how to write a synthesis in research sample

How to Synthesize Written Information from Multiple Sources

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Saul Mcleod, PhD

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Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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When you write a literature review or essay, you have to go beyond just summarizing the articles you’ve read – you need to synthesize the literature to show how it all fits together (and how your own research fits in).

Synthesizing simply means combining. Instead of summarizing the main points of each source in turn, you put together the ideas and findings of multiple sources in order to make an overall point.

At the most basic level, this involves looking for similarities and differences between your sources. Your synthesis should show the reader where the sources overlap and where they diverge.

Unsynthesized Example

Franz (2008) studied undergraduate online students. He looked at 17 females and 18 males and found that none of them liked APA. According to Franz, the evidence suggested that all students are reluctant to learn citations style. Perez (2010) also studies undergraduate students. She looked at 42 females and 50 males and found that males were significantly more inclined to use citation software ( p < .05). Findings suggest that females might graduate sooner. Goldstein (2012) looked at British undergraduates. Among a sample of 50, all females, all confident in their abilities to cite and were eager to write their dissertations.

Synthesized Example

Studies of undergraduate students reveal conflicting conclusions regarding relationships between advanced scholarly study and citation efficacy. Although Franz (2008) found that no participants enjoyed learning citation style, Goldstein (2012) determined in a larger study that all participants watched felt comfortable citing sources, suggesting that variables among participant and control group populations must be examined more closely. Although Perez (2010) expanded on Franz’s original study with a larger, more diverse sample…

Step 1: Organize your sources

After collecting the relevant literature, you’ve got a lot of information to work through, and no clear idea of how it all fits together.

Before you can start writing, you need to organize your notes in a way that allows you to see the relationships between sources.

One way to begin synthesizing the literature is to put your notes into a table. Depending on your topic and the type of literature you’re dealing with, there are a couple of different ways you can organize this.

Summary table

A summary table collates the key points of each source under consistent headings. This is a good approach if your sources tend to have a similar structure – for instance, if they’re all empirical papers.

Each row in the table lists one source, and each column identifies a specific part of the source. You can decide which headings to include based on what’s most relevant to the literature you’re dealing with.

For example, you might include columns for things like aims, methods, variables, population, sample size, and conclusion.

For each study, you briefly summarize each of these aspects. You can also include columns for your own evaluation and analysis.

The summary table gives you a quick overview of the key points of each source. This allows you to group sources by relevant similarities, as well as noticing important differences or contradictions in their findings.

Synthesis matrix

A synthesis matrix is useful when your sources are more varied in their purpose and structure – for example, when you’re dealing with books and essays making various different arguments about a topic.

Each column in the table lists one source. Each row is labeled with a specific concept, topic or theme that recurs across all or most of the sources.

Then, for each source, you summarize the main points or arguments related to the theme.

The purposes of the table is to identify the common points that connect the sources, as well as identifying points where they diverge or disagree.

Step 2: Outline your structure

Now you should have a clear overview of the main connections and differences between the sources you’ve read. Next, you need to decide how you’ll group them together and the order in which you’ll discuss them.

For shorter papers, your outline can just identify the focus of each paragraph; for longer papers, you might want to divide it into sections with headings.

There are a few different approaches you can take to help you structure your synthesis.

If your sources cover a broad time period, and you found patterns in how researchers approached the topic over time, you can organize your discussion chronologically .

That doesn’t mean you just summarize each paper in chronological order; instead, you should group articles into time periods and identify what they have in common, as well as signalling important turning points or developments in the literature.

If the literature covers various different topics, you can organize it thematically .

That means that each paragraph or section focuses on a specific theme and explains how that theme is approached in the literature.

Source Used with Permission: The Chicago School

If you’re drawing on literature from various different fields or they use a wide variety of research methods, you can organize your sources methodologically .

That means grouping together studies based on the type of research they did and discussing the findings that emerged from each method.

If your topic involves a debate between different schools of thought, you can organize it theoretically .

That means comparing the different theories that have been developed and grouping together papers based on the position or perspective they take on the topic, as well as evaluating which arguments are most convincing.

Step 3: Write paragraphs with topic sentences

What sets a synthesis apart from a summary is that it combines various sources. The easiest way to think about this is that each paragraph should discuss a few different sources, and you should be able to condense the overall point of the paragraph into one sentence.

This is called a topic sentence , and it usually appears at the start of the paragraph. The topic sentence signals what the whole paragraph is about; every sentence in the paragraph should be clearly related to it.

A topic sentence can be a simple summary of the paragraph’s content:

“Early research on [x] focused heavily on [y].”

For an effective synthesis, you can use topic sentences to link back to the previous paragraph, highlighting a point of debate or critique:

“Several scholars have pointed out the flaws in this approach.” “While recent research has attempted to address the problem, many of these studies have methodological flaws that limit their validity.”

By using topic sentences, you can ensure that your paragraphs are coherent and clearly show the connections between the articles you are discussing.

As you write your paragraphs, avoid quoting directly from sources: use your own words to explain the commonalities and differences that you found in the literature.

Don’t try to cover every single point from every single source – the key to synthesizing is to extract the most important and relevant information and combine it to give your reader an overall picture of the state of knowledge on your topic.

Step 4: Revise, edit and proofread

Like any other piece of academic writing, synthesizing literature doesn’t happen all in one go – it involves redrafting, revising, editing and proofreading your work.

Checklist for Synthesis

•   Do I introduce the paragraph with a clear, focused topic sentence?
•   Do I discuss more than one source in the paragraph?
•   Do I mention only the most relevant findings, rather than describing every part of the studies?
•   Do I discuss the similarities or differences between the sources, rather than summarizing each source in turn?
•   Do I put the findings or arguments of the sources in my own words?
•   Is the paragraph organized around a single idea?
•   Is the paragraph directly relevant to my research question or topic?
•   Is there a logical transition from this paragraph to the next one?

Further Information

How to Synthesise: a Step-by-Step Approach

Help…I”ve Been Asked to Synthesize!

Learn how to Synthesise (combine information from sources)

How to write a Psychology Essay

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How to Write a Psychology Essay

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• Research Guides

How to Write a Literature Review

• 6. Synthesize
• Literature Reviews: A Recap
• Reading Journal Articles
• Does it Describe a Literature Review?
• 1. Identify the Question
• 2. Review Discipline Styles
• Searching Article Databases
• Finding Full-Text of an Article
• Citation Chaining
• When to Stop Searching
• 4. Manage Your References
• 5. Critically Analyze and Evaluate

Synthesis Visualization

Synthesis matrix example.

• 7. Write a Literature Review

• Synthesis Worksheet

About Synthesis

Approaches to synthesis.

You can sort the literature in various ways, for example:

How to Begin?

