can you use past tense in a research paper

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Mastering the Use of Tenses in Your Research Paper 

Many students and early career researchers find themselves grappling with various aspects of academic writing. One critical aspect is ensuring correct grammar, most importantly the appropriate use of tenses in your research paper. In this article, we explain the basics of using tenses in scientific writing and list best practices for different sections of your academic manuscript. By understanding the role of tenses in your research paper and applying them accurately, you can enhance the clarity and credibility of our research work. 

Table of Contents

• Understanding the basics: Using tenses in research papers 
• The simple past tense: Literature review, methods 
• The past perfect tense: Methods, conclusion 
• The simple present tense: Introduction, results, tables and figures  
• The present perfect tense: Introduction, literature review 
• The future tense: Discussion, conclusions 
• How Paperpal can help you ensure correct usage of verb tenses in academic writing?  

Understanding the basics: Using tenses in research papers

Tenses in scientific writing serve as valuable tools to indicate the time frame in which certain actions or ideas take place. The simple past tense and simple present tense are the most used tenses in research papers. They are supplemented by the present perfect, past perfect, and occasionally the future tense. Consistency and precision are crucial in academic writing, so let’s into the basics of tenses in your research paper and discuss the recommended tenses for each section.

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The simple past tense: Literature review, methods

Use this tense in your research paper when talking of or describing specific actions or events that occurred in the past; they should not be linked to the present in the same sentence. The simple past tense is used predominantly in the literature review to talk about existing research on the topic, for example, “Watson and Crick published their landmark paper on the structure of DNA in 1953.” It is also typically used in the methods section to describe the methods used in previous studies; what you did and how you did it. For example, “We selected five samples at random.” This tense in scientific writing can also be used to state facts that were once believed to be true but have since been invalidated, for example, “Bats were thought to be blind.”  

The past perfect tense: Methods, conclusion

Best used to describe two related events that occurred at different times in the past, this tense is typically used in the methods section, especially when describing earlier stages of the experimental procedure. For example, “By the time the temperature and humidity reached optimal levels, the plants had already begun to revive,” or “Respondents who had been grouped into different control groups were given a placebo instead of the new formulation.” Use the past perfect tense in your research paper to describe research or experiments that may have already been completed at the time of writing the manuscript and in the conclusion to summarize the research findings.  

The simple present tense: Introduction, results, tables and figures

A researcher or academic writer can use simple present tense in the introduction when stating the objectives of the study, to interpret the results, discuss the significance of the findings or to present conclusions. Use the simple present tense in your research papers when referring to results presented in tables and figures in your writing. For example, “Fig.3 shows that…”. The present tense an also be used to talk about the research paper as a whole, for example, “Section 4.1 discusses…”. 

This tense in scientific writing is also used to state what is generally true and what is unlikely to change. For example, “The Earth revolves around the sun” or “Human babies generally start speaking when they are 2 years old.” This tense works well in the results section , which indicates what one believes to be true and relevant to the present research. For example, “Robinson maintains that soaking seeds in strong acid helps in breaking seed dormancy.”  

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The present perfect tense: Introduction, literature review

The present perfect tense in scientific writing is used to talk about a past event that is linked to the present or to talk about trends or events that have occurred recently. One may need to use this tense in the introduction while providing a background to the study. For example, “The demand for more sophisticated 5G devices has increased significantly over the past few years.” Additionally, the present perfect tense is also used frequently in the literature review sections while referring to previous research that is fairly recent. For example, “Recent experiments on the samples collected have revealed high levels of saline.”  

The future tense: Discussion, conclusions  

Use the future tense in your research paper when describing events that are expected to occur in the future; this is not very common in academic writing. Typically, its use is limited to the discussion section toward the end, when one needs to make recommendations or indicate a future course of action based on the research results. It is usually recommended that parts of the conclusion section be written in the future tense. For example, “These research findings will open up new possibilities for the effective use of Epsom salt in agriculture.”  

Remember that the grammar and tense guidelines provided above are not hard and fast rules, which can make it more confusing, especially for those who do not have English as their first language. Ask peers to proofread your work carefully for incorrect or mixed tenses in a single sentence or paragraph or turn to trusted AI academic writing tools like Paperpal. 

How Paperpal can help you ensure correct usage of verb tenses in academic writing?   

Academic writing demands high-quality standards; it’s essential to adhere to grammar and style conventions. This ensures conformity with institutional and field-specific standards, and clarity in communicating what was studied, when it happened, and from which perspective the research is discussed. To determine the flow and coherency of your paper, using the right verb tenses is essential.  

Here’s how Paperpal, an AI academic writing assistant, can help you maintain consistency in verb tenses so that readers can easily follow the progress of your ideas and arguments: 

• Sign Up or Log In: Start by creating an account or logging into Paperpal . 
• Paste your content: Once logged in, paste your research paper’s content onto the writing document. 
• Get language and grammar suggestions: Click on the Edit icon on the right pane. Paperpal analyzes your text to identify errors, including verb form, tense usage, spellings, punctuations, word choice, and grammar. 
• Fix errors and review: You can accept the relevant suggestions, and reject the irrelevant ones, and correct all the errors in a go.  

Researchers need to familiarize themselves with the correct use of tenses in research papers, but with Paperpal, it gets easier. Paperpal is not just a grammar and language checker. It also provides rewriting, word reduction, and academic tone checks to align your writing with academic conventions. You can even build your writing skills and learn how to avoid such errors in the future with Paperpal’s detailed writing “tips” with simple explanations for editing suggestions.    

Understanding and implementing the appropriate use of tenses in different sections of your research paper is essential for effective communication of your ideas. By mastering the use of tenses in your research paper, you can ensure clarity, consistency, and accuracy and elevate the quality of your academic writing.  

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• Knowledge Base
• Verb Tenses in Academic Writing | Rules, Differences & Examples

Verb Tenses in Academic Writing | Rules, Differences & Examples

Published on September 22, 2014 by Shane Bryson . Revised on September 18, 2023.

Tense communicates an event’s location in time. The different tenses are identified by their associated verb forms. There are three main verb tenses: past ,  present , and  future .

In English, each of these tenses can take four main aspects:  simple ,  perfect ,  continuous  (also known as  progressive ), and  perfect continuous . The perfect aspect is formed using the verb  to have , while the continuous aspect is formed using the verb  to be .

In academic writing , the most commonly used tenses are the  present simple , the  past simple , and the  present perfect .

Table of contents

Tenses and their functions, when to use the present simple, when to use the past simple, when to use the present perfect, when to use other tenses.

The table below gives an overview of some of the basic functions of tenses and aspects. Tenses locate an event in time, while aspects communicate durations and relationships between events that happen at different times.

It can be difficult to pick the right verb tenses and use them consistently. If you struggle with verb tenses in your thesis or dissertation , you could consider using a thesis proofreading service .

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Use the best grammar checker available to check for common mistakes in your text.

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The present simple is the most commonly used tense in academic writing, so if in doubt, this should be your default choice of tense. There are two main situations where you always need to use the present tense.

Describing facts, generalizations, and explanations

Facts that are always true do not need to be located in a specific time, so they are stated in the present simple. You might state these types of facts when giving background information in your introduction .

• The Eiffel tower  is in Paris.
• Light  travels faster than sound.

Similarly, theories and generalizations based on facts are expressed in the present simple.

• Average income differs by race and gender.
• Older people express less concern about the environment than younger people.

Explanations of terms, theories, and ideas should also be written in the present simple.

• Photosynthesis  refers to  the process by which plants  convert sunlight into chemical energy.
• According to Piketty (2013), inequality grows over time in capitalist economies.

Describing the content of a text

Things that happen within the space of a text should be treated similarly to facts and generalizations.

This applies to fictional narratives in books, films, plays, etc. Use the present simple to describe the events or actions that are your main focus; other tenses can be used to mark different times within the text itself.

• In the first novel, Harry learns he is a wizard and travels  to Hogwarts for the first time, finally escaping the constraints of the family that raised him.

