a good research question is feasible clear significant and ethical

College & Research Libraries Guide for Authors & Reviewers

• Organizing Structure & Framework
• Writing for Clarity, Grammar & Style
• Framing the Research Question
• Conducting a Literature Review
• Selecting a Research Methodology
• Sharing Research Data
• Reviewing Criteria & Author Feedback
• Double Anonymized Review Process
• Considering Copyright & Other Issues

Research Questions

Any empirical research—quantitative or qualitative—should be guided from the outset by a question or set of questions. The question defines precisely what is being examined and how an assessment of the results will be undertaken.

The research question begins with a research problem, an issue someone would like to know more about or a situation that needs to be changed or addressed, such as:

Areas of concern

Conditions that could be improved

Difficulties that need to be eliminated

Questions seeking answers

Characteristics of a good research question :

The question is feasible.

The question is clear.

The question is significant.

The question is ethical.

The feasibility of the question should guide not only the expression of the question but its conception. Feasibility should be foremost in the researcher’s mind in the earliest stages of any project. Reviewers will always evaluate the feasibility of a question (possibly before other elements).

Clear expression signals clear thinking. Not only must the question be clear in the mind of the research, it must be articulated clearly. Again, reviewers of a manuscript will insist upon clear question so that the potential audience will be able to understand the question and, thus, follow the write-up of the project.

Significance may be said to be in the eye of the beholder. One way to gauge significance is to ascertain whether a reading audience will be able to take away a lesson from the project. Work that is very limited—say, to a single organization—may not be looked upon with favor by reviewers. If the question and the project are important enough that readers learn from the work, then it generally passes the significance test.

Institutional Review Boards (IRB)

Human subjects must be treated fairly, both individually and as groups. This means that no person or group can be disadvantaged or harmed in the process of the inquiry. Researchers must follow the rules of local  Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) in order to ensure that project participants are protected from any possible harm. IRBs are most commonly used for studies in the fields of health and the social sciences.

A key goal of IRBs is to protect human subjects from physical or psychological harm by reviewing research protocols and related materials. The protocol review assesses the ethics of the research and its methods, promotes fully informed and voluntary participation by prospective subjects capable of making such choices, and seeks to maximize the safety of subjects.

In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and Department of Health and Human Services (specifically Office for Human Research Protections ) regulations have empowered IRBs to approve, require modifications in planned research prior to approval, or disapprove research (see  Human subject research legislation in the United States ).

Arthur Hafner has suggested a number of topics for library research . Topics mentioned can be developed in many ways.

• Academic library as an essential service on a campus during emergencies such as fire and severe weather (rain, snow, floods)
• Accreditation and the role of the academic library in undergraduate, graduate, and other teaching programs (adult, community, distance education)
• Acquisition and deployment of technology in the library environment
• Adaptive equipment technology for supporting handicapped persons in the library environment
• Administration and leadership of interlibrary loan departments, consortia, cooperatives, networks
• Advances in search engine technology and their impacts on libraries
• Analyses and your library’s use of an analysis, e.g., cost-benefit analysis, gap analysis, customer-satisfaction analysis, needs analysis, root cause analysis, SWOT analysis, what-if analysis)

These kinds of topics can be articulated as questions that can guide inquiry. For example:

“What is the role of adaptive technologies in attracting persons with disabilities into the library?”

Corollary Question: “How can adaptive technologies affect the access to information resources for people with disabilities?”

“What effect does information literacy instruction have on the range of materials that are cited in student term papers?”

Corollary question: “Do students who have been exposed to information literacy instruction tend to cite more scholarly articles in their papers for writing-intensive courses?”

“Do the increasing costs of electronic information (databases and aggregators) have an impact on what can be spent on other kinds of materials?

Corollary Question: “Do the increases in subscriptions and licenses result in changes to the numbers of books and monographs that can be purchased by the library?"

These examples include feasibility, clarity, significance, and ethics. If those key elements can be incorporated into questions, there is a greater likelihood that the researcher can be guided to the completion of meaningful projects.

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Literature Searching

Characteristics of a good research question

The first step in a literature search is to construct a well-defined question.  This helps in ensuring a comprehensive and efficient search of the available literature for relevant publications on your topic.  The well-constructed research question provides guidance for determining search terms and search strategy parameters.

A good or well-constructed research question is:

• Original and of interest to the researcher and the outside world
• It is clear and focused: it provides enough specifics that it is easy to understand its purpose and it is narrow enough that it can be answered. If the question is too broad it may not be possible to answer it thoroughly. If it is too narrow you may not find enough resources or information to develop a strong argument or research hypothesis.  
• The question concept is researchable in terms of time and access to a suitable amount of quality research resources.
• It is analytical rather than descriptive.  The research question should allow you to produce an analysis of an issue or problem rather than a simple description of it.  In other words, it is not answerable with a simple “yes” or “no” but requires a synthesis and analysis of ideas and sources.
• The results are potentially important and may change current ideas and/or practice
• And there is the potential to develop further projects with similar themes

The question you ask should be developed for the discipline you are studying. A question appropriate for Physical Therapy, for instance, is different from an appropriate one in Sociology, Political Science or Microbiology .

The well-constructed question provides guidance for determining search terms and search strategy parameters. The process of developing a good question to research involves taking your topic and breaking each aspect of it down into its component parts. 

One well-established way that can be used both for creating research questions and developing strategies is known as PICO(T). The PICO framework was designed primarily for questions that include clinical interventions and comparisons, however other types of questions may also be able to follow its principles.  If the PICO framework does not precisely fit your question, using its principles can help you to think about what you want to explore even if you do not end up with a true PICO question.

References/Additional Resources

Fandino W. (2019). Formulating a good research question: Pearls and pitfalls.   Indian journal of anaesthesia ,  63 (8), 611–616. 

Vandenbroucke, J. P., & Pearce, N. (2018). From ideas to studies: how to get ideas and sharpen them into research questions .  Clinical epidemiology ,  10 , 253–264.

Ratan, S. K., Anand, T., & Ratan, J. (2019). Formulation of Research Question - Stepwise Approach .  Journal of Indian Association of Pediatric Surgeons ,  24 (1), 15–20.

Lipowski, E.E. (2008). Developing great research questions. American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy, 65(17) , 1667–1670.

FINER Criteria

Another set of criteria for developing a research question was proposed by Hulley (2013) and is known as the FINER criteria. 

FINER stands for:

Feasible – Writing a feasible research question means that it CAN be answered under objective aspects like time, scope, resources, expertise, or funding. Good questions must be amenable to the formulation of clear hypotheses.

Interesting – The question or topic should be of interest to the researcher and the outside world. It should have a clinical and/or educational significance – the “so what?” factor. 

Novel – In scientific literature, novelty defines itself by being an answer to an existing gap in knowledge. Filling one of these gaps is highly rewarding for any researcher as it may represent a real difference in peoples’ lives.

Good research leads to new information. An investigation which simply reiterates what is previously proven is not worth the effort and cost. A question doesn’t have to be completely original. It may ask whether an earlier observation could be replicated, whether the results in one population also apply to others, or whether enhanced measurement methods can make clear the relationship between two variables.  

Ethical – In empirical research, ethics is an absolute MUST. Make sure that safety and confidentiality measures are addressed, and according to the necessary IRB protocols.

Relevant – An idea that is considered relevant in the healthcare community has better chances to be discussed upon by a larger number of researchers and recognized experts, leading to innovation and rapid information dissemination.

The results could potentially be important and may change current ideas and/or practice.

Cummings, S.R., Browner, W.S., & Hulley, S.B. (2013). Conceiving the research question and developing the study plan. In: Designing clinical research (Hulley, S. R. Cummings, W. S. Browner, D. Grady, & T. B. Newman, Eds.; Fourth edition.). Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Pp. 14-22.    

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Formulating a good research question: Pearls and pitfalls

• August 2019
• Indian Journal of Anaesthesia 63(8):611
• CC BY-NC-SA

• Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust

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• Writing Strong Research Questions | Criteria & Examples

Writing Strong Research Questions | Criteria & Examples

Published on October 26, 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 21, 2023.

A research question pinpoints exactly what you want to find out in your work. A good research question is essential to guide your research paper , dissertation , or thesis .

All research questions should be:

• Focused on a single problem or issue
• Researchable using primary and/or secondary sources
• Feasible to answer within the timeframe and practical constraints
• Specific enough to answer thoroughly
• Complex enough to develop the answer over the space of a paper or thesis
• Relevant to your field of study and/or society more broadly

Table of contents

How to write a research question, what makes a strong research question, using sub-questions to strengthen your main research question, research questions quiz, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research questions.

You can follow these steps to develop a strong research question:

• Choose your topic
• Do some preliminary reading about the current state of the field
• Narrow your focus to a specific niche
• Identify the research problem that you will address

The way you frame your question depends on what your research aims to achieve. The table below shows some examples of how you might formulate questions for different purposes.

Using your research problem to develop your research question

Note that while most research questions can be answered with various types of research , the way you frame your question should help determine your choices.

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Research questions anchor your whole project, so it’s important to spend some time refining them. The criteria below can help you evaluate the strength of your research question.

Focused and researchable

Feasible and specific

Complex and arguable

Relevant and original

Chances are that your main research question likely can’t be answered all at once. That’s why sub-questions are important: they allow you to answer your main question in a step-by-step manner.

Good sub-questions should be:

• Less complex than the main question
• Focused only on 1 type of research
• Presented in a logical order

Here are a few examples of descriptive and framing questions:

• Descriptive: According to current government arguments, how should a European bank tax be implemented?
• Descriptive: Which countries have a bank tax/levy on financial transactions?
• Framing: How should a bank tax/levy on financial transactions look at a European level?

Keep in mind that sub-questions are by no means mandatory. They should only be asked if you need the findings to answer your main question. If your main question is simple enough to stand on its own, it’s okay to skip the sub-question part. As a rule of thumb, the more complex your subject, the more sub-questions you’ll need.

Try to limit yourself to 4 or 5 sub-questions, maximum. If you feel you need more than this, it may be indication that your main research question is not sufficiently specific. In this case, it’s is better to revisit your problem statement and try to tighten your main question up.

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If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Methodology

• Sampling methods
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

The way you present your research problem in your introduction varies depending on the nature of your research paper . A research paper that presents a sustained argument will usually encapsulate this argument in a thesis statement .

A research paper designed to present the results of empirical research tends to present a research question that it seeks to answer. It may also include a hypothesis —a prediction that will be confirmed or disproved by your research.

As you cannot possibly read every source related to your topic, it’s important to evaluate sources to assess their relevance. Use preliminary evaluation to determine whether a source is worth examining in more depth.