Read your sources carefully and find the main idea(s) of each source

Look for similarities in your sources – which sources are talking about the same main ideas? (for example, sources that discuss the historical background on your topic)

Use the worksheet (above) or synthesis matrix (below) to get organized

This work can be messy. Don't worry if you have to go through a few iterations of the worksheet or matrix as you work on your lit review!

Four Examples of Student Writing

In the four examples below, only ONE shows a good example of synthesis: the fourth column, or  Student D . For a web accessible version, click the link below the image.

Long description of "Four Examples of Student Writing" for web accessibility

• Download a copy of the "Four Examples of Student Writing" chart

Click on the example to view the pdf.

From Jennifer Lim

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• Next: 7. Write a Literature Review >>
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Get Organized

• Lit Review Prep Use this template to help you evaluate your sources, create article summaries for an annotated bibliography, and a synthesis matrix for your lit review outline.

Synthesize your Information

Synthesize: combine separate elements to form a whole.

Synthesis Matrix

A synthesis matrix helps you record the main points of each source and document how sources relate to each other.

After summarizing and evaluating your sources, arrange them in a matrix or use a citation manager to help you see how they relate to each other and apply to each of your themes or variables.  

By arranging your sources by theme or variable, you can see how your sources relate to each other, and can start thinking about how you weave them together to create a narrative.

• Step-by-Step Approach
• Example Matrix from NSCU
• Matrix Template
• << Previous: Summarize
• Next: Integrate >>
• Last Updated: Sep 26, 2023 10:25 AM
• URL: https://guides.library.jhu.edu/lit-review

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Synthesizing Research

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When combining another author’s ideas with your own, we have talked about how using the can help make sure your points are being adequately argued (if you have not read our handout on the  evidence cycle,  check it out!). Synthesis takes assertions (statements that describe your claim), evidence (facts and proof from outside sources), and commentary (your connections to why the evidence supports your claim), and blends these processes together to make a cohesive paragraph.

In other words, synthesis encompasses several aspects:

• It is the process of integrating support from more than one source for one idea/argument while also identifying how sources are related to each other and to your main idea.
• It is an acknowledgment of how the source material from several sources address the same question/research topic.
• It is the identification of how important factors (assumptions, interpretations of results, theories, hypothesis, speculations, etc.) relate between separate sources.

TIP: It’s a fruit smoothie!

Think of synthesis as a fruit smoothie that you are creating in your paper. You will have unique parts and flavors in your writing that you will need to blend together to make one tasty, unified drink!

Why Synthesis is Important

• Synthesis integrates information from multiple sources, which shows that you have done the necessary research to engage with a topic more fully.
• Research involves incorporating many sources to understand and/or answer a research question, and discovering these connections between the sources helps you better analyze and understand the conversations surrounding your topic.
• Successful synthesis creates links between your ideas helping your paper “flow” and connect better.
• Synthesis prevents your papers from looking like a list of copied and pasted sources from various authors.
• Synthesis is a higher order process in writing—this is the area where you as a writer get to shine and show your audience your reasoning.

Types of Synthesis

Demonstrates how two or more sources agree with one another.

The collaborative nature of writing tutorials has been discussed by scholars like Andrea Lunsford (1991) and Stephen North (1984). In these essays, they explore the usefulness and the complexities of collaboration between tutors and students in writing center contexts.

Demonstrates how two or more sources support a main point in different ways.

While some scholars like Berlin (1987) have primarily placed their focus on the histories of large, famous universities, other scholars like Yahner and Murdick (1991) have found value in connecting their local histories to contrast or highlight trends found in bigger-name universities.

Accumulation

Demonstrates how one source builds on the idea of another.

Although North’s (1984) essay is fundamental to many writing centers today, Lunsford (1991) takes his ideas a step further by identifying different writing center models and also expanding North’s ideas on how writing centers can help students become better writers.

Demonstrates how one source discusses the effects of another source’s ideas.

While Healy (2001) notes the concerns of having primarily email appointments in writing centers, he also notes that constraints like funding, resources, and time affect how online resources are formed. For writing centers, email is the most economical and practical option for those wanting to offer online services but cannot dedicate the time or money to other online tutoring methods. As a result, in Neaderheiser and Wolfe’s (2009) reveals that of all the online options available in higher education, over 91% of institutions utilize online tutoring through email, meaning these constraints significantly affect the types of services writing centers offer.

Discussing Specific Source Ideas/Arguments

To debate with clarity and precision, you may need to incorporate a quote into your statement. Using can help you to thoroughly introduce your quotes so that they fit in to your paragraph and your argument. Remember that you need to use the to bridge between your ideas and outside source material.

Berlin, J. (1987).  Rhetoric and reality: Writing instruction in American colleges, 1900-1985 . Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press.

Boquet, E.H. (2001). “Our little secret”: A history of writing centers, pre- to open admissions. In R.W. Barnett & J.S. Blumner (Eds.),  The Allyn and Bacon guide to writing center theory and practice  (pp. 42-60). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Carino, P. (1995). Early writing centers: Toward a history.  The Writing Center Journal ,  15 (2), 103-15.

Healy, D. (2001). From place to space: Perceptual and administrative issues in the online writing center. In R.W. Barnett & J.S. Blumner (Eds.), T he Allyn and Bacon guide to writing center theory and practice  (pp. 541-554). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Lunsford, A. (1991). Collaboration, control, and the idea of the writing center.  The Writing Center Journal ,  12 (1), 310-75.

Neaderheiser, S. & Wolfe, J. (2009). Between technological endorsement and resistance: The state of online writing centers.  The Writing Center Journal .  29 (1), 49-75.

North, S. (1984). The idea of a writing center.  College English ,  45 (5), 433-446.

Yahner, W. & Murdick, W. (1991). The evolution of a writing center: 1972-1990.  Writing Center Journal ,  11 (2), 13-28.

Capstone Form and Style

Evidence-based arguments: synthesis, paraphrasing and synthesis.

Synthesis is important in scholarly writing as it is the combination of ideas on a given topic or subject area. Synthesis is different from summary. Summary consists of a brief description of one idea, piece of text, etc. Synthesis involves combining ideas together.

Summary: Overview of important general information in your own words and sentence structure. Paraphrase: Articulation of a specific passage or idea in your own words and sentence structure. Synthesis: New interpretation of summarized or paraphrased details in your own words and sentence structure.

In the capstone, writers should aim for synthesis in all areas of the document, especially the literature review. Synthesis combines paraphrased information, where the writer presents information from multiple sources. Synthesis demonstrates scholarship; it demonstrates an understanding of the literature and information, as well as the writer’s ability to connect ideas and develop an argument.

Example Paraphrase

From allan and zed (2012, p. 195).

Supervision, one practice in transactional leadership theory, is especially effective for small business owners. Improved retention not only contributes to an efficient workplace, but it promotes local commercial stability and cultural unity. Other management styles informed by transactional theory can also benefit communities.

Sample Paraphrase

Allan and Zed (2012) noted that supervision and other transactional leadership strategies provide advantages for small business owners and their surrounding communities.