The events in the first part of the sentence are the writer’s main focus, so they are described in the present tense. The second part uses the past tense to add extra information about something that happened prior to those events within the book.

When discussing and analyzing nonfiction, similarly, use the present simple to describe what the author does within the pages of the text ( argues , explains , demonstrates , etc).

• In The History of Sexuality , Foucault asserts that sexual identity is a modern invention.
• Paglia (1993) critiques Foucault’s theory.

This rule also applies when you are describing what you do in your own text. When summarizing the research in your abstract , describing your objectives, or giving an overview of the  dissertation structure in your introduction, the present simple is the best choice of tense.

• This research  aims  to synthesize the two theories.
• Chapter 3 explains  the methodology and discusses ethical issues.
• The paper  concludes with recommendations for further research.

The past simple should be used to describe completed actions and events, including steps in the research process and historical background information.

Reporting research steps

Whether you are referring to your own research or someone else’s, use the past simple to report specific steps in the research process that have been completed.

• Olden (2017) recruited 17 participants for the study.
• We transcribed and coded the interviews before analyzing the results.

The past simple is also the most appropriate choice for reporting the results of your research.

• All of the focus group participants agreed  that the new version  was an improvement.
• We  found a positive correlation between the variables, but it  was not as strong as we  hypothesized .

Describing historical events

Background information about events that took place in the past should also be described in the past simple tense.

• James Joyce  pioneered the modernist use of stream of consciousness.
• Donald Trump’s election in 2016  contradicted the predictions of commentators.

The present perfect is used mainly to describe past research that took place over an unspecified time period. You can also use it to create a connection between the findings of past research and your own work.

Summarizing previous work

When summarizing a whole body of research or describing the history of an ongoing debate, use the present perfect.

• Many researchers  have investigated the effects of poverty on health.
• Studies  have shown a link between cancer and red meat consumption.
• Identity politics has been a topic of heated debate since the 1960s.
• The problem of free will  has vexed philosophers for centuries.

Similarly, when mentioning research that took place over an unspecified time period in the past (as opposed to a specific step or outcome of that research), use the present perfect instead of the past tense.

• Green et al.  have conducted extensive research on the ecological effects of wolf reintroduction.

Emphasizing the present relevance of previous work

When describing the outcomes of past research with verbs like fi nd ,  discover or demonstrate , you can use either the past simple or the present perfect.

The present perfect is a good choice to emphasize the continuing relevance of a piece of research and its consequences for your own work. It  implies that the current research will build on, follow from, or respond to what previous researchers have done.

• Smith (2015) has found that younger drivers are involved in more traffic accidents than older drivers, but more research is required to make effective policy recommendations.
• As Monbiot (2013)  has shown , ecological change is closely linked to social and political processes.

Note, however, that the facts and generalizations that emerge from past research are reported in the present simple.

While the above are the most commonly used tenses in academic writing, there are many cases where you’ll use other tenses to make distinctions between times.

Future simple

The future simple is used for making predictions or stating intentions. You can use it in a research proposal  to describe what you intend to do.

It is also sometimes used for making predictions and stating hypotheses . Take care, though, to avoid making statements about the future that imply a high level of certainty. It’s often a better choice to use other verbs like  expect ,  predict,  and  assume to make more cautious statements.

• There  will be a strong positive correlation.
• We  expect  to find a strong positive correlation.
• H1  predicts a strong positive correlation.

Similarly, when discussing the future implications of your research, rather than making statements with will,  try to use other verbs or modal verbs that imply possibility ( can ,  could ,  may ,  might ).

• These findings  will influence  future approaches to the topic.
• These findings  could influence future approaches to the topic.

Present, past, and future continuous

The continuous aspect is not commonly used in academic writing. It tends to convey an informal tone, and in most cases, the present simple or present perfect is a better choice.

• Some scholars are suggesting that mainstream economic paradigms are no longer adequate.
• Some scholars suggest   that mainstream economic paradigms are no longer adequate.
• Some scholars have suggested   that mainstream economic paradigms are no longer adequate.

However, in certain types of academic writing, such as literary and historical studies, the continuous aspect might be used in narrative descriptions or accounts of past events. It is often useful for positioning events in relation to one another.

• While Harry is traveling to Hogwarts for the first time, he meets many of the characters who will become central to the narrative.
• The country was still recovering from the recession when Donald Trump was elected.

Past perfect

Similarly, the past perfect is not commonly used, except in disciplines that require making fine distinctions between different points in the past or different points in a narrative’s plot.

Sources in this article

We strongly encourage students to use sources in their work. You can cite our article (APA Style) or take a deep dive into the articles below.

Bryson, S. (2023, September 18). Verb Tenses in Academic Writing | Rules, Differences & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved April 17, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/verbs/tenses/

Aarts, B. (2011).  Oxford modern English grammar . Oxford University Press.

Butterfield, J. (Ed.). (2015).  Fowler’s dictionary of modern English usage  (4th ed.). Oxford University Press.

Garner, B. A. (2016).  Garner’s modern English usage (4th ed.). Oxford University Press.

Is this article helpful?

Shane Bryson

Shane finished his master's degree in English literature in 2013 and has been working as a writing tutor and editor since 2009. He began proofreading and editing essays with Scribbr in early summer, 2014.

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How to Use Tenses within Scientific Writing

Written by: Chloe Collier

One’s tense will vary depending on what one is trying to convey within their paper or section of their paper. For example, the tense may change between the methods section and the discussion section.

Abstract --> Past tense

• The abstract is usually in the past tense due to it showing what has already been studied.

Example: “This study was conducted at the Iyarina Field School, and within the indigenous Waorani community within Yasuni National Park region.”

Introduction --> Present tense

• Example: “ Clidemia heterophylla and Piperaceae musteum are both plants with ant domata, meaning that there is an ant mutualism which protects them from a higher level of herbivory.”

Methods --> Past tense

• In the methods section one would use past tense due to what they have done was in the past.
• It has been debated whether one should use active or passive voice. The scientific journal Nature states that one should use active voice as to convey the concepts more directly.
• Example: “In the geographic areas selected for the study, ten random focal plants were selected as points for the study.”

Results --> Past tense

• Example: “We observed that there was no significant statistical difference in herbivory on Piperaceae between the two locations, Yasuni National Park, Ecuador (01° 10’ 11, 13”S and 77° 10’ 01. 47 NW) and Iyarina Field School, Ecuador (01° 02’ 35.2” S and 77° 43’ 02. 45” W), with the one exception being that there was found to be a statistical significance in the number count within a one-meter radius of Piperaceae musteum (Piperaceae).”

Discussion --> Present tense and past tense

• Example: “Symbiotic ant mutualistic relationships within species will defend their host plant since the plant provides them with food. In the case of Melastomataceae, they have swellings at the base of their petioles that house the ants and aid to protect them from herbivores.”
• One would use past tense to summarize one’s results
• Example: “In the future to further this experiment, we would expand this project and expand our sample size in order to have a more solid base for our findings.”

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• Knowledge Base
• Verb Tenses in Academic Writing | Rules, Differences & Examples

Verb Tenses in Academic Writing | Rules, Differences & Examples

Published on 20 October 2022 by Shane Bryson . Revised on 11 September 2023.

Tense communicates an event’s location in time. The different tenses are identified by their associated verb forms. There are three main verb tenses: past ,  present , and  future .

In English, each of these tenses can take four main aspects:  simple ,  perfect ,  continuous  (also known as  progressive ), and  perfect continuous . The perfect aspect is formed using the verb  to have , while the continuous aspect is formed using the verb  to be .

In academic writing , the most commonly used tenses are the  present simple , the  past simple , and the  present perfect .

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Table of contents

Tenses and their functions, when to use the present simple, when to use the past simple, when to use the present perfect, when to use other tenses.

The table below gives an overview of some of the basic functions of tenses and aspects. Tenses locate an event in time, while aspects communicate durations and relationships between events that happen at different times.