This involves:

• Reading abstracts , prefaces, introductions , and conclusions
• Looking at the table of contents to determine the scope of the work
• Consulting the index for key terms or the names of important scholars

A research hypothesis is your proposed answer to your research question. The research hypothesis usually includes an explanation (“ x affects y because …”).

A statistical hypothesis, on the other hand, is a mathematical statement about a population parameter. Statistical hypotheses always come in pairs: the null and alternative hypotheses . In a well-designed study , the statistical hypotheses correspond logically to the research hypothesis.

Formulating a main research question can be a difficult task. Overall, your question should contribute to solving the problem that you have defined in your problem statement .

However, it should also fulfill criteria in three main areas:

• Researchability
• Feasibility and specificity
• Relevance and originality

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2.4 Developing a Research Question

Once the research topic has been decided, the next step is to formulate the research question(s) (Figure 2.1). The research question highlights the issue that has to be investigated and directs the methodology. It also results in the development of a testable and appropriate hypothesis. It is thought that high-quality research results from well-crafted research questions. 9 Coming up with good research questions is something that most novice researchers find challenging. A valid tool that is useful in formulating a good research question is the PICOT framework which is commonly used in quantitative research. 6 To use this framework, you need to consider the population of interest (P), the intervention (I) under investigation, the control or comparison group (C), the outcome (O), and the time frame (T) during which the study will take place (see Figure 2.5). 6

In addition, the framework is valuable when developing and stating a research hypothesis driven by the research question. 6 A hypothesis is a foundation and logical construct between a research problem and its solution, and it expresses a possible answer to a research question. 10 The research question serves as the basis for the development of the research hypothesis, which is then summarised in a way that establishes the basis for testing, statistical analysis, and, ultimately, the significance of the study (30). A good hypothesis is usually founded on a good research question. There are two types of research hypotheses – conceptual research hypothesis and operational research hypothesis. 10 The conceptual research hypothesis is a broad or general statement about a research problem, while the operational hypothesis is a more specific statement that provides a detailed description of how the variables in the study will be measured, and predicts how they will be related to one another. 10 Thus, the operational hypothesis is a testable statement that is derived from the conceptual hypothesis. The example below in Figure 2.6 and Box 2.1 shows how the PICOT framework is used to develop a research question and hypotheses.

Characteristics of a good research question

A good research question has the following qualities: it is Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant (FINER). 11

Feasible: b eing feasible indicates that it is practical for the investigator to carry out. 11 This refers to the distribution of appropriate resources (including a budget), sufficient research design, readily available skills and information, and an acceptable time limit. 12   Participants must be realistically recruitable and accurately representative of the relevant population if they are to be chosen for the study. 12 The research question should be connected to the available observations, phenomena, indicators, or variables. 13

Interesting: t he presentation of the research questions and the story that may be told about the research field through investigation and analysis are two important aspects of what makes research intriguing. 12 It is also a good idea to check if the research question is intriguing to others. 11 If research does not address a question of interest, it will have no influence or impact. 11 While a research study may be interesting, other contextual factors, such as the way the issue is presented, the context of the subject, the target audience, and the reader’s expectations, may impact whether the findings will be considered intriguing or not. 14

Novel: n ovelty and relevance are the most important criteria for any research project’s success. 12 Good research adds fresh knowledge. 11 A study that essentially restates what has already been proven is not worth the time, money, and effort and is not likely to be published. 11 Novelty can range in breadth from moderately unique to extremely novel, and it may involve, among other things, contesting preexisting theories, positing new ones, or both. 12 Novelty also has to do with pointing out specific gaps in the field’s current ideas or methods for looking at phenomena or with the extension of theories or results to new subfields. 12 By carefully reading the literature and consulting with specialists who are familiar with ongoing unpublished research, one can assess the uniqueness of a proposed study. 11

Ethical: r esearch must be ethical; thus, research questions must not result in unethical conduct. 11   The research should be conducted in a way that reduces the risk of harm to participants, protects their privacy and confidentiality, and gives them the option to withdraw from the study. 12 It is important to obtain approval from the institutional review board before beginning research. 11 Further details on ethical considerations are presented in chapter 6.

Relevant: r elevant topics are those that are of priority at a given time in the research community and have an impact on upcoming research directions. 12 Relevant questions have a clear target audience in the community, and the answers to their inquiries have an impact on ongoing research projects. 12 Thus, it is crucial to consider the potential outcomes and how each one might increase scientific understanding, impact clinical recommendations and public health policies, or serve as a direction for future study. 11

Use the Padlet below to develop a research question of interest to you.

• Think of a research topic that you are passionate about.
• Do you know if this problem has been researched before? If yes, what are the gaps?
• Articulate on paper a research gap/problem (from this topic) that you would like to investigate.
• Phrase the problem as a research question and post it on the Padlet below.

Reflections: Is your research question feasible, interesting, novel, ethical and relevant?

An Introduction to Research Methods for Undergraduate Health Profession Students Copyright © 2023 by Faith Alele and Bunmi Malau-Aduli is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Educational resources and simple solutions for your research journey

How to Craft a Strong Research Question (With Research Question Examples)

A sound and effective research question is a key element that must be identified and pinned down before researchers can even begin their research study or work. A strong research question lays the foundation for your entire study, guiding your investigation and shaping your findings. Hence, it is critical that researchers spend considerable time assessing and refining the research question based on in-depth reading and comprehensive literature review. In this article, we will discuss how to write a strong research question and provide you with some good examples of research questions across various disciplines.

Table of Contents

The importance of a research question

A research question plays a crucial role in driving scientific inquiry, setting the direction and purpose of your study, and guiding your entire research process. By formulating a clear and focused research question, you lay the foundation for your investigation, ensuring that your research remains on track and aligned with your objectives so you can make meaningful contribution to the existing body of knowledge. A well-crafted research question also helps you define the scope of your study and identify the appropriate methodologies and data collection techniques to employ.

Key components of a strong research question

A good research question possesses several key components that contribute to the quality and impact of your study. Apart from providing a clear framework to generate meaningful results, a well-defined research question allows other researchers to understand the purpose and significance of your work. So, when working on your research question, incorporate the following elements:

• Specificity : A strong research question should be specific about the main focus of your study, enabling you to gather precise data and draw accurate conclusions. It clearly defines the variables, participants, and context involved, leaving no room for ambiguity.
• Clarity : A good research question is clear and easily understood, so articulate the purpose and intent of your study concisely without being generic or vague. Ensuring clarity in your research question helps both you and your readers grasp the research objective.
• Feasibility : While crafting a research question, consider the practicality of conducting the research and availability of necessary data or access to participants. Think whether your study is realistic and achievable within the constraints of time, resources, and ethical considerations.

How to craft a well-defined research question

A first step that will help save time and effort is knowing what your aims are and thinking about a few problem statements on the area or aspect one wants to study or do research on. Contemplating these statements as one undertakes more progressive reading can help the researcher in reassessing and fine-tuning the research question. This can be done over time as they read and learn more about the research topic, along with a broad literature review and parallel discussions with peer researchers and supervisors. In some cases, a researcher can have more than one research question if the research being undertaken is a PhD thesis or dissertation, but try not to cover multiple concerns on a topic.

A strong research question must be researchable, original, complex, and relevant. Here are five simple steps that can make the entire process easier.

• Identify a broad topic from your areas of interest, something that is relevant, and you are passionate about since you’ll be spending a lot of time conducting your research.
• Do a thorough literature review to weed out potential gaps in research and stay updated on what’s currently being done in your chosen topic and subject area.
• Shortlist possible research questions based on the research gaps or see how you can build on or refute previously published ideas and concepts.
• Assess your chosen research question using the FINER criteria that helps you evaluate whether the research is Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant. 1
• Formulate the final research question, while ensuring it is clear, well-written, and addresses all the key elements of a strong research question.

Examples of research questions

Remember to adapt your research question to suit your purpose, whether it’s exploratory, descriptive, comparative, experimental, qualitative, or quantitative. Embrace the iterative nature of the research process, continually evaluating and refining your question as you progress. Here are some good examples of research questions across various disciplines.

Exploratory research question examples

• How does social media impact interpersonal relationships among teenagers?
• What are the potential benefits of incorporating mindfulness practices in the workplace?

Descriptive research question examples

• What factors influence customer loyalty in the e-commerce industry?
• Is there a relationship between socioeconomic status and academic performance among elementary school students?

Comparative research question examples

• How does the effectiveness of traditional teaching methods compare to online learning platforms in mathematics education?
• What is the impact of different healthcare policies on patient outcomes in various countries?

Experimental research question examples

• What are the effects of a new drug on reducing symptoms of a specific medical condition?
• Does a dietary intervention have an impact on weight loss among individuals with obesity?

Qualitative research question examples

• What are the lived experiences of immigrants adapting to a new culture?
• What factors influence job satisfaction among healthcare professionals?

Quantitative research question examples

• Is there a relationship between sleep duration and academic performance among college students?
• How effective is a specific intervention in reducing anxiety levels among individuals with phobias?

With these simple guidelines and inspiring examples of research questions, you are equipped to embark on your research journey with confidence and purpose. Here’s wishing you all the best for your future endeavors!

References:

• How to write a research question: Steps and examples. Indeed Career Guide. Available online at https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/how-to-write-research-questions

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Key Characteristics of a Good Research Question Explained

A well-formulated research question is the cornerstone of any successful research project, especially in the field of psychology. It sets the direction for the study, determines the methodology, and influences the interpretation of results. Understanding the key characteristics of a good research question can help researchers design studies that are both meaningful and impactful.

Key Takeaways

• A good research question should be specific and clearly defined to guide the research process effectively.
• It should be relevant to current research trends and feasible within the available resources and time constraints.
• Complexity and depth are essential, encouraging exploration and incorporating multiple variables.
• Originality is crucial, as the question should address gaps in the literature and contribute new insights to the field.
• Ethical considerations must be taken into account, ensuring respect for participant rights and confidentiality.

Defining a Good Research Question in Psychology

A good research question is the cornerstone of any successful study in psychology. It guides the research process and ensures that the study remains focused and relevant. A well-constructed research question is clear, concise, and specific. It should not be answerable with a simple "yes" or "no," but rather should encourage exploration and discussion. Additionally, it must be feasible to answer within the given timeframe and resources available to the researcher.

Ensuring Relevance and Feasibility

Aligning with current research.

To ensure your research question is relevant, it must align with ongoing studies in your field. This alignment not only validates the importance of your question but also situates your work within the broader academic conversation. Relevance ensures that the questions are related to the research objectives and the information being sought . By reviewing recent publications and identifying trends, you can position your research to contribute meaningfully to existing knowledge.

