
• Genetic Diseases: Hemophilia This article focuses on a genetic disorder such as hemophilia: causes, symptoms, history, diagnosis, and treatment.
• Cystic Fibrosis: Genetic Disorder Cystic fibrosis, also referred to as CF, is a genetic disorder that can affect the respiratory and digestive systems.
• Advantages of Using Genetically Modified Foods Genetic modifications of traditional crops have allowed the expansion of agricultural land in areas with adverse conditions.
• Literature Review: Acceptability of Genetic Engineering The risks and benefits of genetic engineering must be objectively evaluated so that modern community could have a better understanding of this problem
• Genetic Engineering and Cloning Controversy Genetic engineering and cloning are the most controversial issues in modern science. The benefits of cloning are the possibility to treat incurable diseases and increase longevity.
• Genetics and Autism Development Autism is associated with a person’s genetic makeup. This paper gives a detailed analysis of this condition and the role of genetics in its development.
• Genetics of Developmental Disabilities The aim of the essay is to explore the genetic causes of DDs, especially dyslexia, and the effectiveness of DNA modification in the treatment of these disorders.
• How Much Do Genetics Affect Us?
• What Can Livestock Breeders Learn From Conservation Genetics and Vice Versa?
• How Do Genetics Affect Caffeine Tolerance?
• How Dolly Sheep Changed Genetics Forever?
• What Is the Nature and Function of Genetics?
• What Are the Five Branches of Genetics?
• How Does Genetics Affect the Achievement of Food Security?
• Are Owls and Larks Different in Genetics When It Comes to Aggression?
• How Do Neuroscience and Behavioral Genetics Improve Psychiatric Assessment?
• How Does Genetics Influence Human Behavior?
• What Are Three Common Genetics Disorders?
• Can Genetics Cause Crime or Are We Presupposed?
• What Are Examples of Genetics Influences?
• How Do Genetics Influence Psychology?
• What Traits Are Influenced by Genetics?
• Why Tampering With Our Genetics Will Be Beneficial?
• How Genetics and Environment Affect a Child’s Behaviors?
• Which Country Is Best for Genetics Studies?
• How Does the Environment Change Genetics?
• Can Crop Models Identify Critical Gaps in Genetics, Environment, and Management Interactions?
• How Can Drug Metabolism and Transporter Genetics Inform Psychotropic Prescribing?
• Can You Change Your Genetics?
• How Old Are European Genetics?
• Will Benchtop Sequencers Resolve the Sequencing Trade-off in Plant Genetics?
• What Can You Study in Genetics?
• What Are Some Genetic Issues?
• Does Genetics Matter for Disease-Related Stigma?
• How Did the Drosophila Melanogaster Impact Genetics?
• What Is a Genetics Specialist?
• Will Genetics Destroy Sports?
• GMO: Some Peculiarities and Associated Concerns Genetically modified organisms are created through the insertion of genes of other species into their genetic codes.
• The Perspectives of Genetic Engineering in Various Fields Genetic engineering can be discussed as having such potential benefits for the mankind as improvement of agricultural processes, environmental protection, resolution of the food problem.
• Genetically Modified Foods and Their Impact on Human Health Genetically modified food has become the subject of discussion. There are numerous benefits and risks tied to consumption of genetically modified foods.
• The Effects of Genetic Modification of Agricultural Products Discussion of the threat to the health of the global population of genetically modified food in the works of Such authors as Jane Brody and David Ehrenfeld.
• Is ADHD Genetically Passed Down to Family Members? Genetic correlations between such qualities as hyperactivity and inattention allowed us to define ADHD as a spectrum disorder rather than a unitary one.
• Alzheimer’s Disease: Genetic Risk and Ethical Considerations Alzheimer’s disease is a neurodegenerative disease that causes brain shrinkage and the death of brain cells. It is the most prevalent form of dementia.
• Behavioral Genetics in “Harry Potter” Books The reverberations of the Theory of Behavioral Genetics permeate the Harry Potter book series, enabling to achieve the comprehension of characters and their behaviors.
• Environmental Impact of Genetically Modified Crop In 1996, the commercial use of genetically modified (GM) crop production techniques had increasingly been accepted by many farmers.
• Nutrition: Obesity Pandemic and Genetic Code The environment in which we access the food we consume has changed. Unhealthy foods are cheaper, and there is no motivation to eat healthily.
• Relation Between Genetics and Intelligence Intelligence is a mental ability to learn from experience, tackle issues and use knowledge to adapt to new situations and the factor g may access intelligence of a person.
• Genetics in Diagnosis of Diseases Medical genetics aims to study the role of genetic factors in the etiology and pathogenesis of various human diseases.
• The Morality of Selective Abortion and Genetic Screening The paper states that the morality of selective abortion and genetic screening is relative. This technology should be made available and legal.
• Environmental Ethics in Genetically Modified Organisms The paper discusses genetically modified organisms. Environmental ethics is centered on the ethical dilemmas arising from human interaction with the nonhuman domain.
• Does Genetic Predisposition Affect Learning in Other Disciplines? This paper aims to examine each person’s ability to study a discipline for which there is no genetic ability and to understand how effective it is.
• Detection of Genetically Modified Products Today, people are becoming more concerned about the need to protect themselves from the effects of harmful factors and to buy quality food.
• Genetically Modified Organisms Solution to Global Hunger It is time for the nations to work together and solve the great challenge of feeding the population by producing sufficient food and using fewer inputs.
• Genetic Engineering: Cloning With Pet-28A Embedding genes into plasmid vectors is an integral part of molecular cloning as part of genetic engineering. An example is the cloning of the pectate lyase gene.
• Researching of Genetic Engineering DNA technology entails the sequencing, evaluation and cut-and-paste of DNA. The following paper analyzes the historical developments, techniques, applications, and controversies.
• Genetically Modified Crops: Impact on Human Health The aim of this paper is to provide some information about genetically modified crops as well as highlight the negative impacts of genetically modified soybeans on human health.
• Genetic Engineering Biomedical Ethics Perspectives Diverse perspectives ensure vivisection, bio, and genetic engineering activities, trying to deduce their significance in evolution, medicine, and society.
• Down Syndrome: The Genetic Disorder Down syndrome is the result of a glandular or chemical disbalance in the mother at the time of gestation and of nothing else whatsoever.
• Genetics of Personality Disorders The genetics of different psychological disorders can vary immensely; for example, the genetic architecture of schizophrenia is quite perplexing and complex.
• Labeling of Genetically Modified Products Regardless of the reasoning behind the labeling issue, it is ethical and good to label the food as obtained from genetically modified ingredients for the sake of the consumers.
• Genetic Technologies in the Healthcare One area where genetic technology using DNA works for the benefit of society is medicine, as it will improve the treatment and management of genetic diseases.
• Are Genetically Modified Organisms Really That Bad? Almost any food can be genetically modified: meat, fruits, vegetables, etc. Many people argue that consuming products, which have GMOs may cause severe health issues.
• Discussion of Genetic Testing Aspects The primary aim of the adoption process is to ensure that the children move into a safe and loving environment.
• Ethical Concerns on Genetic Engineering The paper discusses Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats technology. It is a biological system for modifying DNA.
• The Normal Aging Process and Its Genetic Basis Various factors can cause some genetic disorders linked to premature aging. The purpose of this paper is to talk about the genetic basis of the normal aging process.
• Defending People’s Rights Through GMO Labels Having achieved mandatory labeling of GMOs, the state and other official structures signal manufacturers of goods about the need to respect customers’ rights.
• Medicine Is Not a Genetic Supermarket Together with the development of society, medicine also develops, but some people are not ready to accept everything that science creates.
• Epigenetics: Definition and Family History Epigenetics refers to the learning of fluctuations in creatures induced by gene expression alteration instead of modification of the ‘genetic code itself.
• Genetically Modified Organisms in Aquaculture Genetically Modified Organisms are increasingly being used in aquaculture. They possess a unique genetic combination that makes them uniquely suited to their environment.
• Genetic Modification of Organisms to Meet Human Needs Genetic modification of plants and animals for food has increased crop yields as the modified plants and animals have more desirable features such as better production.
• Discussion of Epigenetics Meanings and Aspects The paper discusses epigenetics – the study of how gene expression takes place without changing the sequence of DNA.
• Genetic Testing and Bill of Rights and Responsibilities Comparing the Patient Bill of Rights or Patient Rights and Responsibilities of UNMC and the Nebraska Methodist, I find that the latter is much broader.
• Genetically Modified Products: Positive and Negative Sides This paper considers GMOs a positive trend in human development due to their innovativeness and helpfulness in many areas of life, even though GMOs are fatal for many insects.
• Overview of African Americans’ Genetic Diseases African Americans are more likely to suffer from certain diseases than white Americans, according to numerous studies.
• Genetic Linkage Disorders: An Overview A receptor gene in the human chromosome 9 is the causative agent of most blood vessel disorders. Moreover, blood vessel disorders are the major cause of heart ailments.
• The role of genes in our food preferences.
• The molecular mechanisms of aging and longevity.
• Genomic privacy: ways to protect genetic information.
• The effects of genes on athletic performance.
• CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing: current applications and future perspectives.
• Genetic underpinnings of human intelligence.
• The genetic foundations of human behavior.
• The role of DNA analysis in criminal justice.
• The influence of genetic diversity on a species’ fate.
• Genetic ancestry testing: the process and importance.
• Natural Selection and Genetic Variation The difference in the genetic content of organisms is indicative that certain group of organisms will stay alive, and effectively reproduce than other organisms residing in the same environment.
• Genetically Modified Foods: How Safe are they? This paper seeks to address the question of whether genetically modified plants meant for food production confer a threat to human health and the environment.
• The Genetic Material Sequencing This experiment is aimed at understanding the real mechanism involved in genetic material sequencing through nucleic acid hybridization.
• Genetically Modified Organisms in Human Food This article focuses on Genetically Modified Organisms as they are used to produce human food in the contemporary world.
• Genetics and Public Health: Disease Control and Prevention Public health genomics may be defined as the field of study where gene sequences can be used to benefit society.
• Genetic Disorder Cystic Fibrosis Cystic fibrosis is a genetic disorder. The clinical presentation of the disease is evident in various organs of the body as discussed in this paper.
• The Study of the Epigenetic Variation in Monozygotic Twins The growth and development of an organism result in the activation and deactivation of different parts due to chemical reactions at strategic periods and locations
• Human Genome and Application of Genetic Variations Human genome refers to the information contained in human genes. The Human Genome Project (HGP) focused on understanding genomic information stored in the human DNA.
• Genetic Alterations and Cancer The paper will discuss cancer symptoms, causes, diagnosis, treatment, side-effects of treatment, and also its link with a genetic alteration.
• Saudi Classic Aniridia Genetic and Genomic Analysis This research was conducted in Saudi Arabia to determine the genetic and genomic alterations that underlie classic anirida.
• What Makes Humans Mortal Genetically? The causes of aging have been studied and debated about by various experts for centuries, there multiple views and ideas about the reasons of aging and.
• Genetic Screening and Testing The provided descriptive report explains how genetic screening and testing assists clinicians in determining cognitive disabilities in babies.
• Neurobiology: Epigenetics in Cocaine Addiction Studies have shown that the addiction process is the interplay of many factors that result in structural modifications of neuronal pathways.
• Genetic (Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms) Analysis of Genome The advancement of the SNP technology in genomic analysis has made it possible to achieve cheap, effective, and fast methods for analyzing personal genomes.