It can be difficult to pick the right verb tenses and use them consistently. If you struggle with verb tenses in your thesis or dissertation , you could consider using a thesis proofreading service .

The only proofreading tool specialized in correcting academic writing

The academic proofreading tool has been trained on 1000s of academic texts and by native English editors. Making it the most accurate and reliable proofreading tool for students.

Correct my document today

The present simple is the most commonly used tense in academic writing, so if in doubt, this should be your default choice of tense. There are two main situations where you always need to use the present tense.

Describing facts, generalisations, and explanations

Facts that are always true do not need to be located in a specific time, so they are stated in the present simple. You might state these types of facts when giving background information in your introduction .

• The Eiffel tower  is in Paris.
• Light  travels faster than sound.

Similarly, theories and generalisations based on facts are expressed in the present simple.

• Average income differs by race and gender.
• Older people express less concern about the environment than younger people.

Explanations of terms, theories, and ideas should also be written in the present simple.

• Photosynthesis  refers to  the process by which plants  convert sunlight into chemical energy.
• According to Piketty (2013), inequality grows over time in capitalist economies.

Describing the content of a text

Things that happen within the space of a text should be treated similarly to facts and generalisations.

This applies to fictional narratives in books, films, plays, etc. Use the present simple to describe the events or actions that are your main focus; other tenses can be used to mark different times within the text itself.

• In the first novel, Harry learns he is a wizard and travels  to Hogwarts for the first time, finally escaping the constraints of the family that raised him.

The events in the first part of the sentence are the writer’s main focus, so they are described in the present tense. The second part uses the past tense to add extra information about something that happened prior to those events within the book.

When discussing and analyzing nonfiction, similarly, use the present simple to describe what the author does within the pages of the text ( argues , explains , demonstrates , etc).

• In The History of Sexuality , Foucault asserts that sexual identity is a modern invention.
• Paglia (1993) critiques Foucault’s theory.

This rule also applies when you are describing what you do in your own text. When summarising the research in your abstract , describing your objectives, or giving an overview of the  dissertation structure in your introduction, the present simple is the best choice of tense.

• This research  aims to synthesise the two theories.
• Chapter 3 explains  the methodology and discusses ethical issues.
• The paper  concludes with recommendations for further research.

The past simple should be used to describe completed actions and events, including steps in the research process and historical background information.

Reporting research steps

Whether you are referring to your own research or someone else’s, use the past simple to report specific steps in the research process that have been completed.

• Olden (2017) recruited 17 participants for the study.
• We transcribed and coded the interviews before analyzing the results.

The past simple is also the most appropriate choice for reporting the results of your research.

• All of the focus group participants agreed  that the new version  was an improvement.
• We  found a positive correlation between the variables, but it  was not as strong as we  hypothesised .

Describing historical events

Background information about events that took place in the past should also be described in the past simple tense.

• James Joyce  pioneered the modernist use of stream of consciousness.
• Donald Trump’s election in 2016  contradicted the predictions of commentators.

The present perfect is used mainly to describe past research that took place over an unspecified time period. You can also use it to create a connection between the findings of past research and your own work.

Summarising previous work

When summarising a whole body of research or describing the history of an ongoing debate, use the present perfect.

• Many researchers  have investigated the effects of poverty on health.
• Studies  have shown a link between cancer and red meat consumption.
• Identity politics has been a topic of heated debate since the 1960s.
• The problem of free will  has vexed philosophers for centuries.

Similarly, when mentioning research that took place over an unspecified time period in the past (as opposed to a specific step or outcome of that research), use the present perfect instead of the past tense.

• Green et al.  have conducted extensive research on the ecological effects of wolf reintroduction.

Emphasising the present relevance of previous work

When describing the outcomes of past research with verbs like fi nd ,  discover or demonstrate , you can use either the past simple or the present perfect.

The present perfect is a good choice to emphasise the continuing relevance of a piece of research and its consequences for your own work. It implies that the current research will build on, follow from, or respond to what previous researchers have done.

• Smith (2015) has found that younger drivers are involved in more traffic accidents than older drivers, but more research is required to make effective policy recommendations.
• As Monbiot (2013)  has shown , ecological change is closely linked to social and political processes.

Note, however, that the facts and generalisations that emerge from past research are reported in the present simple.

While the above are the most commonly used tenses in academic writing, there are many cases where you’ll use other tenses to make distinctions between times.

Future simple

The future simple is used for making predictions or stating intentions. You can use it in a research proposal  to describe what you intend to do.

It is also sometimes used for making predictions and stating hypotheses . Take care, though, to avoid making statements about the future that imply a high level of certainty. It’s often a better choice to use other verbs like  expect ,  predict,  and  assume to make more cautious statements.

• There  will be a strong positive correlation.
• We  expect  to find a strong positive correlation.
• H1  predicts a strong positive correlation.

Similarly, when discussing the future implications of your research, rather than making statements with will,  try to use other verbs or modal verbs that imply possibility ( can ,  could ,  may ,  might ).

• These findings  will influence  future approaches to the topic.
• These findings  could influence future approaches to the topic.

Present, past, and future continuous

The continuous aspect is not commonly used in academic writing. It tends to convey an informal tone, and in most cases, the present simple or present perfect is a better choice.

• Some scholars are suggesting that mainstream economic paradigms are no longer adequate.
• Some scholars suggest   that mainstream economic paradigms are no longer adequate.
• Some scholars have suggested   that mainstream economic paradigms are no longer adequate.

However, in certain types of academic writing, such as literary and historical studies, the continuous aspect might be used in narrative descriptions or accounts of past events. It is often useful for positioning events in relation to one another.

• While Harry is traveling to Hogwarts for the first time, he meets many of the characters who will become central to the narrative.
• The country was still recovering from the recession when Donald Trump was elected.

Past perfect

Similarly, the past perfect is not commonly used, except in disciplines that require making fine distinctions between different points in the past or different points in a narrative’s plot.

Sources for this article

We strongly encourage students to use sources in their work. You can cite our article (APA Style) or take a deep dive into the articles below.

Bryson, S. (2023, September 11). Verb Tenses in Academic Writing | Rules, Differences & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 15 April 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/english-language/verb-tenses/

Aarts, B. (2011).  Oxford modern English grammar . Oxford University Press.

Butterfield, J. (Ed.). (2015).  Fowler’s dictionary of modern English usage  (4th ed.). Oxford University Press.

Garner, B. A. (2016).  Garner’s modern English usage (4th ed.). Oxford University Press.

Is this article helpful?

Shane Bryson

Shane finished his master's degree in English literature in 2013 and has been working as a writing tutor and editor since 2009. He began proofreading and editing essays with Scribbr in early summer, 2014.

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Essential English Grammar and Communication Strategies pp 119–127 Cite as

Present and Past Tenses Used in Research Papers

• Adrian Wallwork 3  
• First Online: 30 June 2022

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Part of the book series: English for Academic Research ((EAR))

Below are some guidelines on the use of the three most common tenses in research papers: present simple , present perfect , past simple . These guidelines are NOT grammatical rules. The guidelines can be broken. They vary depending on the author, the discipline, and the journal.

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Wallwork, A. (2022). Present and Past Tenses Used in Research Papers. In: Essential English Grammar and Communication Strategies. English for Academic Research. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-95612-7_11

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Effective Writing

To construct sentences that reflect your ideas, focus these sentences appropriately. Express one idea per sentence. Use your current topic — that is, what you are writing about — as the grammatical subject of your sentence (see Verbs: Choosing between active and passive voice ). When writing a complex sentence (a sentence that includes several clauses), place the main idea in the main clause rather than a subordinate clause. In particular, focus on the phenomenon at hand, not on the fact that you observed it.