Assessing Available Resources

Feasibility is a critical aspect of a good research question. You must assess the resources at your disposal, including access to data, funding, and necessary tools. A question that is not feasible to answer within your constraints will likely lead to frustration and incomplete research. Consider the feasibility, relevance, and importance of your question in relation to the resources you have.

Time Constraints

Time is an essential factor in determining the feasibility of your research question. You need to ensure that your question can be answered within the given timeframe for your project. This involves realistic planning and setting achievable milestones. The question is feasible if it can be addressed thoroughly within the time you have, avoiding overly ambitious projects that may not be completed on schedule.

Complexity and Depth in Research Questions

A well-crafted research question in psychology should encourage exploration. This means that the question should not be answerable with a simple 'yes' or 'no.' Instead, it should require you to delve into the topic, gather data, and perform in-depth analysis. A good research question is clear, focused, and has an appropriate level of complexity. This complexity allows for a richer understanding of the subject matter and leads to more meaningful conclusions.

Encouraging Exploration

A research question that encourages exploration is one that opens the door to new insights and understanding. It should be broad enough to allow for in-depth investigation but specific enough to provide a clear focus. For example, rather than asking, "Does stress affect academic performance?" you might ask, "How does chronic stress influence the cognitive functions related to academic performance in college students?" This type of question requires you to explore various aspects of stress and cognitive function, leading to a more comprehensive understanding of the topic.

Incorporating Multiple Variables

Incorporating multiple variables into your research question can add depth and complexity. This approach allows you to examine the interplay between different factors and how they collectively impact the subject of your study. For instance, instead of asking, "What is the effect of sleep on memory?" you could ask, "How do sleep quality and duration affect different types of memory (e.g., short-term, long-term) in adults?" This question not only looks at sleep but also considers the different types of memory, providing a more nuanced view of the relationship between these variables.

Open-Ended Nature

An open-ended research question is essential for qualitative research, as it allows for the exploration of the richness and depth of participants' experiences and perspectives. Such questions are not limited to a single answer but invite a range of responses that can provide deeper insights. For example, instead of asking, "Is social media use harmful to teenagers?" you might ask, "In what ways does social media use influence the social and emotional development of teenagers?" This question encourages participants to share their experiences and perspectives, leading to a more detailed and nuanced understanding of the issue.

Originality and Contribution to the Field

A good research question in psychology should aim to fill a gap in the existing literature . Your findings should contribute meaningfully to the body of knowledge in your chosen field. This means that your research should not merely replicate previous studies but should offer a new perspective or approach. For instance, you might focus on a specific location or explore a new angle that has not been previously considered. This originality is crucial for advancing the field and providing a foundation for future research.

Examples of Effective Research Questions in Psychology

Case studies of successful questions.

Examining case studies of successful research questions can provide valuable insights into what makes a question effective. For instance, a poorly constructed question like "How does social media affect people’s behavior?" can be refined to a more specific and measurable question such as, "What effect does the daily use of YouTube have on the attention span of children aged under 16?" This specificity allows for a more focused study and clearer results.

Common Pitfalls to Avoid

When formulating research questions, it's crucial to avoid common pitfalls. One major pitfall is creating questions that are too broad or vague. For example, asking "What is the impact of stress?" is too general. Instead, a more effective question would be, "How does chronic workplace stress affect the mental health of middle-aged adults?" Another pitfall is asking yes/no questions, which can limit the depth of your research. Instead, aim for open-ended questions that encourage exploration and detailed analysis.

Adapting Questions for Different Subfields

Different subfields in psychology may require different approaches to formulating research questions. For example, in clinical psychology, a question might focus on treatment outcomes, such as, "What are the effects of cognitive-behavioral therapy on anxiety levels in teenagers?" In contrast, a question in developmental psychology might explore stages of growth, like, "How does early childhood exposure to bilingual environments affect cognitive development?" Understanding the nuances of each subfield can help you tailor your questions to be more relevant and impactful.

Bold : A well-constructed research question is essential for a successful study.

Italics : how to find literature

Highlight: title: 50+ research topics for psychology papers, snippet: if you need to write a paper in your psychology class, there are several psychology research topics to consider. here are 50+ topics of psychology research.

Ethical Considerations in Formulating Research Questions

When formulating research questions in psychology, ethical considerations are paramount. Ensuring the ethical soundness of your research question is crucial for gaining approval from review boards and maintaining the integrity of your study. This section will explore key ethical aspects to consider.

Respecting Participant Rights

Your research must prioritize the rights and well-being of participants. This includes obtaining informed consent, ensuring voluntary participation, and providing the right to withdraw at any time. Participants should be fully aware of the nature of the study and any potential risks involved.

Ensuring Confidentiality

Confidentiality is a cornerstone of ethical research. You must implement measures to protect the personal information of participants. This includes anonymizing data and securely storing sensitive information. Breaching confidentiality can have serious repercussions for both participants and researchers.

Addressing Sensitive Topics

When dealing with sensitive topics, extra care must be taken to avoid causing distress or harm to participants. This involves designing questions that are respectful and considerate of participants' experiences and emotions. Additionally, providing support resources for participants who may be affected by the study is essential.

In summary, ethical considerations are integral to the formulation of research questions in psychology. By respecting participant rights, ensuring confidentiality, and addressing sensitive topics, you can uphold the ethical standards required for conducting meaningful and responsible research.

Ethical considerations are paramount when formulating research questions. Ensuring that your research respects the rights and dignity of participants is crucial for credible and impactful outcomes. If you're a student struggling with thesis anxiety and sleepless nights, our step-by-step Thesis Action Plan can guide you through every stage of your research journey. Visit our website to claim your special offer now and transform your academic experience.

In conclusion, the formulation of a good research question is a pivotal step in the research process. It serves as the foundation upon which the entire study is built, guiding the direction of inquiry and ensuring the relevance and clarity of the research. A well-crafted research question is characterized by its specificity, clarity, feasibility, and relevance. It should be open-ended, allowing for comprehensive exploration and multiple perspectives, while also being grounded in the existing literature and researchable within the given constraints. By adhering to these key characteristics, researchers can develop questions that not only address significant issues but also contribute meaningfully to their field of study. Ultimately, a strong research question is the cornerstone of effective and impactful research, paving the way for new insights and advancements in knowledge.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is a research question.

A research question is a query that a study aims to answer, often addressing an issue or problem. It outlines the study's focus, including the population, variables, and problem being investigated.

Why is developing a research question important?

Developing a research question is crucial because it narrows down a broad topic into a specific area of study. It also guides the research framework, methodology, and analysis, ensuring the study's cohesion and relevance.

What are the key characteristics of a good research question?

A good research question should be clear, specific, and researchable. It should also be feasible to answer within the given timeframe and resources, and should contribute to the field by addressing a gap or providing new insights.

How can I ensure my research question is specific enough?

To ensure specificity, focus on a single issue or problem, define the population and variables clearly, and avoid broad or vague terms. Make sure the question can be answered thoroughly within the scope of your study.

Why should research questions avoid yes/no answers?

Research questions should avoid yes/no answers because they limit the depth of analysis. Open-ended questions encourage exploration and allow for a more comprehensive understanding of the topic.

How do I know if my research question is original?

To determine originality, conduct a thorough literature review to identify gaps in the existing research. Your question should address an unexplored area or offer a new perspective on a well-studied topic.

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Navigating the Research Landscape: A Deep Dive into the FINER Method

• 5 minute read
• 148.1K views

Table of Contents

Within the complex field of scientific research, the development of a well-structured and feasible research question serves as the fundamental basis of a meaningful investigation. The process of transforming a clinical problem into a structured inquiry is a thorough one, as it sets the direction for the entire research effort. The FINER criteria, which is an acronym representing the fundamental characteristics of a research issue, remains a valuable tool for researchers, particularly those who are in the early stages of their professional journey.

Setting the Stage: The Role of the Research Protocol

Before learning the FINER approach, it’s important to comprehend the study protocol’s structure. This documented plan is essential for funding applications and science. It helps researchers organize their study to be logical, focused, and efficient. The protocol describes the study’s goals, methodology, statistics, and organization, guiding the research from start to finish.

“A good research question should pass the ‘‘So what?’’ test. Getting the answer should contribute usefully to our state of knowledge.” (Hulley et al. 22)

A Closer Look at the FINER Criteria

FINER is an acronym that stands for Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant. These five attributes are essential in ensuring that a research question is not only well-constructed but is also capable of driving a study that’s both meaningful and impactful.

1. Feasible:

Feasibility is all about the practicality of a study. It’s about asking whether the study can be done given the available resources, time, and technology. It’s crucial to consider if the sample size is attainable, if the variables can be measured effectively, and if there are enough resources, including funding and expertise, to carry the study through to completion.

Essential considerations are as follows:

• Does the available timeframe allow for the execution of the research?
• Does the necessary technology and knowledge exist to facilitate the execution of my study?
• Can I pay for it?
• Will my study yield the desired level of impact and significance for the intended audience?
• Is there sufficient access to the desired group or an adequate number of participants to ensure the attainment of reliable results?

2. Interesting:

A study needs to captivate the attention of not just the researcher but also the wider audience, including peers, collaborators, and potential funders. An interesting study is like a story that needs to be told – it’s compelling, it’s engaging, and it adds a rich layer to the existing body of knowledge. This process can be described as a dynamic interplay between familiar and unfamiliar elements, skillfully arranged to align with established literary works, emerging patterns, and unexplored areas of investigation.

Novelty is about bringing something new to the table. It’s about ensuring that the research contributes fresh insights and perspectives to the existing body of knowledge.  A novel study serves as a symbol of innovation, shedding light on uncharted areas, providing new viewpoints, and questioning conventional frameworks.

4. Ethical:

Ethics is the cornerstone of any credible research. It’s about ensuring that the study is conducted with integrity, respect, and responsibility, safeguarding the dignity and well-being of participants. Ethical research is anchored in principles like informed consent, confidentiality, and beneficence, ensuring that the study is conducted with the highest moral standards.

5. Relevant:

Relevance ensures that the research resonates with the real world. It’s about making sure that the findings of the study are not just theoretical but have practical implications, influencing and enriching clinical practice, policy-making, and societal well-being.

Application and Examples of the FINER Criteria

Understanding the theoretical aspects of the FINER criteria is essential, but seeing them applied in real-world research scenarios can offer invaluable insights. Let’s explore how these criteria can be practically employed, drawing from the rich insights provided in the sources shared earlier.