This paraphrase DOES:

• include the main idea,
• summarize the key information using fewer words than the original text, and
• include a citation to credit the source.

Synthesis Language

Synthesis is achieved by comparing and contrasting paraphrased information on a given topic. Discussions of the literature should be focused not on study-by-study summaries (see the Creating a Literature Review Outline SMRTguide). Writers should begin by using comparison language (indicated in bold and highlighted text in the examples below) to combine ideas on a given topic:

• Keller (2012) found that X occurred. Likewise, Daal (2013) found that X occurred but also noted that the effects of X differed from those suggested by Keller (2012).
• Schwester (2013) reported results consistent with findings in Hill’s (2011) and Yao’s (2012) studies.
• Although Mehmad (2012) suggested X, O’Donnell (2013) recommended a different approach.

Again, the focus of synthesis is to combine ideas on a given topic and for the writer to use that to review the existing literature or support an overall argument (i.e., in the problem statement, rationale and justification for the method, etc.).

For more information and examples on synthesis, paragraph structure, and the MEAL Plan strategy for writing review additional Form and Style resources:

• SMRTguide on Reverse Outlining and the MEAL Plan
• SMRTguide on Prioritizing Parenthetical Citations
• Reading to Write
• Previous Page: Quoting
• Next Page: MEAL Plan
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Literature Review Basics

• What is a Literature Review?
• Synthesizing Research
• Using Research & Synthesis Tables
• Additional Resources

Synthesis: What is it?

First, let's be perfectly clear about what synthesizing your research isn't :

• - It isn't  just summarizing the material you read
• - It isn't  generating a collection of annotations or comments (like an annotated bibliography)
• - It isn't  compiling a report on every single thing ever written in relation to your topic

When you  synthesize  your research, your job is to help your reader understand the current state of the conversation on your topic, relative to your research question.  That may include doing the following:

• - Selecting and using representative work on the topic
• - Identifying and discussing trends in published data or results
• - Identifying and explaining the impact of common features (study populations, interventions, etc.) that appear frequently in the literature
• - Explaining controversies, disputes, or central issues in the literature that are relevant to your research question
• - Identifying gaps in the literature, where more research is needed
• - Establishing the discussion to which your own research contributes and demonstrating the value of your contribution

Essentially, you're telling your reader where they are (and where you are) in the scholarly conversation about your project.

Synthesis: How do I do it?

Synthesis, step by step.

This is what you need to do  before  you write your review.

• Identify and clearly describe your research question (you may find the Formulating PICOT Questions table at  the Additional Resources tab helpful).
• Collect sources relevant to your research question.
• Organize and describe the sources you've found -- your job is to identify what  types  of sources you've collected (reviews, clinical trials, etc.), identify their  purpose  (what are they measuring, testing, or trying to discover?), determine the  level of evidence  they represent (see the Levels of Evidence table at the Additional Resources tab ), and briefly explain their  major findings . Use a Research Table to document this step.
• Study the information you've put in your Research Table and examine your collected sources, looking for  similarities  and  differences . Pay particular attention to  populations ,   methods  (especially relative to levels of evidence), and  findings .
• Analyze what you learn in (4) using a tool like a Synthesis Table. Your goal is to identify relevant themes, trends, gaps, and issues in the research.  Your literature review will collect the results of this analysis and explain them in relation to your research question.

Analysis tips

• - Sometimes, what you  don't  find in the literature is as important as what you do find -- look for questions that the existing research hasn't answered yet.
• - If any of the sources you've collected refer to or respond to each other, keep an eye on how they're related -- it may provide a clue as to whether or not study results have been successfully replicated.
• - Sorting your collected sources by level of evidence can provide valuable insight into how a particular topic has been covered, and it may help you to identify gaps worth addressing in your own work.
• << Previous: What is a Literature Review?
• Next: Using Research & Synthesis Tables >>
• Last Updated: Sep 26, 2023 12:06 PM
• URL: https://usi.libguides.com/literature-review-basics

• How it works

How to Synthesise Sources – Steps and Examples

Published by Olive Robin at October 17th, 2023 , Revised On October 17, 2023

The ability to effectively incorporate multiple sources into one’s work is not just a skill, but a necessity. Whether we are talking about research papers, articles, or even simple blog posts, synthesising sources can elevate our content to a more nuanced, comprehensive, and insightful level. But what does it truly mean to synthesise sources, and how does it differ from the commonly understood techniques of summarising and paraphrasing?

Importance of Synthesising Sources in Research and Writing

When finding sources , it is imperative to distinguish between various available information types. Secondary sources , for example, provide interpretations and analyses based on primary sources. Synthesising goes beyond the mere gathering of information. It involves the complex task of interweaving multiple sources to generate a broader and richer perspective. When we synthesise, we are not just collecting; we are connecting. 

By merging various viewpoints and data, we provide our readers with a well-rounded understanding of the topic. This approach ensures that our work is grounded in credible sources  while also adding unique insights.

Summarising, Paraphrasing, and Synthesising

At first glance, these three techniques might seem similar, but they serve distinctly different purposes:

Summarising

Synthesis is the art of blending multiple sources to create a unified narrative or argument. It is essential to use signal phrases to introduce these sources naturally, helping the reader follow the information flow. Block quotes can also be used for direct quotations, especially if they’re longer.

Paraphrasing

Here, we restate the original content using different words. While the wording changes, the essence and core meaning remain intact. This method is useful for clarifying complex ideas or for tailoring content to a specific audience.

Synthesising

Synthesis is the art of blending multiple sources to create a unified narrative or argument. It is not about echoing what others have said; it is about drawing connections, identifying patterns, and building a cohesive piece that holds its own merit.

What is Synthesising Sources?

Synthesising sources is a method used in research and writing wherein the author combines, interprets, and analyses information from various sources to generate a unified perspective, narrative, or argument. It involves a process that we can call source evaluation . It is an intricate process that goes beyond simply collecting data or quoting authors. Instead, it involves evaluating, integrating, and constructing a new narrative based on a collective understanding of all the sources under consideration.

Imagine a quilt where each piece of fabric represents a different source. Synthesising would be the act of sewing these individual pieces together in such a way that they form a beautiful, cohesive blanket. Each piece retains its uniqueness but contributes to the larger design and purpose of the quilt.

Objective of Synthesising

• Synthesising allows writers to delve deeper into topics by using a multitude of perspectives. This offers a more robust and comprehensive view than any single source could provide.
• By integrating diverse sources, authors can identify trends, consistencies, or discrepancies within a field or topic. This can lead to new insights or highlight areas needing further exploration.
• By interlinking sources, writers can add layers of complexity to their arguments, making their content more engaging and thought-provoking.
• While the sources themselves might not be new, the way in which they are combined and interpreted can lead to fresh conclusions and unique standpoints.
• Relying on a single source or a few like-minded ones can inadvertently introduce biases. Synthesising encourages the consideration of diverse viewpoints, ensuring a more balanced representation of the topic.