Constructing your sentences logically is a good start, but it may not be enough. To ensure they are readable, make sure your sentences do not tax readers' short-term memory by obliging these readers to remember long pieces of text before knowing what to do with them. In other words, keep together what goes together. Then, work on conciseness: See whether you can replace long phrases with shorter ones or eliminate words without loss of clarity or accuracy.

The following screens cover the drafting process in more detail. Specifically, they discuss how to use verbs effectively and how to take care of your text's mechanics.

Shutterstock. Much of the strength of a clause comes from its verb. Therefore, to express your ideas accurately, choose an appropriate verb and use it well. In particular, use it in the right tense, choose carefully between active and passive voice, and avoid dangling verb forms.

Verbs are for describing actions, states, or occurrences. To give a clause its full strength and keep it short, do not bury the action, state, or occurrence in a noun (typically combined with a weak verb), as in "The catalyst produced a significant increase in conversion rate." Instead write, "The catalyst increased the conversion rate significantly." The examples below show how an action, state, or occurrence can be moved from a noun back to a verb.

Using the right tense

In your scientific paper, use verb tenses (past, present, and future) exactly as you would in ordinary writing. Use the past tense to report what happened in the past: what you did, what someone reported, what happened in an experiment, and so on. Use the present tense to express general truths, such as conclusions (drawn by you or by others) and atemporal facts (including information about what the paper does or covers). Reserve the future tense for perspectives: what you will do in the coming months or years. Typically, most of your sentences will be in the past tense, some will be in the present tense, and very few, if any, will be in the future tense.

Work done We collected blood samples from . . . Groves et al. determined the growth rate of . . . Consequently, astronomers decided to rename . . . Work reported Jankowsky reported a similar growth rate . . . In 2009, Chu published an alternative method to . . . Irarrázaval observed the opposite behavior in . . . Observations The mice in Group A developed , on average, twice as much . . . The number of defects increased sharply . . . The conversion rate was close to 95% . . .

Present tense

General truths Microbes in the human gut have a profound influence on . . . The Reynolds number provides a measure of . . . Smoking increases the risk of coronary heart disease . . . Atemporal facts This paper presents the results of . . . Section 3.1 explains the difference between . . . Behbood's 1969 paper provides a framework for . . .

Future tense

Perspectives In a follow-up experiment, we will study the role of . . . The influence of temperature will be the object of future research . . .

Note the difference in scope between a statement in the past tense and the same statement in the present tense: "The temperature increased linearly over time" refers to a specific experiment, whereas "The temperature increases linearly over time" generalizes the experimental observation, suggesting that the temperature always increases linearly over time in such circumstances.

In complex sentences, you may have to combine two different tenses — for example, "In 1905, Albert Einstein postulated that the speed of light is constant . . . . " In this sentence, postulated refers to something that happened in the past (in 1905) and is therefore in the past tense, whereas is expresses a general truth and is in the present tense.

Choosing between active and passive voice

In English, verbs can express an action in one of two voices. The active voice focuses on the agent: "John measured the temperature." (Here, the agent — John — is the grammatical subject of the sentence.) In contrast, the passive voice focuses on the object that is acted upon: "The temperature was measured by John." (Here, the temperature, not John, is the grammatical subject of the sentence.)

To choose between active and passive voice, consider above all what you are discussing (your topic) and place it in the subject position. For example, should you write "The preprocessor sorts the two arrays" or "The two arrays are sorted by the preprocessor"? If you are discussing the preprocessor, the first sentence is the better option. In contrast, if you are discussing the arrays, the second sentence is better. If you are unsure what you are discussing, consider the surrounding sentences: Are they about the preprocessor or the two arrays?

The desire to be objective in scientific writing has led to an overuse of the passive voice, often accompanied by the exclusion of agents: "The temperature was measured " (with the verb at the end of the sentence). Admittedly, the agent is often irrelevant: No matter who measured the temperature, we would expect its value to be the same. However, a systematic preference for the passive voice is by no means optimal, for at least two reasons.

For one, sentences written in the passive voice are often less interesting or more difficult to read than those written in the active voice. A verb in the active voice does not require a person as the agent; an inanimate object is often appropriate. For example, the rather uninteresting sentence "The temperature was measured . . . " may be replaced by the more interesting "The measured temperature of 253°C suggests a secondary reaction in . . . ." In the second sentence, the subject is still temperature (so the focus remains the same), but the verb suggests is in the active voice. Similarly, the hard-to-read sentence "In this section, a discussion of the influence of the recirculating-water temperature on the conversion rate of . . . is presented " (long subject, verb at the end) can be turned into "This section discusses the influence of . . . . " The subject is now section , which is what this sentence is really about, yet the focus on the discussion has been maintained through the active-voice verb discusses .

As a second argument against a systematic preference for the passive voice, readers sometimes need people to be mentioned. A sentence such as "The temperature is believed to be the cause for . . . " is ambiguous. Readers will want to know who believes this — the authors of the paper, or the scientific community as a whole? To clarify the sentence, use the active voice and set the appropriate people as the subject, in either the third or the first person, as in the examples below.

Biologists believe the temperature to be . . . Keustermans et al. (1997) believe the temperature to be . . . The authors believe the temperature to be . . . We believe the temperature to be . . .

Avoiding dangling verb forms

A verb form needs a subject, either expressed or implied. When the verb is in a non-finite form, such as an infinitive ( to do ) or a participle ( doing ), its subject is implied to be the subject of the clause, or sometimes the closest noun phrase. In such cases, construct your sentences carefully to avoid suggesting nonsense. Consider the following two examples.

To dissect its brain, the affected fly was mounted on a . . . After aging for 72 hours at 50°C, we observed a shift in . . .

Here, the first sentence implies that the affected fly dissected its own brain, and the second implies that the authors of the paper needed to age for 72 hours at 50°C in order to observe the shift. To restore the intended meaning while keeping the infinitive to dissect or the participle aging , change the subject of each sentence as appropriate:

To dissect its brain, we mounted the affected fly on a . . . After aging for 72 hours at 50°C, the samples exhibited a shift in . . .

Alternatively, you can change or remove the infinitive or participle to restore the intended meaning:

To have its brain dissected , the affected fly was mounted on a . . . After the samples aged for 72 hours at 50°C, we observed a shift in . . .

In communication, every detail counts. Although your focus should be on conveying your message through an appropriate structure at all levels, you should also save some time to attend to the more mechanical aspects of writing in English, such as using abbreviations, writing numbers, capitalizing words, using hyphens when needed, and punctuating your text correctly.

Using abbreviations

Beware of overusing abbreviations, especially acronyms — such as GNP for gold nanoparticles . Abbreviations help keep a text concise, but they can also render it cryptic. Many acronyms also have several possible extensions ( GNP also stands for gross national product ).

Write acronyms (and only acronyms) in all uppercase ( GNP , not gnp ).

Introduce acronyms systematically the first time they are used in a document. First write the full expression, then provide the acronym in parentheses. In the full expression, and unless the journal to which you submit your paper uses a different convention, capitalize the letters that form the acronym: "we prepared Gold NanoParticles (GNP) by . . . " These capitals help readers quickly recognize what the acronym designates.

• Do not use capitals in the full expression when you are not introducing an acronym: "we prepared gold nanoparticles by… "
• As a more general rule, use first what readers know or can understand best, then put in parentheses what may be new to them. If the acronym is better known than the full expression, as may be the case for techniques such as SEM or projects such as FALCON, consider placing the acronym first: "The FALCON (Fission-Activated Laser Concept) program at…"
• In the rare case that an acronym is commonly known, you might not need to introduce it. One example is DNA in the life sciences. When in doubt, however, introduce the acronym.

In papers, consider the abstract as a stand-alone document. Therefore, if you use an acronym in both the abstract and the corresponding full paper, introduce that acronym twice: the first time you use it in the abstract and the first time you use it in the full paper. However, if you find that you use an acronym only once or twice after introducing it in your abstract, the benefit of it is limited — consider avoiding the acronym and using the full expression each time (unless you think some readers know the acronym better than the full expression).