• Feasible: Consider a study aiming to explore the impact of a new drug on a specific health condition. The feasibility can be assessed by considering the availability of participants, the accessibility of the drug, the presence of necessary technology and expertise, and the allocation of adequate funding and time.
• Interesting: A research question becomes interesting when it addresses a gap in existing knowledge or explores a pressing issue in a specific field. For instance, a study exploring a novel approach to managing a common health condition can captivate the attention of medical professionals, patients, and policymakers.
• Novel: Novelty is showcased in a study that brings fresh insights or explores uncharted territories. For example, a research project investigating the genetic basis of a disease previously studied only at the symptomatic level can be considered novel.
• Ethical: Ethical considerations are paramount. A study proposing to explore the effects of a new treatment must ensure participants’ safety, informed consent, and data privacy, adhering to established ethical guidelines.
• Relevant: Relevance is illustrated in studies that address current challenges or opportunities in a specific field. For instance, a study exploring the efficacy of online therapy sessions can be highly relevant given the increasing reliance on virtual healthcare.

In conclusion…

The FINER criteria aren’t just a checklist – they’re the foundational elements that ensure a study is robust, impactful, and meaningful. In the world of scientific research, where theories and methods intertwine and discoveries emerge, the FINER criteria serve as a guide, ensuring that every step of the research journey is marked by precision, purpose, and impact.

They ensure that every research endeavor is a balanced blend of truth-seeking, impact, and innovation. For the adept researcher, equipped with insights from credible sources, the FINER criteria transform from a set of principles to a powerful tool, turning every research question into a gateway of endless possibilities.

And remember, Elsevier is here to support researchers in making a significant impact. Our Language Editing Plus Service is designed to refine and enhance your manuscript, ensuring clarity, logic, and adherence to journal requirements. With unlimited rounds of language review and comprehensive support throughout the submission process, we’re here to ensure your research not only shines but also reaches its fullest potential. Use the simulator below to get a price quote for your manuscript, based on the total number of words.

The article “FINER: a Research Framework” on the Elsevier Author Services blog is based on the following credible sources:

• Hulley SB, Cummings SR, Browner WS, Grady DG, Newman TB. Designing clinical research. 3rd ed. Philadelphia (PA): Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 2007.

https://edisciplinas.usp.br/pluginfile.php/5486505/mod_resource/content/1/Stephen%20B.%20Hull

ey%2C%20Steven%20R.%20Cummings%2C%20Warren%20S.%20Browner%2C%20Deborah%20G

.%20Grady%2C%20Thomas%20B.%20Newm.pdf

• Mohanan, Saritha & Parameswaran, Narayanan. (2022). FINER criteria – What does it mean?. 2. 115. 10.25259/CSDM_123_2022.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/365592378_FINER_criteria_-_What_does_it_mean

• Fandino W. Formulating a good research question: Pearls and pitfalls. Indian J Anaesth. 2019 Aug;63(8):611-616. doi: 10.4103/ija.IJA_198_19. PMID: 31462805; PMCID: PMC6691636.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6691636/

• https://ehsanx.github.io/Scientific-Writing-for-Health-Research/research-question.html

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Part 2: Conceptualizing your research project

9. Writing your research question

Chapter outline.

• Empirical vs. ethical questions (4 minute read)
• Characteristics of a good research question (4 minute read)
• Quantitative research questions (7 minute read)
• Qualitative research questions (3 minute read)
• Evaluating and updating your research questions (4 minute read)

Content warning: examples in this chapter include references to sexual violence, sexism, substance use disorders, homelessness, domestic violence, the child welfare system, cissexism and heterosexism, and truancy and school discipline.

9.1 Empirical vs. ethical questions

Learning objectives.

Learners will be able to…

• Define empirical questions and provide an example
• Define ethical questions and provide an example

Writing a good research question is an art and a science. It is a science because you have to make sure it is clear, concise, and well-developed. It is an art because often your language needs “wordsmithing” to perfect and clarify the meaning. This is an exciting part of the research process; however, it can also be one of the most stressful.

Creating a good research question begins by identifying a topic you are interested in studying. At this point, you already have a working question. You’ve been applying it to the exercises in each chapter, and after reading more about your topic in the scholarly literature, you’ve probably gone back and revised your working question a few times. We’re going to continue that process in more detail in this chapter. Keep in mind that writing research questions is an iterative process, with revisions happening week after week until you are ready to start your project.

Empirical vs. ethical questions

When it comes to research questions, social science is best equipped to answer empirical   questions —those that can be answered by real experience in the real world—as opposed to  ethical   questions —questions about which people have moral opinions and that may not be answerable in reference to the real world. While social workers have explicit ethical obligations (e.g., service, social justice), research projects ask empirical questions to help actualize and support the work of upholding those ethical principles.

In order to help you better understand the difference between ethical and empirical questions, let’s consider a topic about which people have moral opinions. How about SpongeBob SquarePants? [1] In early 2005, members of the conservative Christian group Focus on the Family (2005) [2] denounced this seemingly innocuous cartoon character as “morally offensive” because they perceived his character to be one that promotes a “pro-gay agenda.” Focus on the Family supported their claim that SpongeBob is immoral by citing his appearance in a children’s video designed to promote tolerance of all family forms (BBC News, 2005). [3] They also cited SpongeBob’s regular hand-holding with his male sidekick Patrick as further evidence of his immorality.

So, can we now conclude that SpongeBob SquarePants is immoral? Not so fast. While your mother or a newspaper or television reporter may provide an answer, a social science researcher cannot. Questions of morality are ethical, not empirical. Of course, this doesn’t mean that social science researchers cannot study opinions about or social meanings surrounding SpongeBob SquarePants (Carter, 2010). [4] We study humans after all, and as you will discover in the following chapters of this textbook, we are trained to utilize a variety of scientific data-collection techniques to understand patterns of human beliefs and behaviors. Using these techniques, we could find out how many people in the United States find SpongeBob morally reprehensible, but we could never learn, empirically, whether SpongeBob is in fact morally reprehensible.

Let’s consider an example from a recent MSW research class I taught. A student group wanted to research the penalties for sexual assault. Their original research question was: “How can prison sentences for sexual assault be so much lower than the penalty for drug possession?” Outside of the research context, that is a darn good question! It speaks to how the War on Drugs and the patriarchy have distorted the criminal justice system towards policing of drug crimes over gender-based violence.

Unfortunately, it is an ethical question, not an empirical one. To answer that question, you would have to draw on philosophy and morality, answering what it is about human nature and society that allows such unjust outcomes. However, you could not answer that question by gathering data about people in the real world. If I asked people that question, they would likely give me their opinions about drugs, gender-based violence, and the criminal justice system. But I wouldn’t get the real answer about why our society tolerates such an imbalance in punishment.

As the students worked on the project through the semester, they continued to focus on the topic of sexual assault in the criminal justice system. Their research question became more empirical because they read more empirical articles about their topic. One option that they considered was to evaluate intervention programs for perpetrators of sexual assault to see if they reduced the likelihood of committing sexual assault again. Another option they considered was seeing if counties or states with higher than average jail sentences for sexual assault perpetrators had lower rates of re-offense for sexual assault. These projects addressed the ethical question of punishing perpetrators of sexual violence but did so in a way that gathered and analyzed empirical real-world data. Our job as social work researchers is to gather social facts about social work issues, not to judge or determine morality.

Key Takeaways

• Empirical questions are distinct from ethical questions.
• There are usually a number of ethical questions and a number of empirical questions that could be asked about any single topic.
• While social workers may research topics about which people have moral opinions, a researcher’s job is to gather and analyze empirical data.
• Take a look at your working question. Make sure you have an empirical question, not an ethical one. To perform this check, describe how you could find an answer to your question by conducting a study, like a survey or focus group, with real people.

9.2 Characteristics of a good research question

• Identify and explain the key features of a good research question
• Explain why it is important for social workers to be focused and clear with the language they use in their research questions

Now that you’ve made sure your working question is empirical, you need to revise that working question into a formal research question. So, what makes a good research question? First, it is generally written in the form of a question. To say that your research question is “the opioid epidemic” or “animal assisted therapy” or “oppression” would not be correct. You need to frame your topic as a question, not a statement. A good research question is also one that is well-focused. A well-focused question helps you tune out irrelevant information and not try to answer everything about the world all at once. You could be the most eloquent writer in your class, or even in the world, but if the research question about which you are writing is unclear, your work will ultimately lack direction.

In addition to being written in the form of a question and being well-focused, a good research question is one that cannot be answered with a simple yes or no. For example, if your interest is in gender norms, you could ask, “Does gender affect a person’s performance of household tasks?” but you will have nothing left to say once you discover your yes or no answer. Instead, why not ask, about the relationship between gender and household tasks. Alternatively, maybe we are interested in how or to what extent gender affects a person’s contributions to housework in a marriage? By tweaking your question in this small way, you suddenly have a much more fascinating question and more to say as you attempt to answer it.

A good research question should also have more than one plausible answer. In the example above, the student who studied the relationship between gender and household tasks had a specific interest in the impact of gender, but she also knew that preferences might be impacted by other factors. For example, she knew from her own experience that her more traditional and socially conservative friends were more likely to see household tasks as part of the female domain, and were less likely to expect their male partners to contribute to those tasks. Thinking through the possible relationships between gender, culture, and household tasks led that student to realize that there were many plausible answers to her questions about how  gender affects a person’s contribution to household tasks. Because gender doesn’t exist in a vacuum, she wisely felt that she needed to consider other characteristics that work together with gender to shape people’s behaviors, likes, and dislikes. By doing this, the student considered the third feature of a good research question–she thought about relationships between several concepts. While she began with an interest in a single concept—household tasks—by asking herself what other concepts (such as gender or political orientation) might be related to her original interest, she was able to form a question that considered the relationships  among  those concepts.

This student had one final component to consider. Social work research questions must contain a target population. Her study would be very different if she were to conduct it on older adults or immigrants who just arrived in a new country. The target population is the group of people whose needs your study addresses. Maybe the student noticed issues with household tasks as part of her social work practice with first-generation immigrants, and so she made it her target population. Maybe she wants to address the needs of another community. Whatever the case, the target population should be chosen while keeping in mind social work’s responsibility to work on behalf of marginalized and oppressed groups.

In sum, a good research question generally has the following features:

• It is written in the form of a question
• It is clearly written
• It cannot be answered with “yes” or “no”
• It has more than one plausible answer
• It considers relationships among multiple variables
• It is specific and clear about the concepts it addresses
• It includes a target population
• A poorly focused research question can lead to the demise of an otherwise well-executed study.
• Research questions should be clearly worded, consider relationships between multiple variables, have more than one plausible answer, and address the needs of a target population.

Okay, it’s time to write out your first draft of a research question.

• Once you’ve done so, take a look at the checklist in this chapter and see if your research question meets the criteria to be a good one.

Brainstorm whether your research question might be better suited to quantitative or qualitative methods.

• Describe why your question fits better with quantitative or qualitative methods.
• Provide an alternative research question that fits with the other type of research method.