• Genetic Tests: Pros and Cons Genetic testing is still undergoing transformations and further improvements, so it may be safer to avoid such procedures under certain circumstances.
• Case on Preserving Genetic Mutations in IVF In the case, a couple of a man and women want to be referred to an infertility specialist to have a procedure of in vitro fertilization (IVF).
• Race: Genetic or Social Construction One of the most challenging questions the community faces today is the following: whether races were created by nature or society or not.
• Huntington’s Chorea Disease: Genetics, Symptoms, and Treatment Huntington’s chorea disease is a neurodegenerative heritable disease of the central nervous system that is eventually leading to uncontrollable body movements and dementia.
• Genetics: A Frameshift Mutation in Human mc4r This article reviews the article “A Frameshift Mutation in Human mc4r Is Associated With Dominant Form of Obesity” published by C. Vaisse, K. Clement, B. Guy-Grand & P. Froguel.
• DNA Profiling: Genetic Variation in DNA Sequences The paper aims to determine the importance of genetic variation in sequences in DNA profiling using specific techniques.
• Genetics: Gaucher Disease Type 1 The Gaucher disease type 1 category is a genetically related complication in which there is an automatic recession in the way lysosomes store some important gene enzymes.
• Genetic Science Learning Center This paper shall seek to present an analysis of sorts of the website Learn Genetics by the University of Utah.
• Benefits of Genetic Engineering The potential increase of people’s physical characteristics and lifespan may be regarded as another advantage of genetic engineering.
• What Is Silencer Rna in Genetics RNA silencing is an evolutionary conserved intracellular surveillance system based on recognition. RNA silencing is induced by double-stranded RNA sensed by the enzyme Dicer.
• Genetic Testing and Privacy & Discrimination Issues Genetic testing is fraught with the violation of privacy and may result in discrimination in employment, poor access to healthcare services, and social censure.
• Genetics or New Pharmaceutical Article Within the Last Year Copy number variations (CNVs) have more impacts on DNA sequence within the human genome than single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs).
• Genetic Disorders: Diagnosis, Screening, and Treatment Chorionic villus is a test of sampling done especially at the early stages of pregnancy and is used to identify some problems which might occur to the fetus.
• Research of Genetic Disorders Types This essay describes different genetic disorders such as hemophilia, turner syndrome and sickle cell disease (SCD).
• Genetic Mechanism of Colorectal Cancer Colorectal Cancer (CRC) occurrence is connected to environmental factors, hereditary factors, and individual ones.
• Isolated by Genetics but Longing to Belong The objective of this paper is to argue for people with genetic illnesses to be recognized and appreciated as personages in all institutions.
• Genetic Association and the Prognosis of Phenotypic Characters The article understudy is devoted to the topic of genetic association and the prognosis of phenotypic characters. The study focuses on such a topic as human iris pigmentation.
• The Concept of Epigenetics Epigenetics is a study of heritable phenotypic changes or gene expression in cells that are caused by mechanisms other than DNA sequence.
• PiggyBac Transposon System in Genetics Ideal delivery systems for gene therapy should be safe and efficient. PB has a high transposition efficiency, stability, and mutagenic potential in most mammalian cell lines.
• A Career in Genetics: Required Skills and Knowledge A few decades ago, genetics was mostly a science-related sphere of employment. People with a degree in genetics can have solid career prospects in medicine and even agriculture.
• Genetic Factors as the Cause of Anorexia Nervosa Genetic predisposition currently seems the most plausible explanation among all the proposed etiologies of anorexia.
• Bioethical Issues in Genetic Analysis and Manipulations We are currently far from a point where we can claim that we should be providing interventions to some and not others due to their genetic makeup.
• Personality Is Inherited Principles of Genetics The present articles discusses the principles of genetics, and how is human temperament and personality formed.
• Impacts of Genetic Engineering of Agricultural Crops In present days the importance of genetic engineering grew due to the innovations in biotechnologies and Sciences.
• Genetic foundations of rare diseases.
• Genetic risk factors for neurodegenerative disorders.
• Inherited cancer genes and their impact on tumor development.
• Genetic variability in drug metabolism and its consequences.
• The role of genetic and environmental factors in disease development.
• Genomic cancer medicine: therapies based on tumor DNA sequencing.
• Non-invasive prenatal testing: benefits and challenges.
• Genetic basis of addiction.
• The origins of domestication genes in animals.
• How can genetics affect a person’s injury susceptibility?
• Genetic Engineering in Food and Freshwater Issues The technology of bioengineered foods, genetically modified, genetically engineered, or transgenic crops, will be an essential element in meeting the challenging population needs.
• Genetic Engineering and Religion: Designer Babies The current Pope has opposed any scientific procedure, including genetic engineering, in vitro fertilization, and diagnostic tests to see if babies have disabilities.
• Op-ED Genetic Engineering: The Viewpoint The debate about genetic engineering was started more than twenty years ago and since that time it has not been resolved
• Genetically Modified Food as a Current Issue GM foods are those kinds of food items that have had their DNA changed by usual breeding; this process is also referred to as Genetic Engineering.
• All About the Role of Genetic Engineering and Biopiracy The argument whether genetically engineered seeds have monopolized the market in place of the contemporary seeds has been going on for some time now.
• Biotechnology: Methodology in Basic Genetics The material illustrates the possibilities of ecological genetics, the development of eco-genetical models, based on the usage of species linked by food chain as consumers and producers.
• Genetics Impact on Health Care in the Aging Population This paper briefly assesses the impact that genetics and genomics can have on health care costs and services for geriatric patients.
• Concerns Regarding Genetically Modified Food It is evident that genetically modified food and crops are potentially harmful. Both humans and the environment are affected by consequences as a result of their introduction.
• Family Genetic History and Planning for Future Wellness The patient has a family genetic history of cardiac arrhythmia, allergy, and obesity. These diseases might lead to heart attacks, destroy the cartilage and tissue around the joint.
• Personal Genetics and Risks of Diseases Concerning genetics, biographical information includes data such as ethnicity. Some diseases are more frequent in specific populations as compared to others.
• Genetic Predisposition to Alcohol Dependence and Alcohol-Related Diseases The subject of genetics in alcohol dependence deserves additional research in order to provide accurate results.
• Genetically-Modified Fruits, Pesticides, or Biocontrol? The main criticism of GMO foods is the lack of complete control and understanding behind GMO processes in relation to human consumption and long-term effects on human DNA.
• Genetic Variants Influencing Effectiveness of Exercise Training Programmes “Genetic Variants Influencing Effectiveness of Exercise Training Programmes” studies the influence of most common genetic markers that indicate a predisposition towards obesity.
• Eugenics, Human Genetics and Their Societal Impact Ever since the discovery of DNA and the ability to manipulate it, genetics research has remained one of the most controversial scientific topics of the 21st century.
• Genetic Interference in Caenorhabditis Elegans The researchers found out that the double-stranded RNA’s impact was not only the cells, it was also on the offspring of the infected animals.
• Start Up Company: Genetically Modified Foods in China The aim of establishing the start up company is to develop the scientific idea of increasing food production using scientific methods.
• Community Health Status: Development, Gender, Genetics Stage of development, gender and genetics appear to be the chief factors that influence the health status of the community.
• Homosexuality as a Genetic Characteristic The debate about whether homosexuality is an inherent or social parameter can be deemed as one of the most thoroughly discussed issues in the contemporary society.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder in Twins: Genetics Study Autism spectrum disorder is a behavioral condition caused by genetic and environmental factors. Twin studies have been used to explain the hereditary nature of this condition.
• Why Is the Concept of Epigenetics So Fascinating? Epigenetics has come forward to play a significant role in the modern vision of the origin of illnesses and methods of their treatment, which results in proving to be fascinating.
• Epigenetics and Its Effect on Physical and Mental Health This paper reviews a research article and two videos on epigenetics to developing an understanding of the phenomenon and how it affects individuals’ physical and mental health.
• Genomics, Genetics, and Nursing Involvement The terms genomics and genetics refer to the study of genetic material. In many cases, the words are erroneously used interchangeably.
• Genetic and Genomic Healthcare: Nurses Ethical Issues Genomic medicine is one of the most significant ways of tailoring healthcare at a personal level. This paper will explore nursing ethics concerning genetic information.
• Medical and Psychological Genetic Counseling Genetic counseling is defined as the process of helping people understand and adapt to the medical, psychological, and familial implications of genetic contributions to disease.
• Patent on Genetic Discoveries and Supreme Court Decision Supreme Court did not recognize the eligibility of patenting Myriad Genetics discoveries due to the natural existence of the phenomenon.
• Genetic Testing, Its Background and Policy Issues This paper will explore the societal impacts of genetic research and its perceptions in mass media, providing argumentation for support and opposition to the topic.
• Genetically Modified Organisms and Future Farming There are many debates about benefits and limitations of GMOs, but so far, scientists fail to prove that the advantages of these organisms are more numerous than the disadvantages.
• Mitosis, Meiosis, and Genetic Variation According to Mendel’s law of independent assortment, alleles for different characteristics are passed independently from each other.
• Labeling Food With Genetically Modified Organisms The wide public has been concerned about the issue of whether food products with genetically modified organisms should be labeled since the beginning of arguments on implications.
• Diabetes Genetic Risks in Diagnostics The introduction of the generic risks score in the diagnosis of diabetes has a high potential for use in the correct classification based on a particular type of diabetes.
• Residence and Genetic Predisposition to Diseases The study on the genetic predisposition of people to certain diseases based on their residence places emphasizes the influence of heredity.
• Eugenics, Human Genetics and Public Policy Debates Ethical issues associated with human genetics and eugenics have been recently brought to public attention, resulting in the creation of peculiar public policy.
• Value of the Epigenetics Epigenetics is a quickly developing field of science that has proven to be practical in medicine. It focuses on changes in gene activity that are not a result of DNA sequence mutations.
• Genetics Seminar: The Importance of Dna Roles DNA has to be stable. In general, its stability becomes possible due to a large number of hydrogen bonds which make DNA strands more stable.
• Genetically Modified Organisms: Position Against Genetically modified organisms are organisms that are created after combining DNAs of different species to come up with a transgenic organism.
• Genetically Modified Organisms: Pros and Cons Genetically modified organisms are organisms that are created after combining DNA from a different species into an organism to come up with a transgenic organism.
• Genetically Modified Organisms and Their Benefits Scientists believe GMOs can feed everyone in the world. This can be achieved if governments embrace the use of this new technology to create genetically modified foods.
• Food Science and Technology of Genetic Modification Genetically modified foods have elicited different reactions all over the world with some countries banning its use while others like the United States allowing its consumption.
• How Much can We Control Our Genetics, at What Point do We Cease to be Human? The branch of biology that deals with variation, heredity, and their transmission in both animals and the plant is called genetics.
• Genetic Engineering: Gene Therapy The purpose of the present study is to discover just what benefits gene therapy might have to offer present and future generations.