Writing numbers

In general, write single-digit numbers (zero to nine) in words, as in three hours , and multidigit numbers (10 and above) in numerals, as in 24 hours . This rule has many exceptions, but most of them are reasonably intuitive, as shown hereafter.

Use numerals for numbers from zero to nine

• when using them with abbreviated units ( 3 mV );
• in dates and times ( 3 October , 3 pm );
• to identify figures and other items ( Figure 3 );
• for consistency when these numbers are mixed with larger numbers ( series of 3, 7, and 24 experiments ).

Use words for numbers above 10 if these numbers come at the beginning of a sentence or heading ("Two thousand eight was a challenging year for . . . "). As an alternative, rephrase the sentence to avoid this issue altogether ("The year 2008 was challenging for . . . " ) .

Capitalizing words

Capitals are often overused. In English, use initial capitals

• at beginnings: the start of a sentence, of a heading, etc.;
• for proper nouns, including nouns describing groups (compare physics and the Physics Department );
• for items identified by their number (compare in the next figure and in Figure 2 ), unless the journal to which you submit your paper uses a different convention;
• for specific words: names of days ( Monday ) and months ( April ), adjectives of nationality ( Algerian ), etc.

In contrast, do not use initial capitals for common nouns: Resist the temptation to glorify a concept, technique, or compound with capitals. For example, write finite-element method (not Finite-Element Method ), mass spectrometry (not Mass Spectrometry ), carbon dioxide (not Carbon Dioxide ), and so on, unless you are introducing an acronym (see Mechanics: Using abbreviations ).

Using hyphens

Punctuating text.

Punctuation has many rules in English; here are three that are often a challenge for non-native speakers.

As a rule, insert a comma between the subject of the main clause and whatever comes in front of it, no matter how short, as in "Surprisingly, the temperature did not increase." This comma is not always required, but it often helps and never hurts the meaning of a sentence, so it is good practice.

In series of three or more items, separate items with commas ( red, white, and blue ; yesterday, today, or tomorrow ). Do not use a comma for a series of two items ( black and white ).

In displayed lists, use the same punctuation as you would in normal text (but consider dropping the and ).

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6 Tips: Past Or Present Tense In Scientific Writing

Past or present tense in scientific writing for research papers & thesis.

Do you come across the following three questions when writing a thesis or scientific journal research article ?

1) Should I use  past or present tense in scientific writing ?

2) What tense to use in scientific paper?

3) What tense should the introduction or methodology be written?

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Bear in mind that tense considerations for academic scientific and thesis writing are vital as this will give impacts to the readers. You can consider the guidelines below to know whether you should use  past or present tense in scientific writing .

1. Abstract

Use the past tense as you have done your research and obtained the conclusive findings.

2. Introduction and Literature Review

Case 1: Use present tense for any background information which can be accepted as fact. Example: Malaysia provides business incubator for the new entrepreneurs.

Case 2: Use present tense when you’re referring to the previous research which conducted years ago and you believe the findings are still true and relevant. Example: Most of the universities in Malaysia are located in city (Chiong, 2010).

Case 3: Use present perfect tense when you want to express contradict or disagreement of the fact such as research gap. Example: Even though many research has been investigated on the mechanical strength of reduced graphene oxide, few experiments have been carried out to discover the mechanical strength after reduced graphene oxide is blending with carbon nanotube.

Case 4: Use past tense for any background information which is obsolete and not tally to the latest research trends. Example: Friendster was a social media to connect people around the world.

Related:  17 Tips: How To Deliver Presentations With Ease And Confidence For Research?

3. methodology.

Case 1: Use past tense with passive voice (past passive) to describe how you conducted the research.Example: MATLAB software was used in this research.

Case 2: Use present tense when you’re referring to tables or figures for explanation purpose. Example: Table 1 illustrates the number of social enterprise in Malaysia in 2014.

Case 1: Use past tense to describe the results you obtained. Example: Results shown that 80% of the junk foods contained chemical additives.

Case 2: Use present tense when you’re referring to tables or figures for explanation purpose. Example: Figure 1 shows the performance of feedforward control with variations of process parameters.

5. Discussion

Case 1: Use the present tense to explain the significance results in your research. Example: Business training and workshop appear to be effective to create more entrepreneurs.

Case 2: Use past tense to summarize research findings, with the present tense to explain the significance results or express your opinion. Example: Job’s dissatisfactions among employees were corresponded to high-stress level, indicating that the turnover rate is high.

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6. Conclusion

Related:  lifestyle of students in malaysia: 8 ways to get happiness in your life .

You have reached the end of the article. Do you feel confident to use the proper and correct past or present tense in scientific writing?

Chiong Sie Jing

Sie Jing is an experienced proofreader and copyeditor with 8+ years of experience proofreading and editing for a variety of clients. He has helped many PhD students to publish their research in international journals with high impact factor. He is also a Certified Internet Marketing Practitioner (CIMP) & Certified Six Sigma Black Belt (CSSBB).

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Verb tenses in scientific writing: Which tense should you use?

If you’re fluent in English, using tenses in scientific writing should come naturally to you. You shouldn’t need to flip through a grammar book, ask a freelance editor, or search online for “methods tense” or “literature review tense”.

But verb tenses may start to haunt you if you’re writing an article for a top peer-reviewed journal and you know you have to get every detail right. For example, you may wonder, What tense should be used in methodology sections? Should the introduction or literature review be written in the present tense or past tense?

In this post I’m going to answer these and other questions on verb tenses in scientific writing to make it easier for you to understand which tenses to use in a research paper.

Past or present tense in a cademic writing? It depends.

There’s  no consensus on how authors should be using verb tenses in scientific writing. Here is a summary of the main recommendations of academic writing experts on tenses in scientific writing.

Literature review verb tense

For the literature review, most academic editors recommend using the past simple or present perfect when talking about past research.

Use the past simple to discuss what was done in the past (the authors collected, investigated, analyzed, etc.).

Use present perfect to talk about findings from previous studies that are still valid today (the author has shown, has demonstrated, etc.).

If you don’t want to use the past simple or present perfect tense in literature review sections, your other option is the present simple tense. This is the so-called literary present.

Writing the literature review in the present simple tense helps simulate an ongoing academic conversation , to which you’re contributing (“Author et al. (2021) find…, discuss…, examine… imply…”).

In summary, what tense should the introduction be written in?

• Past simple or present perfect tense for past research
• Present simple for general truths or for the entire literature review section

Verb tenses in the methodology and results sections

For the methodology, almost all academic writing resources agree that the past simple tense is the logical choice. You are discussing what you did (collected data, analyzed them, and derived your results)—and all of that happened in the past.

However, you may also need to use the present simple tense to refer to figures and tables.

In summary, what tense should methods be written in?

For the methodology section, use these tenses:

• the past simple tense to explain your methods
• the present simple tense to refer to figures or tables

What tense should a discussion be written in?

Tenses for the discussion are similar to those for the introduction:

• past simple or present perfect tense when referring to what you did (past research)
• present simple for general truths or for interpretations of your data

Verb tenses in the conclusion section

For the conclusion, you may need to use several tenses. Again, when referring to general truths or implications of your results, use the present simple. When referring to what you did, use the past simple or present perfect tense.

Use the simple past when discussing the research you completed and is no longer continuing. Use the present perfect when discussing an action that started in the past and is still happening now, or an action that happens regularly.

So, for the conclusion, use these tenses:

• present simple for things that are true at the time of writing, the conclusions of your study, and its implications
• past simple or present perfect tense for past work

Knowing how to use verb tenses in scientific writing is better than imitating other authors

In scientific writing, using verb tenses inconsistently or unnecessarily shifting tenses means sloppy writing. A poorly written manuscript submitted to a peer-reviewed journal will come back with a long list of revisions—if it’s accepted for publication. Hiring a freelance editor for research papers can help you polish your writing style and improve the likelihood that your manuscript will be accepted the second time.