Why is Synthesis Important?

The art of synthesis, while a nuanced aspect of research and writing, holds unparalleled significance in constructing meaningful, in-depth content. Here is a detailed exploration of why synthesis is pivotal:

Enhancing Comprehension and Knowledge Depth

• Depth Over Breadth: While a vast amount of information exists on nearly any topic, true understanding isn’t about skimming the surface. Synthesising allows you to dive deeper, connecting various pieces of information and seeing the bigger picture.
• Clarifying Complexity: Topics, especially those in research, can be multifaceted. By merging multiple sources, we can simplify and explain intricate subjects more effectively.
• Reinforcing Concepts: By revisiting a concept from various sources and angles, the repetition, in a way, strengthens our grasp on the subject. It’s like studying from multiple textbooks; the overlap in content solidifies understanding.

Avoiding Plagiarism

• Original Thought Generation: While synthesising, you are compelled to merge ideas, compare viewpoints, and draw unique conclusions. This process naturally leads to producing original content rather than merely reproducing what one source says.
• Skilful Integration: A well-synthesised piece does not heavily rely on long, verbatim quotes. Instead, it seamlessly integrates information from various sources, duly cited, minimising the chances of unintentional plagiarism.
• Reflecting Authentic Engagement: When you synthesise, it showcases your genuine engagement with the material. It’s evident that you have not just copied content but have wrestled with the information, pondered upon it, and made it your own.

Developing a Holistic Perspective on a Topic

• Seeing the Full Spectrum: Single sources can offer a limited or biased viewpoint. Synthesis, by its nature, compels you to consult multiple sources, allowing for a more balanced and comprehensive view.
• Connecting the Dots: Life, society, and most academic subjects are interconnected. Synthesis helps recognise patterns, draw parallels, and understand how various elements interplay in the grand scheme of things.
• Elevating Critical Thinking: The act of synthesis hones your critical thinking skills. You’re constantly evaluating the validity of sources, comparing arguments, and discerning the weight of different perspectives. This makes your current work stronger and sharpens your intellect for future projects.

Steps of Synthesizing a Source

Here is a step-by-step guide on how to synthesise sources. 

Step 1: Read and Understand

Before you can synthesise sources effectively, you must first understand them individually. A strong synthesis is built upon a clear understanding of each source’s content, context, and nuances.

Tips To Ensure Comprehension

• Annotations: Make notes in the margins as you read, highlighting key points and ideas.
• Summarisation: After reading a section or an article, write a brief summary in your own words.
• Discussion: Talk about the content with peers or mentors. This can help clarify any confusion and deepen your understanding.
• Questioning: Constantly ask questions as you read. If something is unclear, revisit the content or consult supplementary materials.

Step 2: Identify Common Themes

Sources will often touch upon similar themes, even if they approach them differently. Recognising these themes can act as a foundation for synthesis.

• Mind Mapping: Visualise the interconnectedness of topics and subtopics.
• Lists: Create lists of similar ideas or arguments from different sources.
• Highlighting: Use colour codes to highlight recurring themes across different documents.

Step 3: Analyse and Compare

Different sources might have diverging opinions or findings. Recognising these differences is crucial to produce a balanced synthesis.

• Side-by-Side Analysis: Put the information from various sources next to each other to see how they align or diverge.
• Critical Evaluation: Ask yourself why sources might have different perspectives. Consider the methodology, context, or biases that could contribute.

Determining the Relevance of Each Source

Not all sources will hold equal weight or relevance in your synthesis.

• Criteria Checklist: Establish criteria for relevance (e.g., publication date, author credentials) and evaluate each source against this.
• Priority Setting: Decide which sources offer primary insights and which offer supplementary information.

Step 4: Organise Information

A clear structure is essential to guide your readers through the synthesised narrative.

• Outlines: Create a traditional outline that sequences your main points and supports them with subpoints from your sources.
• Flowcharts: For more complex topics, flowcharts can visually demonstrate the progression of ideas and their interconnections.

Step 5: Craft Your Narrative

This step involves the actual writing, where you combine the insights, evidence, and analysis into a singular narrative.

• Transitional Phrasing: Use transitions to move between ideas and sources smoothly.
• Voice Consistency: Even though you integrate multiple sources, ensure that the narrative maintains a consistent voice and tone.

Step 6: Cite Appropriately

Always credit original authors and sources to maintain integrity in your work and avoid plagiarism. Knowing how to cite sources is crucial in this process.

• In-text Citations: Whenever you refer to, paraphrase, or quote a source, provide a citation.

Different Citation Styles and Choosing The Right One

There are multiple citation styles (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago), and your choice will often depend on your discipline or the preference of your institution or publication.

• Guideline Review: Familiarise yourself with the preferred citation style’s guidelines.

Citation Tools: Consider using tools like Zotero, Mendeley, or EndNote to help streamline and manage your citations.

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Examples of Source Synthesis

Let’s explore some examples of synthesising sources. 

Example 1: Synthesising sources on climate change

Scenario: You have sources that discuss the causes of climate change. Some sources argue for anthropogenic (human-caused) factors, while others emphasise natural cycles.

Synthesis Approach

• Begin with an overview of climate change, its impacts, and its significance.
• Introduce the anthropogenic viewpoint, citing research on the rise of CO2 from industrial processes, deforestation, etc.
• Present the natural cycle perspective, highlighting periods in Earth’s history where temperature fluctuations were observed.
• Discuss overlaps, such as how human activities might exacerbate natural cycles.
• Conclude by emphasising the consensus in the scientific community about human contributions to recent climate change, but acknowledge the existence of natural cycles as part of Earth’s climate history.

Example 2: Merging Historical Texts on a Particular Event

Scenario: You are examining the Battle of Waterloo from British, French, and Prussian primary sources.

• Provide background on the Battle of Waterloo, setting the stage.
• Introduce the British perspective, detailing their strategies, key figures, and their account of the battle’s progression.
• Shift to the French viewpoint, noting their strategic decisions, challenges, and Napoleon’s role.
• Explore the Prussian account, emphasising their contributions and coordination with the British.
• Highlight areas of agreement among the sources (e.g., timeline of events) and areas of discrepancy or unique insights (e.g., differing reasons for the outcome).
• Conclude with a comprehensive view of the battle, incorporating insights from all perspectives and its significance in European history.

Example 3: Synthesising Qualitative And Quantitative Research On A Social Issue

Scenario: You are researching the effects of remote learning on student performance and well-being during the pandemic.