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StudyCorgi. (2022, January 16). 204 Genetics Research Topics & Essay Questions for College and High School. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/genetics-essay-topics/

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StudyCorgi . "204 Genetics Research Topics & Essay Questions for College and High School." January 16, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/genetics-essay-topics/.

StudyCorgi . 2022. "204 Genetics Research Topics & Essay Questions for College and High School." January 16, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/genetics-essay-topics/.

These essay examples and topics on Genetics were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

This essay topic collection was updated on January 21, 2024 .

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115 Genetics Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Inside This Article

Genetics is a fascinating and complex field of study that explores the inheritance and variation of traits in living organisms. From the discovery of DNA to the mapping of the human genome, genetics has revolutionized our understanding of how traits are passed down from one generation to the next.

If you are a student studying genetics, you may be tasked with writing an essay on a specific topic related to genetics. To help you get started, here are 115 genetics essay topic ideas and examples to inspire your writing:

• The impact of genetic engineering on agriculture
• The ethics of genetic manipulation in humans
• The role of genetics in determining intelligence
• Genetic disorders: causes and treatments
• The genetics of cancer
• The genetics of addiction
• Genetic testing in newborns: benefits and risks
• The genetics of aging
• The genetic basis of mental illness
• The role of genetics in personality traits
• The genetics of obesity
• The genetics of heart disease
• Genetic testing for hereditary diseases
• The genetics of skin color
• The genetics of eye color
• Genetic diversity in human populations
• The genetics of hair loss
• The genetics of height
• The genetics of blood type
• The genetics of taste preferences
• The genetics of athletic performance
• The genetics of hair texture
• The genetics of lactose intolerance
• The genetics of drug metabolism
• The genetics of alcoholism
• The genetics of diabetes
• The genetics of Alzheimer's disease
• The genetics of schizophrenia
• The genetics of bipolar disorder
• The genetics of autism
• The genetics of ADHD
• The genetics of dyslexia
• The genetics of Down syndrome
• The genetics of Turner syndrome
• The genetics of Klinefelter syndrome
• The genetics of cystic fibrosis
• The genetics of sickle cell anemia
• The genetics of hemophilia
• The genetics of Huntington's disease
• The genetics of Parkinson's disease
• The genetics of ALS
• The genetics of muscular dystrophy
• The genetics of color blindness
• The genetics of hemochromatosis
• The genetics of Marfan syndrome
• The genetics of Tay-Sachs disease
• The genetics of PKU
• The genetics of Angelman syndrome
• The genetics of Prader-Willi syndrome
• The genetics of Rett syndrome
• The genetics of Fragile X syndrome
• The genetics of Williams syndrome
• The genetics of Cri-du-chat syndrome
• The genetics of Patau syndrome
• The genetics of Edwards syndrome
• The genetics of Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome
• The genetics of Prune Belly syndrome
• The genetics of Jacobs syndrome
• The genetics of Triple X syndrome
• The genetics of XYY syndrome
• The genetics of Wolf-Hirschhorn syndrome
• The genetics of Rubinstein-Taybi syndrome
• The genetics of Cornelia de Lange syndrome
• The genetics of Smith-Magenis syndrome
• The genetics of DiGeorge syndrome
• The genetics of Velocardiofacial syndrome
• The genetics of Duchenne muscular dystrophy
• The genetics of Becker muscular dystrophy
• The genetics of Myotonic dystrophy
• The genetics of Facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy
• The genetics of Oculopharyngeal muscular dystrophy
• The genetics of Limb-girdle muscular dystrophy
• The genetics of Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy
• The genetics of Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease
• The genetics of Spinal muscular atrophy
• The genetics of Friedreich's ataxia
• The genetics of Ataxia telangiectasia
• The genetics of Niemann-Pick disease
• The genetics of Gaucher disease
• The genetics of Fabry disease
• The genetics of Pompe disease
• The genetics of Hurler syndrome
• The genetics of Hunter syndrome
• The genetics of Sanfilippo syndrome
• The genetics of Morquio syndrome
• The genetics of Maroteaux-L

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Home — Essay Samples — Science — Technology & Engineering — Genetic Engineering

Essays on Genetic Engineering

What makes a good genetic engineering essay topic.

When it comes to writing a captivating genetic engineering essay, the topic you choose is paramount. It not only grabs the reader's attention but also allows for effective exploration of the subject matter. So, how can you brainstorm and select a standout essay topic? Here are some recommendations:

• Brainstorm: Kickstart your ideas by brainstorming topics related to genetic engineering. Consider the latest advancements, ethical concerns, controversial issues, or potential future applications. Jot down any ideas that come to mind.
• Research: Once you have a list of potential topics, conduct thorough research to gather relevant information and understand different perspectives. This will help you evaluate the feasibility and depth of each topic.
• Consider Interest: Choose a topic that genuinely piques your interest. Writing about something you are passionate about will make the entire process more enjoyable and motivate you to delve deeper into the subject matter.
• Relevance: Ensure that the chosen topic is relevant to genetic engineering. It should align with the scope of the subject and allow you to explore various aspects related to it.
• Uniqueness: Strive for a unique and imaginative topic that stands out from the ordinary. Steer clear of generic subjects and instead focus on specific areas or emerging trends within genetic engineering.
• Controversy: Controversial topics often generate more interest and discussion. Consider exploring ethical dilemmas, potential risks, or societal impacts of genetic engineering to add a thought-provoking element to your essay.
• Depth and Scope: Assess the depth and scope of each topic. Make sure it provides enough material for a comprehensive essay without being too broad or too narrow.
• Audience Appeal: Keep your target audience in mind. Choose a topic that would captivate readers, whether they are experts in the field or individuals with limited knowledge about genetic engineering.
• Originality: Strive for originality in your topic selection. Look for unique angles, lesser-known areas, or innovative applications of genetic engineering that can make your essay stand out.
• Personal Connection: If possible, choose a topic that connects with your personal experiences or future aspirations. This will enhance your engagement and make your essay more meaningful.

Igniting Thought: The Finest Genetic Engineering Essay Topics

Below are some of the most captivating genetic engineering essay topics to consider:

• Genetic Engineering and the Future of Human Evolution
• The Ethical Dilemmas of Designer Babies
• Genetic Engineering in Agriculture: Balancing Benefits and Concerns
• CRISPR-Cas9: Unleashing Revolutionary Potential in Genetic Engineering
• The Potential of Genetic Engineering in Cancer Treatment
• Genetic Engineering's Role in Creating Sustainable Food Sources
• Genetic Engineering and Animal Welfare: Navigating Ethical Considerations
• Genetic Engineering and its Impact on Biodiversity
• The Social and Economic Implications of Genetic Engineering
• Genetic Engineering's Influence on Human Longevity
• Enhancing Athletic Performance: The Power of Genetic Engineering
• Genetic Engineering Techniques for Disease Prevention and Treatment
• Genetic Engineering's Role in Environmental Conservation
• Genetic Engineering and the Preservation of Endangered Species
• The Psychological and Societal Effects of Genetic Engineering
• The Pros and Cons of Genetic Engineering for Non-Medical Purposes
• Exploring the Potential Risks and Benefits of Genetic Engineering in Space Exploration
• Genetic Engineering and the Creation of Biofuels
• The Morality of Genetic Engineering: Insights from Religious and Philosophical Perspectives
• Genetic Engineering's Role in Combating Climate Change

Thought-Provoking Genetic Engineering Essay Questions

Consider these stimulating questions for your genetic engineering essay:

• How does genetic engineering impact the concept of natural selection?
• What are the potential consequences of genetic engineering on human genetic diversity?
• Is it ethically justifiable to use genetic engineering for cosmetic purposes?
• How does genetic engineering contribute to the development of personalized medicine?
• What are the social implications of genetically modifying animals for human consumption?
• How does the use of genetic engineering in agriculture affect food security?
• Should genetic engineering be used to resurrect extinct species?
• What are the potential risks and benefits of genetically modifying viruses for medical purposes?
• How does genetic engineering influence the balance between individual rights and societal well-being?
• Can genetic engineering be the solution to eradicating genetic diseases?