If you don’t want to hire a freelance editor, you may need to edit your own research paper . Mastering verb tenses in scientific writing will help you make the right choice for each section of your paper.

Try to resist the temptation to imitate others’ writing style. It’s common for new authors to learn academic writing the same way they learned to speak: by imitation. They peruse some articles published in their target journal to see what verb tenses other authors used and then make the same choices.

However, this is not such a great idea, because not all published articles are examples of good writing. You risk imitating an author that didn’t pay much attention to verb tenses in scientific writing, or whose work was edited by someone with little experience.

How to choose the right verb tenses for a research paper

If emulating others’ writing style comes with the risk of picking up bad habits, how do you choose the right verb tense to use in a scholarly paper?

Unfortunately, style guides, academic writing books, and academic editors give conflicting advice. A solution to this problem is to follow the recommendations of your university’s writing center if you’re writing a PhD thesis or dissertation. If, however, you’re writing a research paper for a journal, follow its guidelines.

Some publishers may let you choose any style guide as long as you’re consistent. In that case, go with the style popular in your academic field (for example, APA Style in social sciences).

Example: Verb tenses in APA Style

If you need to follow the APA Style, it has precise instructions on using verb tenses in research papers:

• Introduction and literature review: To talk about previous studies, use the past simple or present perfect; for findings that continue to be true, use the present simple.
• Methodology and results: To talk about your methods or results, use the past simple or present perfect.
• Conclusions: Write the conclusions of your research and implications of your findings in the present simple.

Here are some examples to help you understand how to use verb tenses in APA:

• Past simple tense to discuss past work:

Author A (2017) showed that varied populations display similar patterns, but Author B demonstrated that patterns vary wildly

• Present perfect to discuss findings from previous studies that are still valid today:

Other researchers have described similar processes in other environments

• Present simple to express general truths, facts, or ideas accepted today:

Most researchers agree that our species appeared in Africa

• Present perfect or past simple tense to describe your methods and results:

We have observed no variation in the economic growth rate, but found it depends on several factors

• Present simple tense to describe the conclusions and implications of your study:

Our results indicate a strong correlation between A and B, but we need further research in this area

Use the right tenses in scientific writing for clarity

The goal of using the right verb tenses in scientific writing is clarity. So, whether you follow your instincts, your advisor’s suggestions, an editor’s recommendations, or a style guide, aim at clarity and logic. A well-written manuscript will have a better chance of being accepted for publication. Also, it won’t require several rounds of revision to improve its language, meaning you save time and can focus on your science.

Do you need to hire a freelance editor for a research paper? Send me a message at [email protected].

Related posts:

• Write your research paper outline
• Should I edit my own research paper?
• Academic editing tips I wish I knew as a research scientist

Last revised on 23 June 2022

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A freelance editor and writer with a keen interest in science, nature, and communication, I love to craft articles that help and inspire people.

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Should You Use Past or Present Tense When Citing Researchers’ Work?

2-minute read

• 18th July 2022

There’s a lot that researchers have to think about when writing papers.

Not only do you have to actually write the paper, research intensely, and structure your argument well, the details of how you should present your writing can take up a lot of time and brain power.

One of those nitpicky details is presenting the work of other researchers. Should you use the past or present tense? Luckily, unlike many other aspects of academic writing, the answer to this question is simple.

With every major style guide for academic writing (e.g., MLA , Chicago , AP ) except one, you should use the present tense when you’re citing researchers’ work in your papers.

Appleby (2005) claims that around 40% of birds can migrate.

The exception to the rule is the APA style guide. If your school follows the APA style guide, you can use either the past or present tense when citing the work of researchers. It’s your choice.

So, in short, if you stick to the present tense, you won’t go wrong. However, if you want to use the past tense, make sure your school accepts the APA style guide.

Find this useful?

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Appleby (2005) claimed that around 40% of birds could migrate.

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Choosing Proofed means that your research papers will be clear, accurate, and easy for your readers to digest, helping you hit those all-important top marks.

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Abstract Verb Tense: Should You Use Past or Present?

Since many of you have asked us questions about seemingly conflicting rules about which tense to use in a research paper, we wrote this article to clarify the issue.

When writing and editing an abstract for a research article , several different verb tenses can be used. Which tense you should use largely depends on the subject of your sentence. As a general rule:

• Any statements of  general fact  should be written using the  present tense .
• Prior research  should be mentioned and explained using the  past tense .
• If the  subject of your sentence is your study or the article   you are writing  (e.g. “Our study demonstrates…,” or “Here, we show…”), then you should use the  present tense .
• If you are stating a  conclusion or  an  interpretation , use the  present tense .
• If the subject of your sentence is an  actual result or observation  (e.g. “Mice in Group B developed…”), you would use the  past tense .

Which Abstract Tense to Use

You may have been taught to use the present tense because your professors want you to focus on sharing your interpretations in your abstract rather than simply stating what the results are. (And we agree since the main reason for reading your research papers is to understand the significance of your findings!)

To illustrate the different use of verb tenses in an abstract, let’s take a look at this  research paper abstract from an article published in  Nature .

• The present tense is used for general facts (“The anaerobic formation and oxidation of methane involve…”).
• The present tense is used when the study or article is either the subject of the sentence or the thing to which you are referring (“Here [this article] we show that an anaerobic thermophilic enrichment culture …”).
• When talking about an actual observation, however, the past tense is used (“Genes encoding 16S rRNA…were repeatedly retrieved from marine subsurface sediments…”).

As you can see from this example, this abstract is largely written in the present tense. This is because it  focuses on the authors’ interpretations and not on specific observations and methods.  If your abstract contains more descriptions of your findings because you need those for the reader to follow your interpretations and conclusions, then a bigger part of your abstract will be written in the past tense. But make sure you switch between the tenses when you switch between the different categories of information described above. 

We hope this addresses any questions you have about tense use in research paper abstracts. We know how complicated these grammar rules can be!

For rules about which verb tenses to use in a research paper , check out our infographic! For additional information about how to write a strong research paper  introduction , methods , results , or discussion section , make sure to check out our Wordvice academic resources website ! We also have articles on how to make an outline before drafting your manuscript, how to come up with the best title for your paper , or how to impress the editor of your target journal with a great cover letter .

And if you require English proofreading or  academic editing for your abstract, be sure to check out our Manuscript Editing Services . Our editors revise your work for grammar, punctuation, style, readability, and conciseness. After all, a polished abstract is crucial to getting researchers to read your research paper in its entirety.

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A Guide for Writing in the Scientific Forum

Sandra v. kotsis.

1 Section of Plastic Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of Michigan Health System

Kevin C. Chung

2 Section of Plastic Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of Michigan Health System

When considering the importance of scientific writing in disseminating new discoveries and ideas, it is quite remarkable that few physicians have received any formal instruction in this essential process.

This paper focuses on the fundamental principles of scientific writing that also include a “style and grace” component.

The art of good scientific writing is to convey scientific materials in a clear and interesting way, while avoiding incomprehensible sentences that only serve to disguise marginal contents within the article.

Conclusions

The goal of this paper is to encourage authors and readers to critically examine the art of scientific writing to overcome the barrier to effective communication.

Scientific writing is often considered a “necessary evil” in order to ascend the academic ladder. After all, the phrase “publish or perish” is still commonly used. Academic promotion, improving knowledge of a subject, establishing professional contacts, disseminating knowledge, 1 and obtaining grant funding are a few reasons why physicians choose to publish.

Physicians may feel the pressure to publish, but scientific writing is a learned process and one in which few academic physicians have received any formal instruction. 2 - 6 Although scientific writing often has a reputation for being dense or unreadable, 7 - 11 we hope to assist physicians to develop a manuscript that is enjoyable to write and read.