9.3 Quantitative research questions

• Describe how research questions for exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory quantitative questions differ and how to phrase them
• Identify the differences between and provide examples of strong and weak explanatory research questions

Quantitative descriptive questions

The type of research you are conducting will impact the research question that you ask. Probably the easiest questions to think of are quantitative descriptive questions. For example, “What is the average student debt load of MSW students?” is a descriptive question—and an important one. We aren’t trying to build a causal relationship here. We’re simply trying to describe how much debt MSW students carry. Quantitative descriptive questions like this one are helpful in social work practice as part of community scans, in which human service agencies survey the various needs of the community they serve. If the scan reveals that the community requires more services related to housing, child care, or day treatment for people with disabilities, a nonprofit office can use the community scan to create new programs that meet a defined community need.

Quantitative descriptive questions will often ask for percentage, count the number of instances of a phenomenon, or determine an average. Descriptive questions may only include one variable, such as ours about student debt load, or they may include multiple variables. Because these are descriptive questions, our purpose is not to investigate causal relationships between variables. To do that, we need to use a quantitative explanatory question.

Quantitative explanatory questions

Most studies you read in the academic literature will be quantitative and explanatory. Why is that? If you recall from Chapter 2 , explanatory research tries to build nomothetic causal relationships. They are generalizable across space and time, so they are applicable to a wide audience. The editorial board of a journal wants to make sure their content will be useful to as many people as possible, so it’s not surprising that quantitative research dominates the academic literature.

Structurally, quantitative explanatory questions must contain an independent variable and dependent variable. Questions should ask about the relationship between these variables. The standard format I was taught in graduate school for an explanatory quantitative research question is: “What is the relationship between [independent variable] and [dependent variable] for [target population]?” You should play with the wording for your research question, revising that standard format to match what you really want to know about your topic.

Let’s take a look at a few more examples of possible research questions and consider the relative strengths and weaknesses of each. Table 9.1 does just that. While reading the table, keep in mind that I have only noted what I view to be the most relevant strengths and weaknesses of each question. Certainly each question may have additional strengths and weaknesses not noted in the table. Each of these questions is drawn from student projects in my research methods classes and reflects the work of many students on their research question over many weeks.

Making it more specific

A good research question should also be specific and clear about the concepts it addresses. A student investigating gender and household tasks knows what they mean by “household tasks.” You likely also have an impression of what “household tasks” means. But are your definition and the student’s definition the same? A participant in their study may think that managing finances and performing home maintenance are household tasks, but the researcher may be interested in other tasks like childcare or cleaning. The only way to ensure your study stays focused and clear is to be specific about what you mean by a concept. The student in our example could pick a specific household task that was interesting to them or that the literature indicated was important—for example, childcare. Or, the student could have a broader view of household tasks, one that encompasses childcare, food preparation, financial management, home repair, and care for relatives. Any option is probably okay, as long as the researcher is clear on what they mean by “household tasks.” Clarifying these distinctions is important as we look ahead to specifying how your variables will be measured in Chapter 11 .

Table 9.2 contains some “watch words” that indicate you may need to be more specific about the concepts in your research question.

It can be challenging to be this specific in social work research, particularly when you are just starting out your project and still reading the literature. If you’ve only read one or two articles on your topic, it can be hard to know what you are interested in studying. Broad questions like “What are the causes of chronic homelessness, and what can be done to prevent it?” are common at the beginning stages of a research project as working questions. However, moving from working questions to research questions in your research proposal requires that you examine the literature on the topic and refine your question over time to be more specific and clear. Perhaps you want to study the effect of a specific anti-homelessness program that you found in the literature. Maybe there is a particular model to fighting homelessness, like Housing First or transitional housing, that you want to investigate further. You may want to focus on a potential cause of homelessness such as LGBTQ+ discrimination that you find interesting or relevant to your practice. As you can see, the possibilities for making your question more specific are almost infinite.

Quantitative exploratory questions

In exploratory research, the researcher doesn’t quite know the lay of the land yet. If someone is proposing to conduct an exploratory quantitative project, the watch words highlighted in Table 9.2 are not problematic at all. In fact, questions such as “What factors influence the removal of children in child welfare cases?” are good because they will explore a variety of factors or causes. In this question, the independent variable is less clearly written, but the dependent variable, family preservation outcomes, is quite clearly written. The inverse can also be true. If we were to ask, “What outcomes are associated with family preservation services in child welfare?”, we would have a clear independent variable, family preservation services, but an unclear dependent variable, outcomes. Because we are only conducting exploratory research on a topic, we may not have an idea of what concepts may comprise our “outcomes” or “factors.” Only after interacting with our participants will we be able to understand which concepts are important.

Remember that exploratory research is appropriate only when the researcher does not know much about topic because there is very little scholarly research. In our examples above, there is extensive literature on the outcomes in family reunification programs and risk factors for child removal in child welfare. Make sure you’ve done a thorough literature review to ensure there is little relevant research to guide you towards a more explanatory question.

• Descriptive quantitative research questions are helpful for community scans but cannot investigate causal relationships between variables.
• Explanatory quantitative research questions must include an independent and dependent variable.
• Exploratory quantitative research questions should only be considered when there is very little previous research on your topic.
• Identify the type of research you are engaged in (descriptive, explanatory, or exploratory).
• Create a quantitative research question for your project that matches with the type of research you are engaged in.

Preferably, you should be creating an explanatory research question for quantitative research.

9.4 Qualitative research questions

• List the key terms associated with qualitative research questions
• Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative research questions

Qualitative research questions differ from quantitative research questions. Because qualitative research questions seek to explore or describe phenomena, not provide a neat nomothetic explanation, they are often more general and openly worded. They may include only one concept, though many include more than one. Instead of asking how one variable causes changes in another, we are instead trying to understand the experiences ,  understandings , and  meanings that people have about the concepts in our research question. These keywords often make an appearance in qualitative research questions.

Let’s work through an example from our last section. In Table 9.1, a student asked, “What is the relationship between sexual orientation or gender identity and homelessness for late adolescents in foster care?” In this question, it is pretty clear that the student believes that adolescents in foster care who identify as LGBTQ+ may be at greater risk for homelessness. This is a nomothetic causal relationship—LGBTQ+ status causes changes in homelessness.

However, what if the student were less interested in  predicting  homelessness based on LGBTQ+ status and more interested in  understanding  the stories of foster care youth who identify as LGBTQ+ and may be at risk for homelessness? In that case, the researcher would be building an idiographic causal explanation . The youths whom the researcher interviews may share stories of how their foster families, caseworkers, and others treated them. They may share stories about how they thought of their own sexuality or gender identity and how it changed over time. They may have different ideas about what it means to transition out of foster care.

Because qualitative questions usually center on idiographic causal relationships, they look different than quantitative questions. Table 9.3 below takes the final research questions from Table 9.1 and adapts them for qualitative research. The guidelines for research questions previously described in this chapter still apply, but there are some new elements to qualitative research questions that are not present in quantitative questions.

• Qualitative research questions often ask about lived experience, personal experience, understanding, meaning, and stories.
• Qualitative research questions may be more general and less specific.
• Qualitative research questions may also contain only one variable, rather than asking about relationships between multiple variables.

Qualitative research questions have one final feature that distinguishes them from quantitative research questions: they can change over the course of a study. Qualitative research is a reflexive process, one in which the researcher adapts their approach based on what participants say and do. The researcher must constantly evaluate whether their question is important and relevant to the participants. As the researcher gains information from participants, it is normal for the focus of the inquiry to shift.

For example, a qualitative researcher may want to study how a new truancy rule impacts youth at risk of expulsion. However, after interviewing some of the youth in their community, a researcher might find that the rule is actually irrelevant to their behavior and thoughts. Instead, their participants will direct the discussion to their frustration with the school administrators or the lack of job opportunities in the area. This is a natural part of qualitative research, and it is normal for research questions and hypothesis to evolve based on information gleaned from participants.

However, this reflexivity and openness unacceptable in quantitative research for good reasons. Researchers using quantitative methods are testing a hypothesis, and if they could revise that hypothesis to match what they found, they could never be wrong! Indeed, an important component of open science and reproducability is the preregistration of a researcher’s hypotheses and data analysis plan in a central repository that can be verified and replicated by reviewers and other researchers. This interactive graphic from 538 shows how an unscrupulous research could come up with a hypothesis and theoretical explanation  after collecting data by hunting for a combination of factors that results in a statistically significant relationship. This is an excellent example of how the positivist assumptions behind quantitative research and intepretivist assumptions behind qualitative research result in different approaches to social science.

• Qualitative research questions often contain words or phrases like “lived experience,” “personal experience,” “understanding,” “meaning,” and “stories.”
• Qualitative research questions can change and evolve over the course of the study.
• Using the guidance in this chapter, write a qualitative research question. You may want to use some of the keywords mentioned above.

9.5 Evaluating and updating your research questions

• Evaluate the feasibility and importance of your research questions
• Begin to match your research questions to specific designs that determine what the participants in your study will do

Feasibility and importance

As you are getting ready to finalize your research question and move into designing your research study, it is important to check whether your research question is feasible for you to answer and what importance your results will have in the community, among your participants, and in the scientific literature

Key questions to consider when evaluating your question’s feasibility include:

• Do you have access to the data you need?
• Will you be able to get consent from stakeholders, gatekeepers, and others?
• Does your project pose risk to individuals through direct harm, dual relationships, or breaches in confidentiality? (see Chapter 6 for more ethical considerations)
• Are you competent enough to complete the study?
• Do you have the resources and time needed to carry out the project?

Key questions to consider when evaluating the importance of your question include:

• Can we answer your research question simply by looking at the literature on your topic?
• How does your question add something new to the scholarly literature? (raises a new issue, addresses a controversy, studies a new population, etc.)
• How will your target population benefit, once you answer your research question?
• How will the community, social work practice, and the broader social world benefit, once you answer your research question?
• Using the questions above, check whether you think your project is feasible for you to complete, given the constrains that student projects face.
• Realistically, explore the potential impact of your project on the community and in the scientific literature. Make sure your question cannot be answered by simply reading more about your topic.

Matching your research question and study design

This chapter described how to create a good quantitative and qualitative research question. In Parts 3 and 4 of this textbook, we will detail some of the basic designs like surveys and interviews that social scientists use to answer their research questions. But which design should you choose?

As with most things, it all depends on your research question. If your research question involves, for example, testing a new intervention, you will likely want to use an experimental design. On the other hand, if you want to know the lived experience of people in a public housing building, you probably want to use an interview or focus group design.