Provocative Genetic Engineering Essay Prompts

Here are some imaginative and engaging prompts for your genetic engineering essay:

• Imagine a world where genetic engineering has eliminated all hereditary diseases. Discuss the potential benefits and drawbacks of such a scenario.
• You have been granted the ability to genetically engineer one aspect of yourself. What would you choose and why?
• Write a fictional story set in a future where genetic engineering is widespread and explore the consequences it has on society.
• Reflect on the ethical considerations of genetically modifying animals for entertainment purposes, such as creating glow-in-the-dark pets.
• Create a persuasive argument for or against the use of genetic engineering in enhancing human intelligence.

Answering Your Genetic Engineering Essay Queries

Q: Can I write about the history of genetic engineering?

A: Absolutely! Exploring the historical context of genetic engineering can provide valuable insights and set the foundation for your essay.

Q: How can I make my genetic engineering essay engaging for readers with limited scientific knowledge?

A: Simplify complex concepts and terminologies, provide relevant examples, and use relatable analogies to help readers grasp the information more easily.

Q: Can I express my personal opinion in a genetic engineering essay?

A: Yes, expressing your personal opinion is encouraged as long as you support it with logical reasoning and evidence from reputable sources.

Q: Are there any potential risks associated with genetic engineering that I should discuss in my essay?

A: Yes, incorporating a discussion on the potential risks and ethical concerns surrounding genetic engineering is essential to provide a balanced perspective.

Q: Can I include interviews or case studies in my genetic engineering essay?

A: Absolutely! Interviews or case studies can add depth and real-life examples to support your arguments and make your essay more compelling.

Remember, when writing your genetic engineering essay, let your creativity shine through while maintaining a formal and engaging tone.

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Ethical Issues of Genetic Engineering

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The Issue of The Use of Genetic Modification of Humans

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Positional Cloning of Genetic Disorders

Engineering american society: the lesson of eugenics, bioethical issues related to genetic engineering, cloning and ethical controversies related to it, genetic editing as a possibility of same-sex parents to have children, adhering to natural processes retains the integrity of a natural human race  , genetically modified organisms: soybeans, gene silencing to produce milk with reduced blg proteins, the role of crispr-cas9 gene drive in mosquitoes, the life of gregor mendel and his contributions to science, eugenics, its history and modern development, morphological operation hsv color space tree detetction, cytogenetics: analysis of comparative genomic hybridization and its implications, genetically engineered eucalyptus tree and crispr, review of the process of dna extraction, review of the features of the process of cloning, heterologous gene expression as an approach for fungal secondary metabolite discovery, review of the genetic algorithm searches, genetic engineering: clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats, crispr technology - the potential tool for curing huntington’s disease.

Genetic engineering (also called genetic modification) is a process that uses laboratory-based technologies to alter the DNA makeup of an organism.

Genetic engineering as the direct manipulation of DNA by humans outside breeding and mutations has only existed since the 1970s. In 1972, Paul Berg created the first recombinant DNA molecules by combining DNA from the monkey virus SV40 with that of the lambda virus. The first field trials of genetically engineered plants occurred in France and the US in 1986, tobacco plants were engineered to be resistant to herbicides.

It is a set of technologies used to change the genetic makeup of cells, including the transfer of genes within and across species boundaries to produce improved or novel organisms. New DNA is obtained by either isolating and copying the genetic material of interest using recombinant DNA methods or by artificially synthesising the DNA. Used in research and industry, genetic engineering has been applied to the production of cancer therapies, brewing yeasts, genetically modified plants and livestock, and more.

Relevant topics

• Engineering
• Mathematics in Everyday Life
• Natural Selection
• Space Exploration
• Stephen Hawking
• Charles Darwin

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Understanding the Complex Process of Translation: from DNA to Protein

This essay about the process of translation explores the intricate molecular choreography of converting genetic information from DNA into proteins. It highlights the central tenet of molecular biology: DNA begets RNA begets protein, detailing the stages of transcription and translation. The text also examines the complex regulatory mechanisms that fine-tune this process and discusses how disruptions can lead to diseases. It emphasizes the dynamic nature of translation research, revealing how ongoing discoveries continue to expand our understanding of cellular biology.

How it works

In the intricate pathways of life’s molecular choreography, translation stands as a grand maestro, orchestrating the symphony of genetic information encoded within the confines of DNA. This fascinating journey, from the cryptic language of nucleotide sequences to the tangible manifestations of proteins—the architects of biological function—is more than an academic pursuit; it is a profound voyage into the essence of existence.

At the core of the nucleus lies the central tenet of molecular biology, succinctly articulated by Francis Crick: DNA begets RNA begets protein.

This mantra encapsulates the sequential unfolding of cellular information, beginning with the venerable DNA and culminating in the tangible form of proteins. Translation, the crucial intermediary step in this molecular ballet, is the process by which the genetic blueprint, nestled within messenger RNA (mRNA), is deciphered to construct specific proteins.

The odyssey begins within the nucleus’s sanctum, where DNA, the custodian of genetic heritage, lays its intricate tapestry. Here, the double helix of DNA unfurls under the deft hands of enzymes, revealing the cryptic sequence of nucleotides. This sequence serves as a template for mRNA synthesis, enacted through the ritualistic process of transcription. RNA polymerase, flanked by an entourage of auxiliary proteins, binds to specific DNA sequences, known as promoters, initiating the transcriptional cascade. Nucleotides, complementary to the DNA template, are sequentially appended, culminating in the birth of mRNA. Unlike its double-stranded progenitor, mRNA emerges as a solitary strand, harboring a subtly modified rendition of the genetic code, with uracil supplanting thymine as adenine’s counterpart.

However, the nascent mRNA is not yet ready to tread the corridors of cellular life. It undergoes a metamorphosis, shedding its extraneous flanks through a process of splicing, ensuring its stability and functionality. The mRNA, now matured, ventures forth from the nucleus’s confines, embarking on its voyage to the cytoplasm, the bustling hub of cellular activity.

In the cytoplasmic arena, mRNA encounters the effervescent ensemble tasked with translation: ribosomes, transfer RNA (tRNA), and an array of auxiliary proteins. Ribosomes, the veritable artisans of protein synthesis, are intricate edifices crafted from proteins and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). They serve as the hallowed sanctum where the intricate dance of translation unfolds. Meanwhile, tRNA, akin to molecular couriers, ferry amino acids to the ribosomal stage, where they are sequentially appended to the growing polypeptide chain. Each tRNA bears a distinct anticodon sequence, serving as the molecular Rosetta stone that deciphers the mRNA’s codon sequence, ensuring the faithful rendition of genetic instructions.

The journey of translation is a tripartite saga, unfolding in stages of initiation, elongation, and termination. Initiation heralds the commencement of protein synthesis, as the ribosomal machinery assembles around the initiator codon, poised to commence the translational journey. Elongation ensues, as the ribosome traverses the mRNA, recruiting successive tRNA molecules, each laden with its cargo of amino acids. The polypeptide chain burgeons, growing with each codon deciphered, until the denouement of termination arrives. A stop codon signals the curtain call, prompting the ribosome to release the nascent polypeptide, now a fledgling protein, destined for further maturation and functional integration within the cellular milieu.

Yet, amidst the apparent linearity of translation lies a tapestry of regulatory intricacies and clandestine machinations. From the orchestration of gene expression at the transcriptional level to the modulation of mRNA stability and translational efficiency, cellular biology abounds with regulatory checkpoints and feedback loops that fine-tune the translational symphony. Dysregulation of these intricate processes can precipitate cellular discord, underpinning a myriad of human maladies, from cancer to neurodegenerative disorders.

Moreover, the narrative of translation is far from static, evolving with each revelation and discovery. Non-canonical translation mechanisms, once relegated to the fringes of molecular biology, now occupy center stage, challenging conventional paradigms and expanding the frontiers of our understanding. Regulatory RNA molecules, once dismissed as genetic ephemera, emerge as potent orchestrators of gene expression, weaving a tapestry of complexity that transcends the linear dogma of molecular biology.

In conclusion, the journey from DNA to protein stands as a testament to the elegance and intricacy of life’s molecular choreography. As we unravel the enigmatic nuances of translation, we embark on a voyage of discovery that transcends the boundaries of scientific inquiry, offering profound insights into the very essence of existence. Each revelation serves not merely to elucidate the mechanics of cellular biology but to illuminate the grandeur of life’s symphony, resonating through the intricate interplay of DNA, RNA, and protein.

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Genetics - Free Essay Examples and Topic Ideas

Genetics define every part of you. The shape of your cells to the shape of your nose are all defined by the genes you inherited from both of your parents. Diseases, conditions, allergies, and the chemistry in the brain are commonly determined by genetics. The genes make us unique with no two people who are exactly alike. The endless amount of differences between every person is unimaginable. When, considering these variations it’s easy to wonder how healthcare can be accurate. How can we be sure a drug will relieve pain when everyone is astronomically different? Of course some medications work better for some people than others. But why? This question introduced Pharmacogenetics into the medical field with the goal of personalizing medicine.

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• Will be Whether it’s Cultural or Genetics Factors That Have the Greatest Influence When It Comes to Gender Norms.
• Gigantism and Dwarfism as Genetics or Medical Condition

What is Pharmacogenetics?

According to the U.S. National Library of Medicine Pharmacogenetics is “The study of how genes affect a persons response to drugs.” Genes are commonly referred to the instructions, which are written in DNA, that tell the body what to do. Although the idea of personalized medicine is now starting to gain momentum, it is not a new concept. In the late 1800’s the “great variability among individuals” was noted by Sir William Osler, a Canadian physician (Scott, Personalizing Medicine with Clinical Pharmacogenetics). Although humans have “great variability,” the majority of the population share up to 99.9% of DNA according to spineuniverse.com. However, that .1% should not be underestimated. That small percentage determines everything from what we look like to how our body reacts to medication. Clinical DNA testing started in 1978 with the diagnosis of Sickle Cell which is caused by a mutation of the β-globin gene (Scott). This kickstarted the screening of potential carriers for other genetic mutations. Gene testing has allowed healthcare professionals to identify risks for their patients, allowing them to act early before it’s too late. In Pharmacogenetic testing the entire genome (the entire set of genes found in a cell) is tested. Additionally, more complex genotyping for important genes has been developed to predict an individuals metabolism rate for certain drugs. This allows doctors to more accurately select a medication that will have the greatest positive affect on the patient. Currently, doctors prescribe medication based off of the patients sex, age, and weight. The growth of pharmacogenetics will completely advance the healthcare field in ways we’ve never seen before.