• Start with an introduction to the sudden shift to remote learning due to COVID-19.
• Present quantitative data: statistics showcasing the drop or rise in student grades, attendance rates, and standardised test scores.
• Introduce qualitative insights, like interviews or case studies, highlighting student sentiments, challenges faced at home, or feelings of isolation.
• Discuss the interplay between numbers and narratives. For instance, a drop in grades (quantitative) could be related to a lack of motivation or home distractions (qualitative).
• Compare outcomes across different demographics, using both types of data to show how remote learning might affect diverse student populations differently.
• Conclude with a holistic understanding of the impacts of remote learning, noting areas that need further research or intervention.

Common Mistakes to Avoid when Synthesising Sources

• Relying heavily on a single source limits the depth and breadth of your understanding. It may also inadvertently introduce bias if that source isn’t comprehensive or neutral.
• How to Avoid: Ensure you consult various sources for a well-rounded view. This includes both primary and secondary sources, academic articles, and more accessible pieces like news articles or blogs, if relevant.
• Every source comes with its own perspective. Identifying these biases can lead to a skewed understanding of your topic.
• How to Avoid: Critical reading is key. Always consider who the author is, their potential motivations, the context in which they’re writing, and the methodologies they use.
• Simply presenting what each source says without drawing connections or highlighting contrasts misses the essence of synthesis.
• How to Avoid: As you research, actively look for common themes, conflicting viewpoints, and unique insights. Your goal is to weave a narrative that reflects a comprehensive understanding of all these elements.

Tools and Resources for Synthesising Sources

These are the different tools that can be used for synthesising sources. 

Citation Tools

Managing references can be cumbersome, especially when dealing with numerous sources. Citation tools can help organise, format, and insert citations with ease.

• Zotero: A free, open-source tool that helps you collect, organise, cite, and share research.
• Mendeley: A reference manager and academic social network that can help you organise your research, collaborate with others online, and discover the latest developments.

Mind-Mapping Software or Apps

Mind mapping helps visually organise and interlink ideas, making the synthesis process more intuitive.

• MindMeister: An online mind-mapping tool that lets you capture, develop, and share ideas visually.
• XMind: A popular mind mapping and brainstorming software with various templates to help structure your thoughts.

Note-Taking Apps and Strategies

Effective note-taking is fundamental to understanding and organising information from various sources. Digital note-taking apps often offer features like tagging, search functionalities, and integration with other tools.

• Evernote: A cross-platform app designed for note-taking, organising, and archiving.
• Microsoft OneNote: A digital notebook that allows you to gather drawings, handwritten or typed notes, and save web clippings.
• Cornell Note-taking System: A structured method of note-taking that divides the paper into sections, encouraging active engagement with the material.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is a literature review.

A literature review is a comprehensive survey of existing research on a particular topic, synthesising findings to provide an overview of key concepts, debates, and gaps in knowledge. It establishes a foundation for new research, highlighting relevant studies and contextualising them within the broader academic conversation.

How to synthesise a source?

To synthesise a source, thoroughly understand its content, and then integrate its insights with information from other sources. This involves comparing and contrasting viewpoints, identifying patterns, and constructing a cohesive narrative or argument that offers a broader perspective rather than merely echoing the original source’s content.

Why do I need to cite sources?

Citing sources acknowledges original authors, maintains academic integrity, and provides readers with a reference for verification. It prevents plagiarism by giving credit to the ideas and research of others, allowing readers to trace the evolution of thought and confirm the reliability and accuracy of the presented information.

What are topic sentences?

Topic sentences are the main statements that introduce and summarise a paragraph’s main idea or focus. They provide context and direction, helping readers follow the writer’s argument or narrative. Typically placed at the beginning of a paragraph, they act as signposts, guiding the flow of the discussion.

You May Also Like

In the digital age, where information is abundant and readily accessible, quickly finding precise and relevant information is paramount. This is where Boolean operators come into play. 

From academic research to personal blogs, the bedrock of trust and credibility is often established by one simple act: source citing. Whether we are constructing a thesis for a graduate program or debunking a myth on a personal blog, providing the origins of our information bolsters our arguments and pays homage to the original creators of that knowledge.

In any form of written communication, be it academic writing, journalism, or even casual blogging, there comes a time when we need to reference another’s words to support, explain, or emphasise our points.

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When you look for areas where your sources agree or disagree and try to draw broader conclusions about your topic based on what your sources say, you are engaging in synthesis. Writing a research paper usually requires synthesizing the available sources in order to provide new insight or a different perspective into your particular topic (as opposed to simply restating what each individual source says about your research topic).

Note that synthesizing is not the same as summarizing.  

• A summary restates the information in one or more sources without providing new insight or reaching new conclusions.
• A synthesis draws on multiple sources to reach a broader conclusion.

There are two types of syntheses: explanatory syntheses and argumentative syntheses . Explanatory syntheses seek to bring sources together to explain a perspective and the reasoning behind it. Argumentative syntheses seek to bring sources together to make an argument. Both types of synthesis involve looking for relationships between sources and drawing conclusions.

In order to successfully synthesize your sources, you might begin by grouping your sources by topic and looking for connections. For example, if you were researching the pros and cons of encouraging healthy eating in children, you would want to separate your sources to find which ones agree with each other and which ones disagree.

After you have a good idea of what your sources are saying, you want to construct your body paragraphs in a way that acknowledges different sources and highlights where you can draw new conclusions.

As you continue synthesizing, here are a few points to remember:

• Don’t force a relationship between sources if there isn’t one. Not all of your sources have to complement one another.
• Do your best to highlight the relationships between sources in very clear ways.
• Don’t ignore any outliers in your research. It’s important to take note of every perspective (even those that disagree with your broader conclusions).

Example Syntheses

Below are two examples of synthesis: one where synthesis is NOT utilized well, and one where it is.

Parents are always trying to find ways to encourage healthy eating in their children. Elena Pearl Ben-Joseph, a doctor and writer for KidsHealth , encourages parents to be role models for their children by not dieting or vocalizing concerns about their body image. The first popular diet began in 1863. William Banting named it the “Banting” diet after himself, and it consisted of eating fruits, vegetables, meat, and dry wine. Despite the fact that dieting has been around for over a hundred and fifty years, parents should not diet because it hinders children’s understanding of healthy eating.

In this sample paragraph, the paragraph begins with one idea then drastically shifts to another. Rather than comparing the sources, the author simply describes their content. This leads the paragraph to veer in an different direction at the end, and it prevents the paragraph from expressing any strong arguments or conclusions.

An example of a stronger synthesis can be found below.

Parents are always trying to find ways to encourage healthy eating in their children. Different scientists and educators have different strategies for promoting a well-rounded diet while still encouraging body positivity in children. David R. Just and Joseph Price suggest in their article “Using Incentives to Encourage Healthy Eating in Children” that children are more likely to eat fruits and vegetables if they are given a reward (855-856). Similarly, Elena Pearl Ben-Joseph, a doctor and writer for Kids Health , encourages parents to be role models for their children. She states that “parents who are always dieting or complaining about their bodies may foster these same negative feelings in their kids. Try to keep a positive approach about food” (Ben-Joseph). Martha J. Nepper and Weiwen Chai support Ben-Joseph’s suggestions in their article “Parents’ Barriers and Strategies to Promote Healthy Eating among School-age Children.” Nepper and Chai note, “Parents felt that patience, consistency, educating themselves on proper nutrition, and having more healthy foods available in the home were important strategies when developing healthy eating habits for their children.” By following some of these ideas, parents can help their children develop healthy eating habits while still maintaining body positivity.