We will learn more about each one of these designs in the remainder of this textbook. We will also learn about using data that already exists, studying an individual client inside clinical practice, and evaluating programs, which are other examples of designs. Below is a list of designs we will cover in this textbook:

• Surveys: online, phone, mail, in-person
• Experiments: classic, pre-experiments, quasi-experiments
• Interviews: in-person or via phone or videoconference
• Focus groups: in-person or via videoconference
• Content analysis of existing data
• Secondary data analysis of another researcher’s data
• Program evaluation

The design of your research study determines what you and your participants will do. In an experiment, for example, the researcher will introduce a stimulus or treatment to participants and measure their responses. In contrast, a content analysis may not have participants at all, and the researcher may simply read the marketing materials for a corporation or look at a politician’s speeches to conduct the data analysis for the study.

I imagine that a content analysis probably seems easier to accomplish than an experiment. However, as a researcher, you have to choose a research design that makes sense for your question and that is feasible to complete with the resources you have. All research projects require some resources to accomplish. Make sure your design is one you can carry out with the resources (time, money, staff, etc.) that you have.

There are so many different designs that exist in the social science literature that it would be impossible to include them all in this textbook. The purpose of the subsequent chapters is to help you understand the basic designs upon which these more advanced designs are built. As you learn more about research design, you will likely find yourself revising your research question to make sure it fits with the design. At the same time, your research question as it exists now should influence the design you end up choosing. There is no set order in which these should happen. Instead, your research project should be guided by whether you can feasibly carry it out and contribute new and important knowledge to the world.

• Research questions must be feasible and important.
• Research questions must match study design.
• Based on what you know about designs like surveys, experiments, and interviews, describe how you might use one of them to answer your research question.
• You may want to refer back to Chapter 2 which discusses how to get raw data about your topic and the common designs used in student research projects.

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• Not familiar with SpongeBob SquarePants? You can learn more about him on Nickelodeon’s site dedicated to all things SpongeBob:  http://www.nick.com/spongebob-squarepants/ ↵
• Focus on the Family. (2005, January 26). Focus on SpongeBob.  Christianity Today . Retrieved from  http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2005/januaryweb-only/34.0c.html ↵
• BBC News. (2005, January 20). US right attacks SpongeBob video. Retrieved from:  http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4190699.stm ↵
• In fact, an MA thesis examines representations of gender and relationships in the cartoon: Carter, A. C. (2010).  Constructing gender and   relationships in “SpongeBob SquarePants”: Who lives in a pineapple under the sea . MA thesis, Department of Communication, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL. ↵

research questions that can be answered by systematically observing the real world

unsuitable research questions which are not answerable by systematic observation of the real world but instead rely on moral or philosophical opinions

the group of people whose needs your study addresses

attempts to explain or describe your phenomenon exhaustively, based on the subjective understandings of your participants

"Assuming that the null hypothesis is true and the study is repeated an infinite number times by drawing random samples from the same populations(s), less than 5% of these results will be more extreme than the current result" (Cassidy et al., 2019, p. 233).

whether you can practically and ethically complete the research project you propose

the impact your study will have on participants, communities, scientific knowledge, and social justice

Graduate research methods in social work by Matthew DeCarlo, Cory Cummings, Kate Agnelli is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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A Practical Guide to Writing Quantitative and Qualitative Research Questions and Hypotheses in Scholarly Articles

Edward barroga.

1 Department of General Education, Graduate School of Nursing Science, St. Luke’s International University, Tokyo, Japan.

Glafera Janet Matanguihan

2 Department of Biological Sciences, Messiah University, Mechanicsburg, PA, USA.

The development of research questions and the subsequent hypotheses are prerequisites to defining the main research purpose and specific objectives of a study. Consequently, these objectives determine the study design and research outcome. The development of research questions is a process based on knowledge of current trends, cutting-edge studies, and technological advances in the research field. Excellent research questions are focused and require a comprehensive literature search and in-depth understanding of the problem being investigated. Initially, research questions may be written as descriptive questions which could be developed into inferential questions. These questions must be specific and concise to provide a clear foundation for developing hypotheses. Hypotheses are more formal predictions about the research outcomes. These specify the possible results that may or may not be expected regarding the relationship between groups. Thus, research questions and hypotheses clarify the main purpose and specific objectives of the study, which in turn dictate the design of the study, its direction, and outcome. Studies developed from good research questions and hypotheses will have trustworthy outcomes with wide-ranging social and health implications.

INTRODUCTION

Scientific research is usually initiated by posing evidenced-based research questions which are then explicitly restated as hypotheses. 1 , 2 The hypotheses provide directions to guide the study, solutions, explanations, and expected results. 3 , 4 Both research questions and hypotheses are essentially formulated based on conventional theories and real-world processes, which allow the inception of novel studies and the ethical testing of ideas. 5 , 6

It is crucial to have knowledge of both quantitative and qualitative research 2 as both types of research involve writing research questions and hypotheses. 7 However, these crucial elements of research are sometimes overlooked; if not overlooked, then framed without the forethought and meticulous attention it needs. Planning and careful consideration are needed when developing quantitative or qualitative research, particularly when conceptualizing research questions and hypotheses. 4

There is a continuing need to support researchers in the creation of innovative research questions and hypotheses, as well as for journal articles that carefully review these elements. 1 When research questions and hypotheses are not carefully thought of, unethical studies and poor outcomes usually ensue. Carefully formulated research questions and hypotheses define well-founded objectives, which in turn determine the appropriate design, course, and outcome of the study. This article then aims to discuss in detail the various aspects of crafting research questions and hypotheses, with the goal of guiding researchers as they develop their own. Examples from the authors and peer-reviewed scientific articles in the healthcare field are provided to illustrate key points.

DEFINITIONS AND RELATIONSHIP OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

A research question is what a study aims to answer after data analysis and interpretation. The answer is written in length in the discussion section of the paper. Thus, the research question gives a preview of the different parts and variables of the study meant to address the problem posed in the research question. 1 An excellent research question clarifies the research writing while facilitating understanding of the research topic, objective, scope, and limitations of the study. 5

On the other hand, a research hypothesis is an educated statement of an expected outcome. This statement is based on background research and current knowledge. 8 , 9 The research hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a new phenomenon 10 or a formal statement on the expected relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. 3 , 11 It provides a tentative answer to the research question to be tested or explored. 4

Hypotheses employ reasoning to predict a theory-based outcome. 10 These can also be developed from theories by focusing on components of theories that have not yet been observed. 10 The validity of hypotheses is often based on the testability of the prediction made in a reproducible experiment. 8

Conversely, hypotheses can also be rephrased as research questions. Several hypotheses based on existing theories and knowledge may be needed to answer a research question. Developing ethical research questions and hypotheses creates a research design that has logical relationships among variables. These relationships serve as a solid foundation for the conduct of the study. 4 , 11 Haphazardly constructed research questions can result in poorly formulated hypotheses and improper study designs, leading to unreliable results. Thus, the formulations of relevant research questions and verifiable hypotheses are crucial when beginning research. 12

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Excellent research questions are specific and focused. These integrate collective data and observations to confirm or refute the subsequent hypotheses. Well-constructed hypotheses are based on previous reports and verify the research context. These are realistic, in-depth, sufficiently complex, and reproducible. More importantly, these hypotheses can be addressed and tested. 13

There are several characteristics of well-developed hypotheses. Good hypotheses are 1) empirically testable 7 , 10 , 11 , 13 ; 2) backed by preliminary evidence 9 ; 3) testable by ethical research 7 , 9 ; 4) based on original ideas 9 ; 5) have evidenced-based logical reasoning 10 ; and 6) can be predicted. 11 Good hypotheses can infer ethical and positive implications, indicating the presence of a relationship or effect relevant to the research theme. 7 , 11 These are initially developed from a general theory and branch into specific hypotheses by deductive reasoning. In the absence of a theory to base the hypotheses, inductive reasoning based on specific observations or findings form more general hypotheses. 10

TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions and hypotheses are developed according to the type of research, which can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative research. We provide a summary of the types of research questions and hypotheses under quantitative and qualitative research categories in Table 1 .

Research questions in quantitative research

In quantitative research, research questions inquire about the relationships among variables being investigated and are usually framed at the start of the study. These are precise and typically linked to the subject population, dependent and independent variables, and research design. 1 Research questions may also attempt to describe the behavior of a population in relation to one or more variables, or describe the characteristics of variables to be measured ( descriptive research questions ). 1 , 5 , 14 These questions may also aim to discover differences between groups within the context of an outcome variable ( comparative research questions ), 1 , 5 , 14 or elucidate trends and interactions among variables ( relationship research questions ). 1 , 5 We provide examples of descriptive, comparative, and relationship research questions in quantitative research in Table 2 .

Hypotheses in quantitative research

In quantitative research, hypotheses predict the expected relationships among variables. 15 Relationships among variables that can be predicted include 1) between a single dependent variable and a single independent variable ( simple hypothesis ) or 2) between two or more independent and dependent variables ( complex hypothesis ). 4 , 11 Hypotheses may also specify the expected direction to be followed and imply an intellectual commitment to a particular outcome ( directional hypothesis ) 4 . On the other hand, hypotheses may not predict the exact direction and are used in the absence of a theory, or when findings contradict previous studies ( non-directional hypothesis ). 4 In addition, hypotheses can 1) define interdependency between variables ( associative hypothesis ), 4 2) propose an effect on the dependent variable from manipulation of the independent variable ( causal hypothesis ), 4 3) state a negative relationship between two variables ( null hypothesis ), 4 , 11 , 15 4) replace the working hypothesis if rejected ( alternative hypothesis ), 15 explain the relationship of phenomena to possibly generate a theory ( working hypothesis ), 11 5) involve quantifiable variables that can be tested statistically ( statistical hypothesis ), 11 6) or express a relationship whose interlinks can be verified logically ( logical hypothesis ). 11 We provide examples of simple, complex, directional, non-directional, associative, causal, null, alternative, working, statistical, and logical hypotheses in quantitative research, as well as the definition of quantitative hypothesis-testing research in Table 3 .

Research questions in qualitative research

Unlike research questions in quantitative research, research questions in qualitative research are usually continuously reviewed and reformulated. The central question and associated subquestions are stated more than the hypotheses. 15 The central question broadly explores a complex set of factors surrounding the central phenomenon, aiming to present the varied perspectives of participants. 15

There are varied goals for which qualitative research questions are developed. These questions can function in several ways, such as to 1) identify and describe existing conditions ( contextual research question s); 2) describe a phenomenon ( descriptive research questions ); 3) assess the effectiveness of existing methods, protocols, theories, or procedures ( evaluation research questions ); 4) examine a phenomenon or analyze the reasons or relationships between subjects or phenomena ( explanatory research questions ); or 5) focus on unknown aspects of a particular topic ( exploratory research questions ). 5 In addition, some qualitative research questions provide new ideas for the development of theories and actions ( generative research questions ) or advance specific ideologies of a position ( ideological research questions ). 1 Other qualitative research questions may build on a body of existing literature and become working guidelines ( ethnographic research questions ). Research questions may also be broadly stated without specific reference to the existing literature or a typology of questions ( phenomenological research questions ), may be directed towards generating a theory of some process ( grounded theory questions ), or may address a description of the case and the emerging themes ( qualitative case study questions ). 15 We provide examples of contextual, descriptive, evaluation, explanatory, exploratory, generative, ideological, ethnographic, phenomenological, grounded theory, and qualitative case study research questions in qualitative research in Table 4 , and the definition of qualitative hypothesis-generating research in Table 5 .