Pro’s of Pharmacogenetics

The use of pharmacogenetics clinically is still relatively new. The Human Genome Project (HGP) was finished in 2001. HGP started as a base for pharmacogenetics. HGP identified a more accurate number of about 20,500 human genes. The number before was though to be between 50,00 to 140,000 (National Human Genome Research Project). The HGP introduced more accurate technology for studying human genes. Fast forward to 2018 the technology produced by the HGP are improving and saving lives.

The use of pharmacogenetics in clinical circumstances allows patients to find the right medication sooner. Pharmacogenetics eliminates the risk of unsafe medication for the patient by identifying the interaction between the patient and medication before the medication is even prescribed. Pharmacogenetics also allows healthcare providers to determine the safe amount of medication, reducing chances of overdose or prescribing too low of a dose. As a result this will increase patients safety and save insurance companies millions potentially decreasing the cost of health insurance.

Cons of Pharmacogenetics

While testing patients to ensure safety and effective results from medication may seem like a foolproof plan, it does however come with unforeseen negatives. Due to the science of pharmacogenetics still being new, it’s hard to provide accurate readings to patients. The field still lacks solid study results. Plus, the extreme amount of gene variations and endless medication options only complicates the field even more.

Imagine you’re in the cold and flu aisle at your local grocery store. There are tons of different brands and variations of the medication you need. Imagine that aisle also contained the high dose medication you can buy from the pharmacist, or all the medication your doctor could prescribe including different dosages. Like the medication in the cold and flu aisle, there are different brands and variations that your doctor has to choose from to prescribe. All of these medications offer an endless amount of options. This makes it harder to actually find the right type of medicine even with pharmacogenetics. Michael Cala, a script writer for NATO, posted on his Linkedin account stating “In terms of clinical issues, there may ultimately be hundreds or even thousands of highly similar drugs with only slight – but telling – differences based on individual genetic codes. This abundance of similarly constituted drugs may greatly complicate the best selection of drug and dosing.” Of course these are merely bumps in the road to accurate and efficient pharmacogenetic testing. With the advancement of modern science these problems will be one of the past.

Future of Pharmacogenetics

Healthcare experts predict that the future of the healthcare field will be drastically different than it’s current state. Currently doctors are paid on how many patients they see. Because of this patients are receiving low quality healthcare and are treated as a number rather than a patient. Dr. Daniel Wozniczka, M.D. explains in a TEDx talk. He explores the consequences of treating healthcare as a business. Dr. Wozniczka compares hospitals that are run by people who have an MBA vs the few hospitals that are ran by people with an MD. The hospitals ran by doctors outperform ones ran by business men. Dr. Wozniczka states that “in almost every single quality metric we had, whether it be cost of care, medical errors, length of stay… they outperform the other hospital [ran by MBA] by 25 percent or more.” He later explains that medical schools are now allowing students to receive an MD along with an MBA to increase the number of hospitals ran by people with medical experience. So what does a hospital’s management have to do with pharmacogenetics?

America is said to have the best healthcare in the world. However, when it comes to accessing healthcare it is among the worst. With more more doctors entering positions to call the shots we should see more accessible and reasonable healthcare services, such as pharmacogenetics. Many insurance companies won’t pay for pharmacogenetics because they see it as an experimental service. The fact is, people who only view healthcare as numbers on spreadsheets, rather than a science, are impending on beneficial healthcare for everyone.

It’s likely that healthcare will transition into an environment that encourages growth for specialities like pharmacogenetics. This will change healthcare as we know it. The pharmaceutical field creates medicine with the intent that it will work for the majority of the population in a similar way. Now that pharmacogenetics is being implemented in healthcare, medicine will no longer be one size fits all. This means that medications will be improved to match the speed at which a patients kidneys and liver metabolizes the drug. Resulting in a stronger intended effect of the medication while curving the unintended side effects. This means birth control without nausea, weight gain, and mood changes. This means aspirin without the risk of Reye’s syndrome, painkillers with a lower risk of addiction, or even cancer treatment without hair loss. The advancement of pharmacogenetics will allow unimaginable possibilities.

Similar Fields

Pharmacogenetics falls under an umbrella of genetic science in healthcare. Genetics is said to be the future of healthcare. Genetic manipulation, a controversial field, is also booming. Genetic manipulation is the manipulation of a genome in an organism. This allows for a change in appearance. For example, chickens are often subject to genetic manipulation to grow more meat faster. Genetic manipulation is predicted to be used in the same manner of plastic therapy with the idea of changing appearance. This can also be used on unborn fetuses, allowing parents to choose how their child looks. However genetic manipulation may also be used to change genes to reduce risk of certain diseases, like cancer. Genetic therapy is also becoming more popular. Similar to genetic manipulation, gene therapy is replacing or changing a gene in order to treat a disease. This is more focused on the treatment of diseases rather than appearance of an individual.

Genetics in healthcare is becoming more popular and more useful. Within our lifetimes doctors will prescribe medication based off of our genetic make up, rather than body type. Treatment for diseases will be more accurate. Medication will soon no longer have harmful side effects on patients. The exciting advancement in healthcare will improve everyday health for everyone. Pharmacogenetics won’t just be used in extreme circumstances, rather it will be used as commonly as blood screening. Pharmacogenetics may stand in the shadow of genetic manipulation and genetic therapy. The use of genetic manipulation and genetic therapy may very well eliminate common need for medication in the first place. Until then, personalized medication will still grow and become more of a necessity in a variety of patient care.

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Essay on Genetics (For College and Medical Students) | Biology

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Essay on Genetics

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• Essay on Mutations

ADVERTISEMENTS: (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); 1. Essay on the Meaning of Genes:  

The term ‘gene’ was coined by Danish botanist Wilhelm Johannsen in 1909. It is the basic physical and functional unit of heredity. Heredity is the transfer of characters from parents to their offspring that is why children resemble their parents. A hereditary unit consists of a sequence of DNA (except in some viruses that contain RNA, instead) that occupies a spe­cific location on a chromosome and determines a particular characteristic in an organism. DNA is a vast chemical information database that carries the complete set of instructions for making all the proteins that a cell will ever need.

Each gene contains a particular set of in­structions, usually coding for a particular protein. Genes achieve their effects by directing protein synthesis. The sequence of nitrogenous bases along a strand of DNA determines the genetic code. When the product of a particular gene is needed, the portion of the DNA mole­cule that contains that gene splits, and a complementary strand of RNA, called messenger RNA (mRNA), forms and then passes to ribosomes, where proteins are synthesized.

A sec­ond type of RNA, transfer RNA (tRNA), matches up the mRNA with specific amino acids, which combine in series to form polypeptide chains, the building blocks of proteins. Experi­ments have shown that many of the genes within a cell are inactive much or even all of the time, but they can be switched on and off.

DNA resides in the core, or nucleus, of each of the body’s trillions of cells. Every human cell (with the exception of mature red blood cells, which have no nucleus) contains the same DNA. Each human cell has 46 molecules of double-stranded DNA. Human cells contain two sets of chromosomes, one set inherited from the mother and one from the father. (Mature sperm and egg cells carry a single set of chromosomes). Each set has 23 single chromosomes – 22 autosomes and an X or Y sex chromosome. (Females inherit an X from each parent, while males get an X from the mother and a Y from the father.) In humans, genes vary in size from a few hundred DNA bases to more than 2 million bases.

The Human Genome Project has estimated that humans have between 20,000 and 25,000 genes. Every person has two copies of each gene, one inherited from each parent. Most genes are the same in all peo­ple, but a small number of genes (less than 1 percent of the total) are slightly different between people. Alleles are forms of the same gene with small differences in their sequence of DNA bases. These small differences contribute to each person’s unique physical features. Genes carry information that determines the traits, the characteristics we inherit from our parents. The branch of biology that deals with heredity, especially the mechanisms of heredi­tary transmission and the variation of inherited characteristics among similar or related organisms is known as genetics.

2. Essay on Mendelian Genetics :

Sir Gregor Johann Mendel (1822 to 1884) was Austrian monk who used garden pea (Pisum sativum) for his experiments and published his results in 1865. His work, however, was rediscovered in 1900, long after Mendel’s death, by Tschermak, Correns and DeVries. Men­del was the first to suggest principles underlying inheritance. He is regarded as the founder or father of genetics. He developed the concept of the factors to explain results obtained while cross breeding strains of garden peas. He identified physical characteristics (phenotypes), such as plant height and seed colour, which could be passed on, unchanged, from one generation to another.

The hereditary factor that predicted the phenotype was later termed a “gene”. The genetic constitution of an organism is known as genotype. Mendel hy­pothesized that genes were inherited in pairs, one from the male and one from the female parent. Plants that bred true had inherited identical genes (homozygotes) from their parents, whereas plants that did not breed true inherited alternative copies (hybrids, or heterozygotes) of the genes (alleles) from one parent that were similar, but not identical, to those from the other parent.

Alleles are the alternative forms of the same gene which determine contrasting characters. One chromosome might contain a version of the eye colour gene that produces blue eyes, and other chromosome might contain a version that produces brown eyes. If an individual has both versions of the gene, the individual is heterozygous for the eye colour trait. If an individual has the same version of the eye colour gene on both chromosomes, the individual is homozygous for the eye colour trait. In case plants the allelic character of height are the tall (T) and dwarf (t).

Alleles are one alternative of a pair or group of genes that could occupy a specific posi­tion on a chromosome. Genes are composed of sequences of nucleotides, and a variation in this sequence can affect the protein made from that gene. A change in the manufacture of a protein in an organism often leads to an observable result. There are many different alleles for the gene that manufactures protein to give humans their unique eye colour. There are two alleles for flower colour in the common garden pea.