Getting Started

We will assume that you have already completed a well-conducted scientific study and are ready to write up your findings for a peer-reviewed scientific journal. If you are new to scientific writing, it is helpful to have a mentor, particularly an experienced writer in your field who can guide you. If you are writing about a research project, you should have formed a hypothesis to your research question before analyzing any of the data. You will want to do a thorough literature search of your topic so that you are familiar with all published work. Writing an outline may seem elementary, but it can be an important tool to organize your thoughts. 12 Think about what journals you may want to publish in and follow their publication guidelines as far as word count and paper structure. Choosing your journal early on will help you to write for the readers of a specific journal. You do not want to “write down to” your readers or include details that have been published previously, such as an established surgical technique. You also want to think about the conclusions of your paper before you begin to write—the “so what?” question. Why is this project novel? What makes it different from other published studies on this topic? Why is it clinically relevant? Table 1 gives a list of “dos” and “don'ts” for scientific manuscript writing.

Dos and Don'ts for Scientific Manuscript Writing

Writing the Abstract

Although the abstract is the first writing component of a scientific manuscript, it should actually be written last. You should check the format of the journal that you are submitting to, but a structured abstract generally has four sections: Background/Purpose, Methods, Results, and Conclusions. After the rest of the paper has been completed, you can select a sentence or two from the appropriate areas (Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion) to include in the aforementioned abstract sections. However, the abstract is not the introduction and should not be cut and pasted from the introduction. An abstract that is identical to the introduction in any paper or grant will be summarily rejected because of the perceived lack of effort to construct a thoughtful synthesis of the materials in the paper. You should be concise and state the purpose usually in one sentence. The emphasis should be placed on the methods and results, which should each be written in three to four sentences. The conclusion can typically be written in two sentences—the first summarizes your findings and the second makes a conclusion. 12 Only data contained in the paper should be included in the abstract—it should not contain any new data. Care should be taken in writing the abstract. Many physicians will not read past the abstract if it is not well-written. Similarly, many readers only need to scan through an abstract to determine whether a manuscript is pertinent to their topic of interest.

Writing the Introduction

Before any writing begins, it is important to perform a thorough literature search. You should be familiar with all the recent advances in your field of study as well as important historical references. “Incomplete, inaccurate, or outdated review of the literature” is one of the common reasons for manuscript rejection. 13 - 15 The Introduction should be written in the present tense. 16 You can begin in the first paragraph by mentioning the most important references and stating the research problem. The second paragraph can elaborate on the magnitude of the problem and unresolved issues. The final paragraph describes the rationale for your study and should end with the purpose: a hypothesis of what you are expecting to find. 12 Examples of elements to include in a well-written manuscript are shown in Table 2 . Of course, before you begin writing or even analyzing your data, you should have developed a hypothesis. Your observed results may not match your expected results when you analyze your data, but we will discuss that in the Discussion section.

Examples of Elements to Include in a Well-Written Scientific Manuscript 41

Writing the Materials and Methods

The traditional sequence of a manuscript is Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion, which has been referred to by the acronym IMRAD. Pollock et al. have suggested drafting the manuscript in the sequence MRDAI. 17 The Methods section should be written in enough detail that another researcher would be able to duplicate your study. 12 In fact, the Methods section is most often responsible for outright rejection of a manuscript 18 because the lack of detail is a common problem. 19 This is the section where you want to state everything you did (controlling for biases, validating research tools) to increase the reliability of your results.

The Methods section should be written in the past tense. 16 To avoid any confusion by the readers, you may want to start by describing the type of study you performed: randomized, prospective, retrospective, case-control, etc. If it is a study involving human subjects, you should state that you obtained Institutional Review Board approval and include the subject inclusion and exclusion criteria. Include how and from where subjects were recruited as well as randomization and blinding procedures. Including patient characteristics such as disease stage or severity and comorbid conditions can help the readers to determine whether the findings of the paper are applicable to their patients of interest. 16 It may be helpful to include a diagram of the number of subjects recruited, how many were excluded, losses to follow-up, or withdrew, and your final sample size. Figure 1 shows an example of a similar diagram from a meta-analysis. Details of the sample are included in the Results, but most journals will require that the previously stated information is included in the Methods. Likewise, preliminary experiments or pilot studies can be included in the Methods section if they helped you to arrive at the methods used in your study. 2 If equipment was used, the equipment manufacturer, model, and calibration methods should be included. It may also be helpful to include a timeline that shows how and when different aspects of the study protocol took place. 12 The final paragraph of the Methods section should describe the statistical analysis. You may need assistance writing this paragraph from your statistician, if you did not perform the analysis yourself. You should include the tests used, the p-value that determined statistical significance, and whether an a priori power analysis was conducted to decide your necessary sample size. The power and sample size calculation is often a neglected area of scientific presentation and should always be performed prior to conducting a study.

A study attrition diagram from a meta-analysis showing the number of references retrieved and excluded from review. 42

(Adapted from Margaliot Z, Haase SC, Kotsis SV, et al. A meta-analysis of outcomes of external fixation versus plate osteosynthesis for unstable distal radius fractures. J Hand Surg. 2005;30A:1185-1201 with permission from Elsevier)

Writing the Results

In writing the Results section, it is important to “only state the facts!” The Results section is not a place to include citations or your interpretation of the data. “Make your point with data, not arguments.” 20 The Results section should be written in the past tense. 12 You should begin by describing the study sample demographic data, which can be done in a simple table. The data reported in a table should not be repeated in the text. Furthermore, tables and figures should stand on their own. You should include a title, legend, and labels for the axes. The readers should be able to determine what the table is about by only looking at it and not having to read any text. Any percentages should include raw numbers so that the readers are not misled by a large percentage (such as 25%) that only came from 1/4 subjects.

It should be noted that the word “significance” only be used to describe statistical significance. You should avoid using significant as a synonym for importance. General phrases such as “showed a trend toward” when results are not statistically significant often tend to signal a poor study design and should be avoided. 2 Also, the word “data” is plural. Thus, it is correct to state, “Our data are…” rather than “Our data is…”

Writing the Discussion

You should begin writing the Discussion by discussing the major findings and relating them to your hypothesis. Did you reject your null hypothesis with your findings or were you unable to reject it? Although being unable to reject your null hypothesis (for example, seeing no significant change between your treatment groups) may seem like a “crash and burn” situation, you can still publish your paper. It has been stated that “Manuscripts describing studies with negative findings are especially tough to get accepted by medical journals, with publication rates generally less than one-third that of manuscripts describing studies with positive findings.” 21 You should describe whether you conducted an a priori power analysis to determine your necessary sample size in order to avoid a beta error (concluding that there is no difference between treatment groups when there is in fact a difference). Chung et al. found that 82% of negative studies in a major hand surgery journal had inadequate statistical power (probability to detect a true difference, if a difference is present) to support their conclusions. 22

Previous studies have shown that physicians, particularly those with no formal education in epidemiology and biostatistics have a limited ability to interpret study results. 23 - 25 However, more than 58% of medical residents use statistical information in the published literature in forming opinions or when making medical decisions. 26 Thus, it is important in the Discussion to spell out the meaning of your statistical findings without appearing condescending to your readers. When describing your study, past tense should be used, but present tense should be used for established knowledge from other investigators. 16

In addition to the meaning of your data, you want to discuss the importance. You should compare and contrast your results to those found in the literature. Care should be taken not to criticize other published work. Similar findings will strengthen your results, but you should still point out how your study differs from previous similar studies. When explaining the study results, it is important to consider all possible explanations rather than just those that fit your preconceived biases. However, you should avoid coming to conclusions that are not supported by your data. Some of the most common criticisms of the Discussion section by editors' and reviewers' involve “coming to erroneous or unsupported conclusions, drawing conclusions disproportionate to the results, uncritically accepting statistical results, and interpreting the findings in a manner not concordant with data reported.” 18 Unless you are absolutely sure that it is true, you should avoid statements such as, “This is the first study to demonstrate…” After all, there are few studies that change the course of scientific progress, but some authors are overly enthusiastic in advertising their study as a seminal contribution. 19 It is also important to discuss the clinical relevance of your findings and how patients or physicians may benefit from them. 27