In this example, the author puts different sources in conversation with one another. Rather than simply describing the content of the sources in order, the author uses transitions (like "similarly") and makes the relationship between the sources evident.

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Literature reviews: synthesis.

• Criticality

Synthesise Information

So, how can you create paragraphs within your literature review that demonstrates your knowledge of the scholarship that has been done in your field of study?  

You will need to present a synthesis of the texts you read.  

Doug Specht, Senior Lecturer at the Westminster School of Media and Communication, explains synthesis for us in the following video:  

Synthesising Texts  

What is synthesis? 

Synthesis is an important element of academic writing, demonstrating comprehension, analysis, evaluation and original creation.  

With synthesis you extract content from different sources to create an original text. While paraphrase and summary maintain the structure of the given source(s), with synthesis you create a new structure.  

The sources will provide different perspectives and evidence on a topic. They will be put together when agreeing, contrasted when disagreeing. The sources must be referenced.  

Perfect your synthesis by showing the flow of your reasoning, expressing critical evaluation of the sources and drawing conclusions.  

When you synthesise think of "using strategic thinking to resolve a problem requiring the integration of diverse pieces of information around a structuring theme" (Mateos and Sole 2009, p448). 

Synthesis is a complex activity, which requires a high degree of comprehension and active engagement with the subject. As you progress in higher education, so increase the expectations on your abilities to synthesise. 

How to synthesise in a literature review: 

Identify themes/issues you'd like to discuss in the literature review. Think of an outline.  

Read the literature and identify these themes/issues.  

Critically analyse the texts asking: how does the text I'm reading relate to the other texts I've read on the same topic? Is it in agreement? Does it differ in its perspective? Is it stronger or weaker? How does it differ (could be scope, methods, year of publication etc.). Draw your conclusions on the state of the literature on the topic.  

Start writing your literature review, structuring it according to the outline you planned.  

Put together sources stating the same point; contrast sources presenting counter-arguments or different points.  

Present your critical analysis.  

Always provide the references. 

The best synthesis requires a "recursive process" whereby you read the source texts, identify relevant parts, take notes, produce drafts, re-read the source texts, revise your text, re-write... (Mateos and Sole, 2009). 

What is good synthesis?  

The quality of your synthesis can be assessed considering the following (Mateos and Sole, 2009, p439):  

Integration and connection of the information from the source texts around a structuring theme. 

Selection of ideas necessary for producing the synthesis. 

Appropriateness of the interpretation.  

Elaboration of the content.  

Example of Synthesis

Original texts (fictitious): 

Synthesis: 

Animal experimentation is a subject of heated debate. Some argue that painful experiments should be banned. Indeed it has been demonstrated that such experiments make animals suffer physically and psychologically (Chowdhury 2012; Panatta and Hudson 2016). On the other hand, it has been argued that animal experimentation can save human lives and reduce harm on humans (Smith 2008). This argument is only valid for toxicological testing, not for tests that, for example, merely improve the efficacy of a cosmetic (Turner 2015). It can be suggested that animal experimentation should be regulated to only allow toxicological risk assessment, and the suffering to the animals should be minimised.   

Bibliography

Mateos, M. and Sole, I. (2009). Synthesising Information from various texts: A Study of Procedures and Products at Different Educational Levels. European Journal of Psychology of Education,  24 (4), 435-451. Available from https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03178760 [Accessed 29 June 2021].

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Chapter 9: summarizing study characteristics and preparing for synthesis.

Joanne E McKenzie, Sue E Brennan, Rebecca E Ryan, Hilary J Thomson, Renea V Johnston

Key Points:

• Synthesis is a process of bringing together data from a set of included studies with the aim of drawing conclusions about a body of evidence. This will include synthesis of study characteristics and, potentially, statistical synthesis of study findings.
• A general framework for synthesis can be used to guide the process of planning the comparisons, preparing for synthesis, undertaking the synthesis, and interpreting and describing the results.
• Tabulation of study characteristics aids the examination and comparison of PICO elements across studies, facilitates synthesis of these characteristics and grouping of studies for statistical synthesis.
• Tabulation of extracted data from studies allows assessment of the number of studies contributing to a particular meta-analysis, and helps determine what other statistical synthesis methods might be used if meta-analysis is not possible.

Cite this chapter as: McKenzie JE, Brennan SE, Ryan RE, Thomson HJ, Johnston RV. Chapter 9: Summarizing study characteristics and preparing for synthesis. In: Higgins JPT, Thomas J, Chandler J, Cumpston M, Li T, Page MJ, Welch VA (editors). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions version 6.4 (updated August 2023). Cochrane, 2023. Available from www.training.cochrane.org/handbook .

9.1 Introduction

Synthesis is a process of bringing together data from a set of included studies with the aim of drawing conclusions about a body of evidence. Most Cochrane Reviews on the effects of interventions will include some type of statistical synthesis. Most commonly this is the statistical combination of results from two or more separate studies (henceforth referred to as meta-analysis) of effect estimates.

An examination of the included studies always precedes statistical synthesis in Cochrane Reviews. For example, examination of the interventions studied is often needed to itemize their content so as to determine which studies can be grouped in a single synthesis. More broadly, synthesis of the PICO (Population, Intervention, Comparator and Outcome) elements of the included studies underpins interpretation of review findings and is an important output of the review in its own right. This synthesis should encompass the characteristics of the interventions and comparators in included studies, the populations and settings in which the interventions were evaluated, the outcomes assessed, and the strengths and weaknesses of the body of evidence.

Chapter 2 defined three types of PICO criteria that may be helpful in understanding decisions that need to be made at different stages in the review:

• The review PICO (planned at the protocol stage) is the PICO on which eligibility of studies is based (what will be included and what excluded from the review).
• The PICO for each synthesis (also planned at the protocol stage) defines the question that the specific synthesis aims to answer, determining how the synthesis will be structured, specifying planned comparisons (including intervention and comparator groups, any grouping of outcome and population subgroups).
• The PICO of the included studies (determined at the review stage) is what was actually investigated in the included studies.

In this chapter, we focus on the PICO for each synthesis and the PICO of the included studies , as the basis for determining which studies can be grouped for statistical synthesis and for synthesizing study characteristics. We describe the preliminary steps undertaken before performing the statistical synthesis. Methods for the statistical synthesis are described in Chapter 10 , Chapter 11 and Chapter 12 .