Some of these alleles had a greater effect on the phenotypes of hybrids than others. For example, if a single copy of a given allele was sufficient to produce the same phenotype seen in homozygous organisms, that gene is termed a “dominant”. Conversely, if the allele could only be detected in the minority of the offspring of hybrid parents that were homozygous for that “weaker” allele, the gene is termed a “recessive”. Dominant and recessive are relative terms. Consider a plant with a gene for red flower colour and a gene for blue flower col­our.

This plant bears red flowers, although it has a gene for blue flower colour, too. Red flower colour is the dominant trait, while blue flower colour is the recessive trait. The red colour gene in a sense overpowers the blue colour gene. In order for the plant to have blue flowers, it would need to completely lack the gene for red flower colour. Dominant traits are normally represented by uppercase letters, such as R. The corresponding recessive trait would be represented by a lowercase letter, r. A plant with genotype Rr will have red flow­ers, as would a plant with genotype RR. But a plant with genotype rr would have blue flow­ers.

Mendelian genetics, also known as classical genetics, is the study of the transmission of inherited characteristics from parent to offspring. Gregor Mendel actually calculated the ra­tios of observable characteristics in the common garden pea plant Pisum sativum. Mendel studied seven characteristics in peas including seed texture, seed colour, flower colour, flower position; stem length, pod shape and pod colour (Fig. 6.1). Peas were a good model system, because he could easily control their fertilization by transferring pollen with a small paintbrush.

This pollen could come from the same flower (self-fertilization), or it could come from another plant’s flowers (cross-fertilization). Because the seven pea plant charac­teristics tracked by Mendel were consistent in generation after generation of self- fertilization. These parental lines of peas could be considered pure-breeders (or, in modern terminology, homozygous for the traits of interest). Mendel and his assistants eventually de­veloped 22 varieties of pea plants with combinations of these consistent characteristics. He applied mathematics and statistics to analyze the results obtained by him.

Mendel started his pea breeding program by allowing certain pea plants to repeatedly self-fertilize. Peas are able to fertilize their own flowers which are called selfing. If pea selfing continues over many generations the pea plants will be homozygous or have an identical pair of genes for a certain characteristic. These plants will contain either two identical reces­sive genes (homozygous recessive) for a characteristic or two identical dominant genes (homozygous dominant) for the same characteristic and are considered pure-breeding for those characteristics.

For example, purple flower colour in peas is dominant and white flower colour in peas is recessive. When a white flowered (homozygous recessive) pea plant is crossed with a purple flowered (homozygous dominant) pea plant, the resulting offspring all has purple flower colour.

The gene composition (genotype) for the flower genes in each of these types of pea plants is represented as shown below:

Mendel used characteristics of pea plants and four o’clock flowers (Mirabilis jalapa) to analyze the hereditary patterns of these traits. His historic experiments led him to the con­clusion that inherited characteristics were carried in discrete, independent units (later named genes). In Mendel’s interpretation, hereditary characteristics occurred in pairs of factors that had specific relationships. Mendel first crossbred one tall, true-breeding plant with one short, true-breeding plant.

Contrary to the blending theory, all the offspring were tall. In terms of genotype, the original tall plant was TT (two dominant alleles; homozygous), the short plant was tt (two recessive alleles; homozygous), and the second-generation plants were Tt (one dominant and one recessive allele; heterozygous). When Mendel next allowed these plants to self-fertilize, he found that the short trait reappeared in the third generation. The ratio of short to tall plants was almost exactly 3:1. Their genotypes were as follows -1 short (tt) : 2 tall (Tt): 1 tall (TT). Based on these observations (Fig. 6.2), Mendel formu­lated a series of laws that are the basis of what we now term “Mendelian” inheritance pat­terns.

ADVERTISEMENTS: (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); 3. Essay on the Punnett Square :

Mendel worked by observing characteristics (phenotypes) and calculating the ratios of each type to form his principles of inheritance. However we can predict the ratios of phenotypes by using Mendel’s principles. One of the most common methods of determining the possible outcome of a cross between two parents is called a Punnett square. To perform a Punnett square one must first figure out all the possible combinations of the alleles to be studied for each parent.

The possible gametes for one parent go on the X axis and the possible gametes for the other parent go on the Y axis (one allele in each cell of the upper row (traditionally the mother) and rightmost column (traditionally the father). The gamete combinations are then paired in the squares below and to the side of each type, i.e. the offspring’s genotypes are then calculated by observing the intersection of the mother’s and father’s individual alleles (much like a multiplication table).

Eye colour in human is much more complex. A mother and father, both having the brown eye phenotype, have a child. We know that both parents carry the gene for blue eye colour and therefore are heterozygous for this trait. These parents can either donate a dominant B to the gamete or a recessive b to the gamete (Fig.6.3).

The outcome of this cross shows that 3 times out of 4 (75%) the child will have brown eyes and 1 out of 4 times the child will have blue eyes (25%). The probability that the child’s genotype will be heterozygous, for eye colour alleles, is 50%. The probability is 25% for either the homozygous recessive or dominant genotype.

X-linked characteristic: colour blindness in human

There are several known X-linked characteristics in humans but few, if any, Y-linked char­acteristics are usually reported. Females have two X chromosomes with one or the other X chromosome remaining active in a mosaic pattern in a tissue. Males have only one X chro­mosome so if the X chromosome of a male has a defective allele there is no companion X chromosome to compensate for the deficiency. A female must have the same defective allele on both her X chromosomes to demonstrate any deficiencies (Fig. 6.4).

4. Essay on the Mendelian Principles :

During Mendel’s time DNA had not been identified as the substance of heredity and it was unknown how offspring obtained certain characteristics from their parents. Since Mendel’s work elucidated dominant and recessive characteristics his study supported the particulate theory of inheritance. Mendel accomplished this work by calculating the ratios of observable characteristics of the offspring from known parental types.

The first parental types were ho­mozygous recessive and homozygous dominant pure breeding types. The parental generation or P generation, by definition, is always homozygous recessive and homozygous dominant for the traits to be studied. The offspring which results from the mating of parental types (P generation) will always be heterozygous for the characteristic.

a. Mendel’s Law of Dominance:

The first law of Mendel states that “In a cross of parents that are pure for contrasting traits, only one form of the trait will appear in the progeny, in other words factors retain their identity from generation to generation and do not blend in the hybrid”. In other words it says that, if two plants that differ in just one trait are crossed, then the resulting hybrids will be uniform in the chosen trait. Depending on the traits is the uniform features either one of the parents’ traits (a dominant-recessive pair of characteristics) or it is intermediate.

When two pure breeding organisms of contrasting characters are crossed, only one character of the pair appears in the F1 generation, known as the dominant character (example- tallness) and the other unexpressed or hidden character is known as the recessive character (example- dwarfness). When Mendel crossed a true breeding red flowered plant with a true breeding white flowered one, the progeny was found to be red coloured. The white colour suppressed and the red colour dominated.

Mendel’s law of dominance is generally true, but there are many exceptions to the law. For each of the seven pairs of characters examined, it was observed that one allelomorph dominated over the other, so that F1 exhibits one or the other alternative phenotypes repre­sented in the parents. Some inherited traits do not exhibit strict Mendelian dominant/ recessive relationships. The simplest example of this phenomenon is called codominance, or incomplete dominance.

This pattern is displayed in the colours of four o’clock flowers. When a white and a red flower are cross-fertilized, the second generation is all pink. How­ever, when a pink flower is allowed to self-fertilize, the white and red attributes return. The colour ratios for this third-generation cross are – 1 white: 2 pink: 1 red. This pattern is due to the fact that three alleles, instead of the usual two, determine colour in four o’clock flow­ers. If red colour is designated R and white colour r, then pink colour (not red or white) is the phenotypic effect of genotype Rr. (This is one type of pattern formerly used in support of the blending theory of inheritance). Thus in certain cases the hybrid offsprings resemble one parent much more closely than the other but does not resemble it exactly, so the domi­nance is incomplete. This is termed as incomplete dominance (Fig. 6.5).

Another example of codominance is the ABO blood typing system used to determine the type of human blood. It is common knowledge that a blood transfusion can only take place between two people who have compatible types of blood. Human blood is separated into different classifications on the basis of presence and absence of specific antigens or proteins in the red blood cells.

The protein’s structure is controlled by three alleles; i, IA and IB. The first allele is, i, the recessive of the three, and IA and IB are both co-dominant when paired together. If the recessive allele i is paired with IB or IA, its expression is hidden and is not shown. When the IB and IA are together in a pair, both proteins A and B are present and expressed.

The ABO system is called a multiple allele system for there are more than two possible allele pairs for the locus. The individual’s blood type is determined by which combination of alleles he/she has. There are four possible blood types in order from most common to most rare- O, A, B and AB. The O blood type represents an individual who is homozygous reces­sive (ii) and does not have an allele for A or B (Table 6.2).

Blood types A and B are co-dominant alleles. Co-dominant alleles are expressed even if only one is present. The recessive allele i for blood type O is only expressed when two recessive alleles are present. Blood type O is not apparent if the individual has an allele for A or B. Individuals who have blood type A have a genotype of IAIA or IAi and those with blood type B, IBIB or IBi, but an individual who is IAIB has blood type AB.

b. Mendel’s Law of Segregation:

The law of segregations is a law of inheritance proposed by Mendel in 1866. According to this law, “each organism is formed of a bundle of characters. Each character is controlled by a pair of factors (genes). During gamete formation, the two factors of a character separate and enter different gametes”. This law is also called law of purity of gametes. At formation of gametes, the two chromosomes of each pair separate (segregate) into two different cell which form the gametes.

This is a universal law and always during gamete formation in all sexually reproducing organisms, the two factors of a pair pass into different gametes. Each gamete receives one member of a pair of factors and the gametes are pure. That is two mem­bers (alleles) of a single pair of genes are never found in the same mature sperm or ovum (gamete) but always separate out (segregate).The factors of inheritance (genes) normally are paired, but are separated or segregated in the formation of gametes (eggs and sperm), i.e., it states that the individuals of the F 2 generation are not uniform, but that the traits segregate.

Depending on a dominant-recessive crossing or an intermediate crossing are the resulting ratios 3:1 or 1:2:1. This concept of independent traits explains how a trait can persist from generation to generation without blending with other traits. It explains, too, how the trait can seemingly disappear and then reappear in a later generation. The principle of segregation was consequently of the utmost importance for understanding both genetics and evolution.