Qualitative studies usually pose at least one central research question and several subquestions starting with How or What . These research questions use exploratory verbs such as explore or describe . These also focus on one central phenomenon of interest, and may mention the participants and research site. 15

Hypotheses in qualitative research

Hypotheses in qualitative research are stated in the form of a clear statement concerning the problem to be investigated. Unlike in quantitative research where hypotheses are usually developed to be tested, qualitative research can lead to both hypothesis-testing and hypothesis-generating outcomes. 2 When studies require both quantitative and qualitative research questions, this suggests an integrative process between both research methods wherein a single mixed-methods research question can be developed. 1

FRAMEWORKS FOR DEVELOPING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions followed by hypotheses should be developed before the start of the study. 1 , 12 , 14 It is crucial to develop feasible research questions on a topic that is interesting to both the researcher and the scientific community. This can be achieved by a meticulous review of previous and current studies to establish a novel topic. Specific areas are subsequently focused on to generate ethical research questions. The relevance of the research questions is evaluated in terms of clarity of the resulting data, specificity of the methodology, objectivity of the outcome, depth of the research, and impact of the study. 1 , 5 These aspects constitute the FINER criteria (i.e., Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant). 1 Clarity and effectiveness are achieved if research questions meet the FINER criteria. In addition to the FINER criteria, Ratan et al. described focus, complexity, novelty, feasibility, and measurability for evaluating the effectiveness of research questions. 14

The PICOT and PEO frameworks are also used when developing research questions. 1 The following elements are addressed in these frameworks, PICOT: P-population/patients/problem, I-intervention or indicator being studied, C-comparison group, O-outcome of interest, and T-timeframe of the study; PEO: P-population being studied, E-exposure to preexisting conditions, and O-outcome of interest. 1 Research questions are also considered good if these meet the “FINERMAPS” framework: Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, Relevant, Manageable, Appropriate, Potential value/publishable, and Systematic. 14

As we indicated earlier, research questions and hypotheses that are not carefully formulated result in unethical studies or poor outcomes. To illustrate this, we provide some examples of ambiguous research question and hypotheses that result in unclear and weak research objectives in quantitative research ( Table 6 ) 16 and qualitative research ( Table 7 ) 17 , and how to transform these ambiguous research question(s) and hypothesis(es) into clear and good statements.

a These statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

b These statements are direct quotes from Higashihara and Horiuchi. 16

a This statement is a direct quote from Shimoda et al. 17

The other statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

CONSTRUCTING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

To construct effective research questions and hypotheses, it is very important to 1) clarify the background and 2) identify the research problem at the outset of the research, within a specific timeframe. 9 Then, 3) review or conduct preliminary research to collect all available knowledge about the possible research questions by studying theories and previous studies. 18 Afterwards, 4) construct research questions to investigate the research problem. Identify variables to be accessed from the research questions 4 and make operational definitions of constructs from the research problem and questions. Thereafter, 5) construct specific deductive or inductive predictions in the form of hypotheses. 4 Finally, 6) state the study aims . This general flow for constructing effective research questions and hypotheses prior to conducting research is shown in Fig. 1 .

Research questions are used more frequently in qualitative research than objectives or hypotheses. 3 These questions seek to discover, understand, explore or describe experiences by asking “What” or “How.” The questions are open-ended to elicit a description rather than to relate variables or compare groups. The questions are continually reviewed, reformulated, and changed during the qualitative study. 3 Research questions are also used more frequently in survey projects than hypotheses in experiments in quantitative research to compare variables and their relationships.

Hypotheses are constructed based on the variables identified and as an if-then statement, following the template, ‘If a specific action is taken, then a certain outcome is expected.’ At this stage, some ideas regarding expectations from the research to be conducted must be drawn. 18 Then, the variables to be manipulated (independent) and influenced (dependent) are defined. 4 Thereafter, the hypothesis is stated and refined, and reproducible data tailored to the hypothesis are identified, collected, and analyzed. 4 The hypotheses must be testable and specific, 18 and should describe the variables and their relationships, the specific group being studied, and the predicted research outcome. 18 Hypotheses construction involves a testable proposition to be deduced from theory, and independent and dependent variables to be separated and measured separately. 3 Therefore, good hypotheses must be based on good research questions constructed at the start of a study or trial. 12

In summary, research questions are constructed after establishing the background of the study. Hypotheses are then developed based on the research questions. Thus, it is crucial to have excellent research questions to generate superior hypotheses. In turn, these would determine the research objectives and the design of the study, and ultimately, the outcome of the research. 12 Algorithms for building research questions and hypotheses are shown in Fig. 2 for quantitative research and in Fig. 3 for qualitative research.

EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS FROM PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Descriptive research question (quantitative research)
• - Presents research variables to be assessed (distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes)
• “BACKGROUND: Since COVID-19 was identified, its clinical and biological heterogeneity has been recognized. Identifying COVID-19 phenotypes might help guide basic, clinical, and translational research efforts.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Does the clinical spectrum of patients with COVID-19 contain distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes? ” 19
• EXAMPLE 2. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Shows interactions between dependent variable (static postural control) and independent variable (peripheral visual field loss)
• “Background: Integration of visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive sensations contributes to postural control. People with peripheral visual field loss have serious postural instability. However, the directional specificity of postural stability and sensory reweighting caused by gradual peripheral visual field loss remain unclear.
• Research question: What are the effects of peripheral visual field loss on static postural control ?” 20
• EXAMPLE 3. Comparative research question (quantitative research)
• - Clarifies the difference among groups with an outcome variable (patients enrolled in COMPERA with moderate PH or severe PH in COPD) and another group without the outcome variable (patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH))
• “BACKGROUND: Pulmonary hypertension (PH) in COPD is a poorly investigated clinical condition.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Which factors determine the outcome of PH in COPD?
• STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: We analyzed the characteristics and outcome of patients enrolled in the Comparative, Prospective Registry of Newly Initiated Therapies for Pulmonary Hypertension (COMPERA) with moderate or severe PH in COPD as defined during the 6th PH World Symposium who received medical therapy for PH and compared them with patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH) .” 21
• EXAMPLE 4. Exploratory research question (qualitative research)
• - Explores areas that have not been fully investigated (perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment) to have a deeper understanding of the research problem
• “Problem: Interventions for children with obesity lead to only modest improvements in BMI and long-term outcomes, and data are limited on the perspectives of families of children with obesity in clinic-based treatment. This scoping review seeks to answer the question: What is known about the perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment? This review aims to explore the scope of perspectives reported by families of children with obesity who have received individualized outpatient clinic-based obesity treatment.” 22
• EXAMPLE 5. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Defines interactions between dependent variable (use of ankle strategies) and independent variable (changes in muscle tone)
• “Background: To maintain an upright standing posture against external disturbances, the human body mainly employs two types of postural control strategies: “ankle strategy” and “hip strategy.” While it has been reported that the magnitude of the disturbance alters the use of postural control strategies, it has not been elucidated how the level of muscle tone, one of the crucial parameters of bodily function, determines the use of each strategy. We have previously confirmed using forward dynamics simulations of human musculoskeletal models that an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. The objective of the present study was to experimentally evaluate a hypothesis: an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. Research question: Do changes in the muscle tone affect the use of ankle strategies ?” 23

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESES IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Working hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - A hypothesis that is initially accepted for further research to produce a feasible theory
• “As fever may have benefit in shortening the duration of viral illness, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response when taken during the early stages of COVID-19 illness .” 24
• “In conclusion, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response . The difference in perceived safety of these agents in COVID-19 illness could be related to the more potent efficacy to reduce fever with ibuprofen compared to acetaminophen. Compelling data on the benefit of fever warrant further research and review to determine when to treat or withhold ibuprofen for early stage fever for COVID-19 and other related viral illnesses .” 24
• EXAMPLE 2. Exploratory hypothesis (qualitative research)
• - Explores particular areas deeper to clarify subjective experience and develop a formal hypothesis potentially testable in a future quantitative approach
• “We hypothesized that when thinking about a past experience of help-seeking, a self distancing prompt would cause increased help-seeking intentions and more favorable help-seeking outcome expectations .” 25
• “Conclusion
• Although a priori hypotheses were not supported, further research is warranted as results indicate the potential for using self-distancing approaches to increasing help-seeking among some people with depressive symptomatology.” 25
• EXAMPLE 3. Hypothesis-generating research to establish a framework for hypothesis testing (qualitative research)
• “We hypothesize that compassionate care is beneficial for patients (better outcomes), healthcare systems and payers (lower costs), and healthcare providers (lower burnout). ” 26
• Compassionomics is the branch of knowledge and scientific study of the effects of compassionate healthcare. Our main hypotheses are that compassionate healthcare is beneficial for (1) patients, by improving clinical outcomes, (2) healthcare systems and payers, by supporting financial sustainability, and (3) HCPs, by lowering burnout and promoting resilience and well-being. The purpose of this paper is to establish a scientific framework for testing the hypotheses above . If these hypotheses are confirmed through rigorous research, compassionomics will belong in the science of evidence-based medicine, with major implications for all healthcare domains.” 26
• EXAMPLE 4. Statistical hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - An assumption is made about the relationship among several population characteristics ( gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD ). Validity is tested by statistical experiment or analysis ( chi-square test, Students t-test, and logistic regression analysis)
• “Our research investigated gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD in a Japanese clinical sample. Due to unique Japanese cultural ideals and expectations of women's behavior that are in opposition to ADHD symptoms, we hypothesized that women with ADHD experience more difficulties and present more dysfunctions than men . We tested the following hypotheses: first, women with ADHD have more comorbidities than men with ADHD; second, women with ADHD experience more social hardships than men, such as having less full-time employment and being more likely to be divorced.” 27
• “Statistical Analysis
• ( text omitted ) Between-gender comparisons were made using the chi-squared test for categorical variables and Students t-test for continuous variables…( text omitted ). A logistic regression analysis was performed for employment status, marital status, and comorbidity to evaluate the independent effects of gender on these dependent variables.” 27