9.2 A general framework for synthesis

Box 9.2.a A general framework for synthesis that can be applied irrespective of the methods used to synthesize results

Box 9.2.a provides a general framework for synthesis that can be applied irrespective of the methods used to synthesize results. Planning for the synthesis should start at protocol-writing stage, and Chapter 2 and Chapter 3 describe the steps involved in planning the review questions and comparisons between intervention groups. These steps included specifying which characteristics of the interventions, populations, outcomes and study design would be grouped together for synthesis (the PICO for each synthesis: stage 1 in Box 9.2.a ).

This chapter primarily concerns stage 2 of the general framework in Box 9.2.a . After deciding which studies will be included in the review and extracting data, review authors can start implementing their plan, working through steps 2.1 to 2.5 of the framework. This process begins with a detailed examination of the characteristics of each study (step 2.1), and then comparison of characteristics across studies in order to determine which studies are similar enough to be grouped for synthesis (step 2.2). Examination of the type of data available for synthesis follows (step 2.3). These three steps inform decisions about whether any modification to the planned comparisons or outcomes is necessary, or new comparisons are needed (step 2.4). The last step of the framework covered in this chapter involves synthesis of the characteristics of studies contributing to each comparison (step 2.5). The chapter concludes with practical tips for checking data before synthesis (Section 9.4 ).

Steps 2.1, 2.2 and 2.5 involve analysis and synthesis of mainly qualitative information about study characteristics. The process used to undertake these steps is rarely described in reviews, yet can require many subjective decisions about the nature and similarity of the PICO elements of the included studies. The examples described in this section illustrate approaches for making this process more transparent.

9.3 Preliminary steps of a synthesis

9.3.1 summarize the characteristics of each study (step 2.1).

A starting point for synthesis is to summarize the PICO characteristics of each study (i.e. the PICO of the included studies, see Chapter 3 ) and categorize these PICO elements in the groups (or domains) pre-specified in the protocol (i.e. the PICO for each synthesis). The resulting descriptions are reported in the ‘Characteristics of included studies’ table, and are used in step 2.2 to determine which studies can be grouped for synthesis.

In some reviews, the labels and terminology used in each study are retained when describing the PICO elements of the included studies. This may be sufficient in areas with consistent and widely understood terminology that matches the PICO for each synthesis. However, in most areas, terminology is variable, making it difficult to compare the PICO of each included study to the PICO for each synthesis, or to compare PICO elements across studies. Standardizing the description of PICO elements across studies facilitates these comparisons. This standardization includes applying the labels and terminology used to articulate the PICO for each synthesis ( Chapter 3 ), and structuring the description of PICO elements. The description of interventions can be structured using the Template for Intervention Description and Replication (TIDIeR) checklist, for example (see Chapter 3 and Table 9.3.a ).

Table 9.3.a illustrates the use of pre-specified groups to categorize and label interventions in a review of psychosocial interventions for smoking cessation in pregnancy (Chamberlain et al 2017). The main intervention strategy in each study was categorized into one of six groups: counselling, health education, feedback, incentive-based interventions, social support, and exercise. This categorization determined which studies were eligible for each comparison (e.g. counselling versus usual care; single or multi-component strategy). The extract from the ‘Characteristics of included studies’ table shows the diverse descriptions of interventions in three of the 54 studies for which the main intervention was categorized as ‘counselling’. Other intervention characteristics, such as duration and frequency, were coded in pre-specified categories to standardize description of the intervention intensity and facilitate meta-regression (not shown here).

Table 9.3.a Example of categorizing interventions into pre-defined groups

* The definition also specified eligible modes of delivery, intervention duration and personnel.

While this example focuses on categorizing and describing interventions according to groups pre-specified in the PICO for each synthesis, the same approach applies to other PICO elements.

9.3.2 Determine which studies are similar enough to be grouped within each comparison (step 2.2)

Once the PICO of included studies have been coded using labels and descriptions specified in the PICO for each synthesis, it will be possible to compare PICO elements across studies and determine which studies are similar enough to be grouped within each comparison.

Tabulating study characteristics can help to explore and compare PICO elements across studies, and is particularly important for reviews that are broad in scope, have diversity across one or more PICO elements, or include large numbers of studies. Data about study characteristics can be ordered in many different ways (e.g. by comparison or by specific PICO elements), and tables may include information about one or more PICO elements. Deciding on the best approach will depend on the purpose of the table and the stage of the review. A close examination of study characteristics will require detailed tables; for example, to identify differences in characteristics that were pre-specified as potentially important modifiers of the intervention effects. As the review progresses, this detail may be replaced by standardized description of PICO characteristics (e.g. the coding of counselling interventions presented in Table 9.3.a ).

Table 9.3.b illustrates one approach to tabulating study characteristics to enable comparison and analysis across studies. This table presents a high-level summary of the characteristics that are most important for determining which comparisons can be made. The table was adapted from tables presented in a review of self-management education programmes for osteoarthritis (Kroon et al 2014). The authors presented a structured summary of intervention and comparator groups for each study, and then categorized intervention components thought to be important for enabling patients to manage their own condition. Table 9.3.b shows selected intervention components, the comparator, and outcomes measured in a subset of studies (some details are fictitious). Outcomes have been grouped by the outcome domains ‘Pain’ and ‘Function’ (column ‘Outcome measure’ Table 9.3.b ). These pre-specified outcome domains are the chosen level for the synthesis as specified in the PICO for each synthesis. Authors will need to assess whether the measurement methods or tools used within each study provide an appropriate assessment of the domains ( Chapter 3, Section 3.2.4 ). A next step is to group each measure into the pre-specified time points. In this example, outcomes are grouped into short-term (<6 weeks) and long-term follow-up (≥6 weeks to 12 months) (column ‘Time points (time frame)’ Table 9.3.b ).

Variations on the format shown in Table 9.3.b can be presented within a review to summarize the characteristics of studies contributing to each synthesis, which is important for interpreting findings (step 2.5).

Table 9.3.b Table of study characteristics illustrating similarity of PICO elements across studies

BEH = health-directed behaviour; CON = constructive attitudes and approaches; EMO = emotional well-being; ENG = positive and active engagement in life; MON = self-monitoring and insight; NAV = health service navigation; SKL = skill and technique acquisition. ANCOVA = Analysis of covariance; CI = confidence interval; IQR = interquartile range; MD = mean difference; SD = standard deviation; SE = standard error, NS = non-significant. Pain and function measures: Dutch AIMS-SF = Dutch short form of the Arthritis Impact Measurement Scales; HAQ = Health Assessment Questionnaire; VAS = visual analogue scale; WOMAC = Western Ontario and McMaster Universities Osteoarthritis Index. 1 Ordered by type of comparator; 2 Short-term (denoted ‘immediate’ in the review Kroon et al (2014)) follow-up is defined as <6 weeks, long-term follow-up (denoted ‘intermediate’ in the review) is ≥6 weeks to 12 months; 3 For simplicity, in this example the available data are assumed to be the same for all outcomes within an outcome domain within a study. In practice, this is unlikely and the available data would likely vary by outcome; 4 Indicates that an effect estimate and its standard error may be computed through imputation of missing statistics, methods to convert between statistics (e.g. medians to means) or contact with study authors. *Indicates the selected outcome when there was multiplicity in the outcome domain and time frame.