In the Discussion section, it is essential to address the limitations and strengths of your study. We have stated them in this order rather than as strengths and limitations because it is nice to leave the readers on a good note when he/she finishes reading your paper. Thus, acknowledge your study's limitations first. One limitation may include a lack of generalizability, which often happens when trying to obtain a homogeneous sample. You may use your study's limitations to make suggestions for future research. If not, you should still include suggestions for further research, usually in your concluding section. This last paragraph or last few sentences can also be used to propose ideas for changes to medical practice. 27

Remembering Style and Grace

Throughout the writing and editing process, it is important to remember the style and grace that is needed in writing any good manuscript. First of all, do not make the readers and reviewers work unnecessarily! When reading through your paper, try to keep the reviewers in mind. When a question is left unanswered or is not answered until the Discussion, the readers can get frustrated and give up on your paper entirely. Make it easy on them by explaining early on (usually in the Methods) why you did what you did—whether it was by choice or not. On a similar note, consistently use the same word to describe the same thing in order to provide continuity and avoid confusion. 28 Of course, it is also helpful to have someone else read your manuscript—a colleague and maybe even a layperson. A different set of eyes and a different perspective can point out areas that need clarity.

A few grammatical considerations will assist your readers. Use transitions for flow. “Transitions let the reader know how each sentence relates to the story and how parts of sentences are related.” 28 You should also limit the use of passive language. Although scientists tend to use it because they think that it is objective and do not want to indicate who is conducting a certain action, 28 it becomes quite boring to continually read, “The sutures were removed…” and “The data were analyzed…”

Other grammatical points include writing with precision. Instead of saying that you observed a change, say that you measured an increase or a decrease. 28 Along this point, you should avoid wordiness and using long or unfamiliar words when a commonly used shorter one will convey the same message. 28 Words such as marked, revealed, and demonstrated are overused and have lost their intended meaning. 29 Although it is common for writers, especially inexperienced ones, to try to use “flowery” language, it is best to remember that “less is more.” You can delete unnecessary adjectives and adverbs such as fundamentally, very, and great. You should also examine your writing for wordy phrases such as, “It is often the case that…” 28 or “In our opinion…” If it is not your opinion, it should have a citation attached to it. The words while and since have primary temporal definitions, but while is often used as a synonym for although or whereas and since is commonly used instead of because. 28 Be mindful of these subtleties that can slow down your readers and cause them to misinterpret what you are trying to say.

Well-written paragraphs usually start with making a point in the first sentence and then developing that point throughout the paragraph. Focusing on a single major point in each paragraph allows the readers to follow the author's train of thought. 28

Grantsmanship

Although the focus of this paper has been how to write a scientific manuscript, we have decided to include a section on grant writing. After you have successfully written and published a few papers, you may hope to get funding to conduct your own research and compete in a different arena. An in-depth article on grant writing was written by Chung and Shauver, 30 but we will touch on the basics. In manuscript writing, you have already conducted the research whereas in grant writing, you have probably conducted preliminary research but want to obtain funding to study questions by expanding on that preliminary research. Of course, style and grace are also important in grant writing. The general formats of manuscripts and grants are similar. In manuscripts you have an Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion. Likewise, in a National Institutes of Health (NIH)-formatted grant, you have Specific Aims and Research Strategy (incorporating the Significance, Innovation, Approach, and Preliminary Studies/Progress Report). 31 The Introduction corresponds to the Specific Aims where the goals and hypotheses are presented. The research question is the most important section of the grant. 32 , 33 The impact (one of the new NIH review criteria) of your proposed research on the research field should be spelled out for the reviewers in the Specific Aims. The Methods section corresponds to the Approach section. New NIH page limitations have reduced the overall size of the grant, encouraging researchers to be less detail-oriented in describing their methods. The Results section corresponds to the Preliminary Studies/Progress Report. Although a grant does not have a Discussion section per se, your “so what?” question is extremely important to answer the significance of your proposal. The Innovation section should describe whether your proposal introduces novel concepts, approaches, or methodologies. 34

New NIH review criteria consist of an overall impact score that reflects reviewers' “…assessment of the likelihood for the project to exert a sustained, powerful influence on the research field(s) involved…” 34 The five core review criteria remain the same as before, but have been prioritized as Significance, Investigators, Innovation, Approach, and Environment. 34 Guidelines published by the NIH regarding how to prepare for grant writing are similar to manuscript writing, including finding a mentor, preparing an outline, and soliciting feedback from colleagues. 35 As described previously for manuscripts, it is best to make the grant reviewers' lives easy. One way this can be done is by separating each of the review criteria into identifiable sections. You can also get a feel for the questions reviewers might ask, depending on their research interests, by identifying the review committee that your proposal will be directed to and seeing who on that committee will most likely review your proposal. Although you should search the literature to obtain background and see if similar studies have been conducted, you should also search the NIH Research Portfolio Online Reporting Tool (RePORT) to see if similar studies have been funded. 36

General Reminders

There are a few other general reminders to keep in mind. Follow the journal guidelines as far as formatting, line numbering, word limits, figures, and citations. This will save you the time and hassle of having the editor send the paper back to you before it can be sent out for review. Aesthetics is another item to keep in mind. Before submitting (especially when submitting online), preview your paper to be sure that you do not have a heading at the end of a page without text underneath it. If you have large blocks of text, it might be a good idea to add one or more subheadings. Make sure that your font is the same throughout and that you have not overused italics. Some reviewers do not like to see italics because the overuse of italics may signal to the reviewers that the authors consider the materials presented to be too complex for the reviewers to understand. Spell out abbreviations the first time you use them but do not try to avoid word count limitations by bombarding the readers with multiple abbreviations. Non-universal abbreviations force the readers to remember their meanings and substitute the full phrase each time they appear. 29 An abbreviation should be used often enough in the paper, preferably more than 10 times, so that the readers do not forget the meaning. 37

Of course, proofread, proofread, proofread, and use spell check! As previously mentioned, allow someone else to proofread, too. You should also look through your final manuscript and notice your citations. Are you continually citing the same author? If so, this can show bias. Make sure that you are citing a wide range of authors and not reiterating someone else's ideas.

If you have conducted a randomized, controlled clinical trial, you should follow the Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT) statement. 38 The CONSORT statement requires authors of a randomized, controlled clinical trial to fill out a checklist of the key information that should be included. 16 Figure 2 has a general manuscript checklist of items to include.

Manuscript checklist. 16 (Reprinted with permission from The Annals of Pharmacotherapy, copyright 2001, Harvey Whitney Books Company.)

Although you should be optimistic, you should also remember that there is a chance that your manuscript will be rejected by the journal you initially submit to. The acceptance rate of clinical research-based manuscripts submitted to major biomedical journals is 30-40%. 39 The acceptance rates for journals such as New England Journal of Medicine and JAMA is less than 10%. 16 Even if your manuscript is not accepted, the comments by the reviewers will most likely help you to identify your weaknesses and improve your paper. If your manuscript is accepted with revisions (major or minor) then congratulations! However, you may still have plenty of work to do. In revising, draft a response letter with each reviewer's comments typed out and how you have addressed them. Also state where in the paper the revision can be found (i.e. Methods section, paragraph 2, line 2). Remember to be polite; if you are choosing not to make a suggested revision, you should give a reason for doing so. Although it is not necessary to do every suggested edit, your manuscript will not be looked upon kindly if you choose to make a rebuttal for all or the majority of suggestions.

Although scientific writing can be a long and tedious process, your writing ability will continuously improve. Remember that, “Only the researcher who is competent in the art of written communication can play an active and effective role in contributing to science.” 40

Acknowledgments

Supported in part by a Midcareer Investigator Award in Patient-Oriented Research (K24 AR053120) from the National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (to Dr. Kevin C. Chung).

Financial Disclosure: None of the authors has a financial interest in any of the products, devices, or drugs mentioned in this manuscript.

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