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESIS AS WRITTEN IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES IN RELATION TO OTHER PARTS

• EXAMPLE 1. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “Pregnant women need skilled care during pregnancy and childbirth, but that skilled care is often delayed in some countries …( text omitted ). The focused antenatal care (FANC) model of WHO recommends that nurses provide information or counseling to all pregnant women …( text omitted ). Job aids are visual support materials that provide the right kind of information using graphics and words in a simple and yet effective manner. When nurses are not highly trained or have many work details to attend to, these job aids can serve as a content reminder for the nurses and can be used for educating their patients (Jennings, Yebadokpo, Affo, & Agbogbe, 2010) ( text omitted ). Importantly, additional evidence is needed to confirm how job aids can further improve the quality of ANC counseling by health workers in maternal care …( text omitted )” 28
• “ This has led us to hypothesize that the quality of ANC counseling would be better if supported by job aids. Consequently, a better quality of ANC counseling is expected to produce higher levels of awareness concerning the danger signs of pregnancy and a more favorable impression of the caring behavior of nurses .” 28
• “This study aimed to examine the differences in the responses of pregnant women to a job aid-supported intervention during ANC visit in terms of 1) their understanding of the danger signs of pregnancy and 2) their impression of the caring behaviors of nurses to pregnant women in rural Tanzania.” 28
• EXAMPLE 2. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “We conducted a two-arm randomized controlled trial (RCT) to evaluate and compare changes in salivary cortisol and oxytocin levels of first-time pregnant women between experimental and control groups. The women in the experimental group touched and held an infant for 30 min (experimental intervention protocol), whereas those in the control group watched a DVD movie of an infant (control intervention protocol). The primary outcome was salivary cortisol level and the secondary outcome was salivary oxytocin level.” 29
• “ We hypothesize that at 30 min after touching and holding an infant, the salivary cortisol level will significantly decrease and the salivary oxytocin level will increase in the experimental group compared with the control group .” 29
• EXAMPLE 3. Background, aim, and hypothesis are provided
• “In countries where the maternal mortality ratio remains high, antenatal education to increase Birth Preparedness and Complication Readiness (BPCR) is considered one of the top priorities [1]. BPCR includes birth plans during the antenatal period, such as the birthplace, birth attendant, transportation, health facility for complications, expenses, and birth materials, as well as family coordination to achieve such birth plans. In Tanzania, although increasing, only about half of all pregnant women attend an antenatal clinic more than four times [4]. Moreover, the information provided during antenatal care (ANC) is insufficient. In the resource-poor settings, antenatal group education is a potential approach because of the limited time for individual counseling at antenatal clinics.” 30
• “This study aimed to evaluate an antenatal group education program among pregnant women and their families with respect to birth-preparedness and maternal and infant outcomes in rural villages of Tanzania.” 30
• “ The study hypothesis was if Tanzanian pregnant women and their families received a family-oriented antenatal group education, they would (1) have a higher level of BPCR, (2) attend antenatal clinic four or more times, (3) give birth in a health facility, (4) have less complications of women at birth, and (5) have less complications and deaths of infants than those who did not receive the education .” 30

Research questions and hypotheses are crucial components to any type of research, whether quantitative or qualitative. These questions should be developed at the very beginning of the study. Excellent research questions lead to superior hypotheses, which, like a compass, set the direction of research, and can often determine the successful conduct of the study. Many research studies have floundered because the development of research questions and subsequent hypotheses was not given the thought and meticulous attention needed. The development of research questions and hypotheses is an iterative process based on extensive knowledge of the literature and insightful grasp of the knowledge gap. Focused, concise, and specific research questions provide a strong foundation for constructing hypotheses which serve as formal predictions about the research outcomes. Research questions and hypotheses are crucial elements of research that should not be overlooked. They should be carefully thought of and constructed when planning research. This avoids unethical studies and poor outcomes by defining well-founded objectives that determine the design, course, and outcome of the study.

Disclosure: The authors have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.

Author Contributions:

• Conceptualization: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Methodology: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - original draft: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - review & editing: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.

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(optional) Select some text on the page (or do this before you open the "Notes" drawer). 3. Highlighter Color: 4. Search for: Search in: Course-wide Content News, Articles & Links Quizzes Interactive Exercises More Resources Instructor Resources Course-wide Content 169 IMAGES (PPT) FEASIBLE CLEAR SIGNIFICANT ETHICAL Characteristics of a Good Research Question Research Question Maker Characteristics of a Good Research Question ETHICAL SIGNIFICANT Developing your research question and writing an introduction CLINICAL RESEARCH: An Introduction Rayat Shikshan Sanstha’s S. M COMMENTS Formulating a good research question: Pearls and pitfalls The process of formulating a good research question can be challenging and frustrating. While a comprehensive literature review is compulsory, the researcher usually encounters methodological difficulties in the conduct of the study, particularly if the primary study question has not been adequately selected in accordance with the clinical dilemma that needs to be addressed. Formulation of Research Question Abstract. Formulation of research question (RQ) is an essentiality before starting any research. It aims to explore an existing uncertainty in an area of concern and points to a need for deliberate investigation. It is, therefore, pertinent to formulate a good RQ. The present paper aims to discuss the process of formulation of RQ with stepwise ... Framing the Research Question The question is feasible. The question is clear. The question is significant. The question is ethical. The feasibility of the question should guide not only the expression of the question but its conception. Feasibility should be foremost in the researcher's mind in the earliest stages of any project. Reviewers will always evaluate the ... Back to the basics: Guidance for formulating good research questions A research question with high levels of interest is ultimately more competitive for funding and publication. The third component (N) ensures that the research question furthers knowledge in the current field, and fills a clear knowledge gap. The most important way to evaluate novelty is by conducting a rigorous literature review to evaluate ... Characteristics of a good research question A good or well-constructed research question is: Original and of interest to the researcher and the outside world; It is clear and focused: it provides enough specifics that it is easy to understand its purpose and it is narrow enough that it can be answered. If the question is too broad it may not be possible to answer it thoroughly. A well-formulated research question: The foundation stone of good A precise and a well-defined research question ensures that the study tackles a particular problem or gap in the literature, by influencing the design, data collecting, and analysis of the study. The FINER acronym for a good research question stands for the following: feasible, interesting, novel, ethical, and relevant. Formulating a good research question: Pearls and pitfalls Previous studies have suggested the research questions to be feasible, interesting, novel, ethical, and relevant (FINER) [13] [14] [15]. Formulating a good research question often involves ... Framing a research question: The first and most vital step in planning Framing a research question is one of the most important steps in planning research. This is for three main reasons: Firstly, formulating a research question requires a systematic exploration of the different components of a research project and will ultimately help you consolidate your hypothesis, aims and objectives and the optimal methodology to employ. Writing Strong Research Questions A good research question is essential to guide your research paper, dissertation, or thesis. All research questions should be: Focused on a single problem or issue. Researchable using primary and/or secondary sources. Feasible to answer within the timeframe and practical constraints. Specific enough to answer thoroughly. PDF Framing a research question Summary. Research question begins with an idea which is then transformed into a research question. A research question: clear, focused, and concise statement that conveys the objectives of the research and its potential findings. Should be expressed in a simple, straight-forward language. 2.4 Developing a Research Question Characteristics of a good research question. A good research question has the following qualities: it is Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant (FINER). 11 Feasible: being feasible indicates that it is practical for the investigator to carry out. 11 This refers to the distribution of appropriate resources (including a budget), sufficient research design, readily available skills ... How to Write a Research Question in 2024: Types, Steps, and Examples A good research question is feasible, which means that the question is well within the researcher's ability to investigate. ... E Ethical This is one of the more important considerations of making a research question. Your research question and your subsequent study must be something that review boards and the appropriate authorities will ... How to Craft a Strong Research Question (With Research Question Assess your chosen research question using the FINER criteria that helps you evaluate whether the research is Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant. 1. Formulate the final research question, while ensuring it is clear, well-written, and addresses all the key elements of a strong research question. Key Characteristics of a Good Research Question Explained A good research question should be specific and clearly defined to guide the research process effectively. It should be relevant to current research trends and feasible within the available resources and time constraints. Complexity and depth are essential, encouraging exploration and incorporating multiple variables. FINER: a Research Framework A Closer Look at the FINER Criteria. FINER is an acronym that stands for Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant. These five attributes are essential in ensuring that a research question is not only well-constructed but is also capable of driving a study that's both meaningful and impactful. 1. Feasible: PDF What Makes a Good Research Question? In essence, the research question that guides the sciences and social sciences should do the following three things:2. 1) Post a problem. 2) Shape the problem into a testable hypothesis. 3) Report the results of the tested hypothesis. There are two types of data that can help shape research questions in the sciences and social sciences ... Formulating a researchable question: A critical step for facilitating The underlying questions of a research project provide important information to decide whether the topic is relevant, researchable, and significant. A well-formulated research question needs extreme specificity and preciseness which guides the implementation of the project keeping in mind the identification of variables and population of interest. Good research questions A research question is not any question we ask. Instead, it is a clear, specific, and goal-oriented query related to a problem that needs to be addressed. It is the soundness and appropriateness of the research question that determine the quality of the research. One characteristic of good research questions is that they are empirically testable. 9. Writing your research question Writing a good research question is an art and a science. It is a science because you have to make sure it is clear, concise, and well-developed. It is an art because often your language needs "wordsmithing" to perfect and clarify the meaning. This is an exciting part of the research process; however, it can also be one of the most stressful. How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education In order for a question to qualify as a research question, the researcher must be able to propose several answers to the question that are equally acceptable. ... Four essential characteristics good research questions have are that they are feasible, clear, significant, and ethical. A) TRUE: B) FALSE: 9. A research problem is the focus of a ... 10. A good research question is:A. Feasible, clear, significant and B. Feasible, clear, significant, and ethical C. Clear, significant, and ethical D. Feasible, clear, and ethical See answers B. ... significant, and ethical Because a good research question is clear, significant, and ethical B sagot Nyan trust me B ang final na sagot diyan HA B ket search niyo pa encircle nyo nalang lahat ang laking tulong ng ... A Practical Guide to Writing Quantitative and Qualitative Research To construct effective research questions and hypotheses, it is very important to 1) clarify the background and 2) identify the research problem at the outset of the research, within a specific timeframe.9 Then, 3) review or conduct preliminary research to collect all available knowledge about the possible research questions by studying ... True/False Four essential characteristics good research questions have are that they are feasible, clear, significant, and ethical. A) TRUE: B) FALSE: 9: A research problem is the focus of a research investigation. A) TRUE: B) FALSE: 10: Research questions always suggest a relationship to be investigated. A) assignment essay homework paper phd resume review speech thesis