Monohybrid Cross:

The crossing of two plants differing in one character is called monohybrid cross. Mendel carried out monohybrid experiments on pea plants and based on the results of monohybrid experiment, he formulated the law of segregation. Mendel selected two pea plants, one with a tall stem and the other with a dwarf or short stem. These plants were considered as paren­tal plants (P) and were pure breed. A pure plant is one that breeds true in respect of a particu­lar character for a number of generations. The pure-bred tall and dwarf plants were treated as parents and were crossed.

Seeds were collected from these plants. These seeds were sown and a group of plants were raised. These plants constituted the first filial generation (F1 gen­eration). All the F1 plants were tall and were inbred. The seeds were collected and the next generation (F2) was raised. In the F2 generation, two types of plants were found. They were tall and dwarf. Mendel counted the number of tall and dwarf plants. Of the 1064 plants of F2 generation, 787 plants were tall and 277 plants were dwarf (75% were tall plants and 25% were dwarf plants). Thus the tall plants occurred in the ratio 3: 1 (Fig. 6.6).

c. Mendel’s Principle of Independent Assortment:

The Principle of Independent Assortment describes how different genes independently sepa­rate from one another when reproductive cells develop. Mendel formulated the Principle of Independent Assortment from the observations he got from the dihybrid crosses, which are crosses between organisms that differ with regard to two traits.

It is now known that this independent assortment of genes occurs during meiosis in eukaryotes. Meiosis is a type of cell division that reduces the number of chromosomes in a par­ent cell by half to produce four reproductive cells called gametes. In humans, diploid cells contain 46 chromosomes, with 23 chromosomes inherited from the mother, while a second similar set of 23 chromosomes inherited from the father. Pairs of similar chromosomes are called homologous chromosomes. During meiosis, the pairs of homologous chromosome are divided in half to form haploid cells, and this separation, or assortment of homologous chro­mosomes is random. This means that all the maternal chromosomes will not be separated into one cell, while all the paternal chromosomes are separated into another. Instead, after meiosis occurs, each haploid cell contains a mixture of genes from the organism’s mother and father.

Another feature of independent assortment is recombination. Recombination occurs dur­ing meiosis and is a process that breaks and recombines the pieces of DNA to produce new combinations of genes. Recombination scrambles pieces of maternal and paternal genes, which ensures that genes assort independently from one another. It is important to note that there is an exception to the law of independent assortment for genes that are located very close to one another on the same chromosome because of genetic linkage.

Dihybrids Cross between Two Heterozygous Individuals:

A dihybrid cross is a breeding experiment between P generation (parental generation) organ­isms that differ in two traits. Mendel determined what happens when two plants that are each hybrid for two traits are crossed. Mendel therefore decided to examine the inheritance of two characteristics at once. Based on the concept of segregation, he predicted that traits must sort into gametes separately. By extrapolating from his earlier data, Mendel also predicted that the inheritance of one characteristic did not affect the inheritance of a different characteris­tic.

Mendel tested the idea of trait independence with more complex crosses. First, he gener­ated plants that were pure bred for two characteristics, such as seed colour (yellow and green) and seed shape (round and wrinkled). These plants would serve as the Pi generation for the experiment. In this case, Mendel crossed the plants with Round and Yellow seeds (RRYY) with plants with wrinkled and green seeds (rryy). From his earlier monohybrid crosses, Mendel knew which traits were dominant- round and yellow.

So, in the F 1 genera­tion, he expected all round, yellow seeds from crossing these pure bred varieties, and that is exactly what he observed. Mendel knew that each of the Fi progeny were dihybrids; in other words, they contained both alleles for each characteristic (RrYy). He then crossed individual Fi plants (with genotypes RrYy) with one another. This is called a dihybrid cross. Mendel’s results from this cross were present in a 9:3:3:1 ratio. The outcome shows a phenotypic ratio of 9 of the offspring having yellow round peas, 3 having yellow wrinkled peas, 3 having green round peas and 1 having green wrinkled peas. This is a classic 9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio which is always the result in a dihybrid cross between two heterozygotes with unlinked traits.

The proportion of each trait was still approximately 3:1 for both seed shape and seed colour. In other words, the resulting seed shape and seed colour looked as if they had come from two parallel monohybrid crosses; even though two characteristics were involved in one cross, these traits behaved as though they had segregated independently. From these data, Mendel developed the third principle of inheritance- the principle of independent assortment i.e. alleles at one locus segregate into gametes independently of alleles at other loci. Such gametes are formed in equal frequencies (Fig. 6.7).

Trihybrid Cross:

A trihybrid cross is a breeding experiment between P generation (parental generation) organ­isms that differ in three traits (Fig. 6.8).

5. Essay on the Test Cross :

A test cross is a way to explore the genotype, the genetic makeup of an organism. Early use of the test cross was as an experimental mating test used to determine what alleles are pre­sent in the genotype. Consequently, a test cross can help to determine whether a dominant phenotype is homozygous or heterozygous for a specific allele.

Diploid organisms, like humans, have two alleles at each genetic locus, or position, and one allele is inherited from each parent. Different alleles do not always produce equal outward effects or phenotypes. One allele can be dominant and mask the effect of a second recessive allele in a heterozygous organism that carries two different alleles at a specific locus. Recessive alleles only express their phenotype if an organism carries two identical copies of the recessive allele, meaning it is homozygous for the recessive allele. This means that the genotype of an organism with a dominant phenotype may be either homozygous or heterozygous for the dominant allele. Therefore, it is impossible to identify the genotype of an organism with a dominant trait by visually examining its phenotype.

A test cross is the means by which a scientist can determine whether an individual with a dominant phenotype has a homozygous (AA) or heterozygous (Aa) dominant genotype. The test cross involves mating the individual with the dominant phenotype to an individual with a recessive (aa) phenotype and observing the offspring produced. If the individual being tested is homozygous dominant, then all offspring will have a dominant phenotype, since all the offspring will have at least one A (dominant) allele.

7. Essay on the Limitations of Mendelian System :

The simple system of Mendelian genetics is very powerful and serves to explain the inheri­tance patterns of numerous traits. However, many traits are controlled by many genes acting in tandem, and thus do not obey strict Mendelian patterns (although their constituent genes may). Furthermore, many human traits are strongly influenced by the environment as well, and therefore their phenotypes cannot be said to be Mendelian (though the genetic compo­nents may be). In sum, Mendelian patterns are important, but cannot be applied universally. Individual traits must be researched to find out if they obey typical Mendelian patterns.

8. Essay on the Polygenic or Quantitative Inheritance :

When a trait (feature or character) is controlled by a single gene it is termed monogenic inheritance. Many traits or features are controlled by a number of different genes. For exam­ple, the skin colour of humans and the kernel colour of wheat results from the combined effect of several genes, none of which are singly dominant. Polygenes affecting a particular trait are found on many chromosomes. Each of these genes has equal contribution and cumulative the total effect. Three to four genes contribute towards formation of the pigment in the skin of humans.

So there is a continuous variation in skin colour from very fair to very dark. Such inheritance controlled by many genes is termed quantitative inheritance or poly­genic (poly meaning due many genes) inheritance. In polygenic inheritance, each dominant gene controls equally the intensity of the character. The effect of the dominant genes in cumulative and the intensity of character or trait depend upon the number of dominant genes (Fig. 6.10).

9. Essay on Multiple Alleles:

Alleles are located in corresponding parts of homologous chromosomes, only one member of a pair can be present in a given chromosome and only two are present in a cell of a diploid. Alleles are genes that are members of the same gene pair, each kind of allele affecting a trait differently than the other. A diploid organism has, by its definition, only two alleles at one time, yet exceptions to the rules do appear. Many examples were found where more than two alternative alleles, also called multiple alleles, are present.

In these cases two or more differ­ent mutations must have taken place at the same locus but in different individuals or at different times. Multiple alleles are alternative states at the same locus. The different alleles of a series are usually represented by the same symbol. Subscripts and superscripts are used to identify different members of a series of alleles. Most alleles produce variations of the same trait, but some produce very different phenotypes.

The most famous example of multiple alleles was discovered in rabbits. It was known that Albino rabbits were produced on occasion in variously coloured rabbit populations. After conducting a monohybrid cross between a coloured and Albino rabbit, it was discov­ered that the members of a pair of alternative genes, either c a or C, must be responsible for coloured or albino rabbits. A cross of homozygous coloured (CC) and albino (c a c a ) rabbits were made and the F1 generation was all coloured, while the F2 generation had three col­oured and one albino. This showed that one pair of alleles was involved, the wild C and the mutant allele c a . It was determined that C was dominant over c a (Fig. 6.11).

Figure 6.11: Inheritance of skin colour

10. Essay on the Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance :

Sutton and Boveri in 1902 observed by that maternal (from mother) and paternal (from fa­ther) character come together in the progeny which is diploid or2n and has chromosomes in pairs and later on segregate during the formation of gametes. The gametes have a single chromosome from each pair and are haploid or n. Chromosomes from two parents come to­gether in the same zygote as a result of the fusion of two gametes and again separate out dur­ing the formation of gametes. Chromosomes are filamentous bodies present in the nucleus and seen only during cell division. The above two observations proved that there is a remarkable similarity between the behavior of character during inheritance and that of chro­mosomes during meiosis.

This led Sutton and Boveri to propose ‘chromosomal theory of inheritance’ and its salient features are as follows:

a. The somatic (body) cells of an organism, which are derived by the repeated division of zygote have two identical sets of chromosomes, i.e., they are diploid. Out of these, one set of chromosomes is received from the mother (maternal chromosomes) and one set from the father (paternal chromosomes). Two chromosomes of one type (carrying same genes) constitute a homologous pair. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes.

b. The chromosomes of homologous pair separate out during meiosis at the time of gamete formation.

c. The behavior of chromosomes during meiosis indicates that Mendelian factors or genes are located linearly on the chromosomes. With progress in molecular biology it is now known that a chromosome is made up of a molecule of DNA and segments of DNA are the genes.

Essay on Sex-Linked Characteristics :

In animals the sex is determined by the presence or absence of the Y chromosome. The X and Y chromosomes are not homologous but are completely different chromosomes which carry unique information. No human can exist without at least one X chromosome. There is a viable human phenotype that has one X chromosome and no companion X or Y. These individuals are said to have the Turner syndrome. Turner syndrome (X 0) individuals are females who are of normal to above intelligence and usually have few deficiencies consider­ing their lack of an entire chromosome. One major deficiency of Turner syndrome is sterility and non-development of secondary sexual characteristics.

Certain traits in humans and other organisms can demonstrate sex-linked inheritance of characteristics. This means that the inherited traits are present on the sex determining chro­mosomes the X or the Y. Since there appears to be more information on the X chromosome than on the Y chromosome of humans, most known sex-linked characteristics are actually X- linked characteristics.

In sex-linked traits, such as colour-blindness, the gene for the trait is found on the X chromosome (a sex chromosome). Sex-linked traits affect primarily males, since they have only one copy of the X chromosome (male genotype: XY). Females, who have two copies of the X chromosome, are affected only if they are homozygous for the trait. Females can, however, be carriers for sex-linked traits, passing their X chromosomes on to their sons. Sex-linked inheritance works as follows- if a female carrier and a normal male give birth to a daughter, she has a 1 in 2 chance of being a carrier of the trait (like her mother). If the child is a son, he has a 1 in 2 chance of being affected by the trait. If a female carrier and an affected male give birth to a daughter, she will either be affected or be a carrier. If the child is a son, he will either be affected or be entirely free of the gene.

Another example of a sex-linked trait is haemophilia, made famous by the “Queen Victoria pedigree” of the European nobility. Beginning with Queen Victoria of England (in whom it was probably a spontaneous mutation), the haemophilia gene spread quickly throughout the European rulers (who intermarried as a matter of course). The disease, which prevents blood from clotting properly and renders a minor injury a life-threatening event, claimed several young men of the royal line. Especially since male heirs were pre­ferred over female as successors to the thrones of Europe, the spread of such a debilitating disease was a major problem.

11. Essay on the Linkage and Crossing Over :

The fact behind Mendel’s success was the genes encoding his selected traits did not reside close together on the same chromosome. If they had, his dihybrid cross results would have been much more confusing, and he might not have discovered the law of independent assort­ment. The law of independent assortment holds true as long as two different genes are on separate chromosomes. When the genes are on separate chromosomes, the two alleles of one gene (A and a) will segregate into gametes independently of the two alleles of the other gene (B and b). Equal numbers of four different gametes will result- AB, aB, Ab, ab. But if the two genes are on the same chromosome, then they will be linked and will segregate together during meiosis, producing only two kinds of gametes.

For instance, if the genes for seed shape and seed colour were on the same chromosome and a homozygous double dominant (yellow and round, RRYY) plant was crossed with a homozygous double recessive (green and wrinkled, rryy), the F 1 hybrid offspring, as usual, would be double heterozygous dominant (yellow and round, RrYy). However, since in this example the R and Y are linked together on the chromosome inherited from the dominant parent, with r and y linked together on the other chromosome, only two different gametes can be formed- RY and ry.

Therefore, instead of 16 different genotypes in the F 2 offspring, only three are possible: RRYY, RrYy, rryy and instead of four different phenotypes, only the original two will exist. Notice that the inheritance pattern now resembles that seen in a monohybrid cross, with a 3:1 phenotypic ratio, rather than the 9:3:3:1 ratio expected from the dihybrid cross. If physically linked on a single chromosome, the round and yellow alleles would segregate together, and the wrinkled and green alleles would segregate together, no round green seeds or wrinkled yellow seeds would ever appear.

The above explanation, however, neglects the influence of the crossing over of genetic material that occurs during meiosis. The farther away two genes are from one another, the more likely an exchange point for crossing over will form between them. At these exchange points, the alleles of one gene switch to the opposite homologous chromosome, while the other gene alleles remain with their original chromosomes. When alleles switch places like this, the resulting gametes are called recombinant. In the example above, the original paren­tal gametes would be RY and ry, while the recombinant gametes would be Ry and rY. Thus four different kinds of gametes will be formed, instead of only two formed when the genes were linked (Fig. 6.12).

If two genes are extremely close together, crossing over will almost never occur between them, and the recombinant gametes will almost never form. If they are very far apart on the chromosome, crossing over will almost certainly occur between them, and recombinant gam­etes will form just as often as if the genes were on different chromosomes (50 percent of re­combinant). If the genes are at an intermediate distance from each other, crossing over may sometimes occur between them and sometimes not (Fig. 6.13).

Therefore, the percentage of recombinant gametes (reflected in the percentage of recombinant offspring) correlates with the distance between two genes on a chromosome. By comparing the recombination rates of multiple different pairs of genes on the same chromosome, the relative position of each gene along the chromosome can be determined. This method of ordering genes on a chromosome is called a linkage map.

12. Essay on Mutations:

Mutations are errors in the genotype that create new alleles and can result in a variety of ge­netic disorders. In order for a mutation to be inherited from one generation to another, it must occur in sex cells, such as eggs and sperm, rather than in somatic cells. The best way to detect a genetic disorder is karyotyping.

i. Autosomal Mutations :

There are certain human genetic diseases which are inherited in a Mendelian fashion such as disease phenotype will have either a clearly dominant or clearly recessive pattern of inheri­tance, similar to the traits in Mendel’s peas. Such a pattern will usually only occur if the dis­ease is caused by an abnormality in a single gene. The mutations that cause these diseases occur in genes on the autosomal chromosomes, the chromosomes that determine bodily char­acteristics and exist in all cells, both sex and somatic, as opposed to sex-linked diseases.

ii. Recessive Disorders :

Genetic disorders are initially arises as a new mutation that changes a single gene so that it no longer produces a protein that functions normally. A disease resulting from a mutation that an allele which produces a non-functional protein will be inherited in a recessive fashion so that the disease phenotype will only appear when both copies of the gene carry the muta­tion, resulting in a total absence of the necessary protein. If only one copy of the mutated allele is present, the individual is a heterozygous carrier, showing no signs of the disease but able to transmit the disease gene to the next generation.

Albinism is an example of a recessive illness, resulting from a mutation in a gene that normally encodes a protein needed for pigment production in the skin and eyes. Many recessive illnesses occur with much greater frequency in particular racial or ethnic groups that have a history of intermarrying within their own community. For example, Tay-Sachs disease is especially common among people of Eastern European Jewish descent. Other well-known autosomal recessive disorders include sickle-cell anaemia and cystic fibrosis.

iii. Dominant Disorders :

Usually, a dominant phenotype results from the presence of at least one normal allele pro­ducing a protein that functions normally. In the case of a dominant genetic illness, there is a mutation that results in the production of a protein with an abnormal and harmful action. Only one copy of such an allele is needed to produce disease, because the presence of the normal allele and protein cannot prevent the harmful action of the mutant protein. Hunting­ton’s disease, which killed folksinger Woody Guthrie, is a dominant genetic illness. A single mutant allele produces an abnormal version of the Huntington protein; this abnormal protein accumulates in particular regions of the brain and gradually kills the brain cells.

iv. Chromosomal Disorders :

Mutation of a single gene results in recessive and dominant characteristics. Some genetic disorders result from the gain or loss of an entire chromosome. Normally, paired homolo­gous chromosomes separate from each other during the first division of meiosis. If one pair fails to separate, an event called non-disjunction, then one daughter cell will receive both chromosomes and the other daughter cell will receive none. When one of these gametes joins with a normal gamete from the other parent, the resulting offspring will have either one or three copies of the affected chromosome, rather than the usual two.

(a) Trisomy:

A single chromosome contains hundreds to thousands of genes. A zygote with three copies of a chromosome (trisomy), instead of the usual two, generally cannot survive embryonic development. Chromosome 21 is a major exception to this rule; individuals with three copies of this small chromosome (trisomy 21) develop the genetic disorder called Down syndrome. People with Down syndrome show at least mild mental disabilities and have unusual physical features including a flat face, large tongue, and distinctive creases on their palms. They are also at a much greater risk for various health problems such as heart defects and early Alzheimer’s disease.

(b) Monosomy:

The absence of one copy of a chromosome (monosomy) causes even more problems than the presence of an extra copy. Only monosomy of the X chromosome is com­patible with life.

(c) Polyploidy:

Polyploidy occurs when a failure occurs during the formation of the gametes during meiosis. The gametes produced in this instance are diploid rather than haploid. If fertilization occurs with these gametes, the offspring receive an entire extra set of chromo­somes. In humans, polyploidy is always fatal, though in many plants and fish it is not.

Related Articles:

• Mendel’s Law of Inheritance | Genetics
• Laws of Heredity by Mendel | Genetics

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Genetic Engineering Essay Examples

The success of gene therapy in curing genetic disorders.

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The Safety of GM Foods for Human Consumption

Genetically modified (GM) foods have been proven to be a reliable option in an ever expanding world in helping to alleviate world food shortages. Genetically modified foods first appeared in the 1930s and with the advancement of technology, they have proven consistently to be superior...

Rasgrf2 and Gene Transfer Mechanisms

The gene RASGRF2 codes for a protein involved in neuron signalling, including the dopamine reward pathways of the brain. Previous research has shown that at least the "RASGRF2 rs26907" variant is associated with binge drinking and mice engineered to have their version of the same...

Application of Genetic Engeniering to Help Cure Parkinson's Disease

How can genetic engeniering help cure Parkinson's disease? The Parkinson's disease ended many lives, plenty of people have suffered from this disease. The Parkinson disease is a genetically inherited disease, Parkinson's disease is a progressive nervous system disorder that affects movement. Symptoms start gradually, sometimes...

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About Genetic Engineering

Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification or genetic manipulation, is the modification and manipulation of an organism's genes using technology. It is a set of technologies used to change the genetic makeup of cells.

Genetic engineering is the science of manipulating genetic material of an organism. The first artificial genetic modification accomplished using biotechnology was transgenesis, the process of transferring genes from one organism to another, first accomplished by Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen in 1973. It was the result of a series of advancements in techniques that allowed the direct modification of the genome.

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