9.3.3 Determine what data are available for synthesis (step 2.3)

Once the studies that are similar enough to be grouped together within each comparison have been determined, a next step is to examine what data are available for synthesis. Tabulating the measurement tools and time frames as shown in Table 9.3.b allows assessment of the potential for multiplicity (i.e. when multiple outcomes within a study and outcome domain are available for inclusion ( Chapter 3, Section 3.2.4.3 )). In this example, multiplicity arises in two ways. First, from multiple measurement instruments used to measure the same outcome domain within the same time frame (e.g. ‘Short-term Pain’ is measured using the ‘Pain VAS’ and ‘Pain on walking VAS’ scales in study 3). Second, from multiple time points measured within the same time frame (e.g. ‘Short-term Pain’ is measured using ‘Pain VAS’ at both 2 weeks and 1 month in study 6). Pre-specified methods to deal with the multiplicity can then be implemented (see Table 9.3.c for examples of approaches for dealing with multiplicity). In this review, the authors pre-specified a set of decision rules for selecting specific outcomes within the outcome domains. For example, for the outcome domain ‘Pain’, the selected outcome was the highest on the following list: global pain, pain on walking, WOMAC pain subscore, composite pain scores other than WOMAC, pain on activities other than walking, rest pain or pain during the night. The authors further specified that if there were multiple time points at which the outcome was measured within a time frame, they would select the longest time point. The selected outcomes from applying these rules to studies 3 and 6 are indicated by an asterisk in Table 9.3.b .

Table 9.3.b also illustrates an approach to tabulating the extracted data. The available statistics are tabulated in the column labelled ‘Data’, from which an assessment can be made as to whether the study contributes the required data for a meta-analysis (column ‘Effect & SE’) ( Chapter 10 ). For example, of the seven studies comparing health-directed behaviour (BEH) with usual care, six measured ‘Short-term Pain’, four of which contribute required data for meta-analysis. Reordering the table by comparison, outcome and time frame, will more readily show the number of studies that will contribute to a particular meta-analysis, and help determine what other synthesis methods might be used if the data available for meta-analysis are limited.

Table 9.3.c Examples of approaches for selecting one outcome (effect estimate) for inclusion in a synthesis.* Adapted from López-López et al (2018)

9.3.4 Determine if modification to the planned comparisons or outcomes is necessary, or new comparisons are needed (step 2.4)

The previous steps may reveal the need to modify the planned comparisons. Important variations in the intervention may be identified leading to different or modified intervention groups. Few studies or sparse data, or both, may lead to different groupings of interventions, populations or outcomes. Planning contingencies for anticipated scenarios is likely to lead to less post-hoc decision making ( Chapter 2 and Chapter 3 ); however, it is difficult to plan for all scenarios. In the latter circumstance, the rationale for any post-hoc changes should be reported. This approach was adopted in a review examining the effects of portion, package or tableware size for changing selection and consumption of food, alcohol and tobacco (Hollands et al 2015). After preliminary examination of the outcome data, the review authors changed their planned intervention groups. They judged that intervention groups based on ‘size’ and those based on ‘shape’ of the products were not conceptually comparable, and therefore should form separate comparisons. The authors provided a rationale for the change and noted that it was a post-hoc decision.

9.3.5 Synthesize the characteristics of the studies contributing to each comparison (step 2.5)

A final step, and one that is essential for interpreting combined effects, is to synthesize the characteristics of studies contributing to each comparison. This description should integrate information about key PICO characteristics across studies, and identify any potentially important differences in characteristics that were pre-specified as possible effect modifiers. The synthesis of study characteristics is also needed for GRADE assessments, informing judgements about whether the evidence applies directly to the review question (indirectness) and analyses conducted to examine possible explanations for heterogeneity (inconsistency) (see Chapter 14 ).

Tabulating study characteristics is generally preferable to lengthy description in the text, since the structure imposed by a table can make it easier and faster for readers to scan and identify patterns in the information presented. Table 9.3.b illustrates one such approach. Tabulating characteristics of studies that contribute to each comparison can also help to improve the transparency of decisions made around grouping of studies, while also ensuring that studies that do not contribute to the combined effect are accounted for.

9.4 Checking data before synthesis

Before embarking on a synthesis, it is important to be confident that the findings from the individual studies have been collated correctly. Therefore, review authors must compare the magnitude and direction of effects reported by studies with how they are to be presented in the review. This is a reasonably straightforward way for authors to check a number of potential problems, including typographical errors in studies’ reports, accuracy of data collection and manipulation, and data entry into RevMan. For example, the direction of a standardized mean difference may accidentally be wrong in the review. A basic check is to ensure the same qualitative findings (e.g. direction of effect and statistical significance) between the data as presented in the review and the data as available from the original study.

Results in forest plots should agree with data in the original report (point estimate and confidence interval) if the same effect measure and statistical model is used. There are legitimate reasons for differences, however, including: using a different measure of intervention effect; making different choices between change-from-baseline measures, post-intervention measures alone or post-intervention measures adjusted for baseline values; grouping similar intervention groups; or making adjustments for unit-of-analysis errors in the reports of the primary studies.

9.5 Types of synthesis

The focus of this chapter has been describing the steps involved in implementing the planned comparisons between intervention groups (stage 2 of the general framework for synthesis ( Box 9.2.a )). The next step (stage 3) is often performing a statistical synthesis. Meta-analysis of effect estimates, and its extensions have many advantages. There are circumstances under which a meta-analysis is not possible, however, and other statistical synthesis methods might be considered, so as to make best use of the available data. Available summary and synthesis methods, along with the questions they address and examples of associated plots, are described in Table 9.5.a . Chapter 10 and Chapter 11 discuss meta-analysis (of effect estimate) methods, while Chapter 12 focuses on the other statistical synthesis methods, along with approaches to tabulating, visually displaying and providing a structured presentation of the findings. An important part of planning the analysis strategy is building in contingencies to use alternative methods when the desired method cannot be used.

Table 9.5.a Overview of available methods for summary and synthesis

9.6 Chapter information

Authors: Joanne E McKenzie, Sue E Brennan, Rebecca E Ryan, Hilary J Thomson, Renea V Johnston

Acknowledgements: Sections of this chapter build on Chapter 9 of version 5.1 of the Handbook , with editors Jonathan Deeks, Julian Higgins and Douglas Altman. We are grateful to Julian Higgins, James Thomas and Tianjing Li for commenting helpfully on earlier drafts.

Funding: JM is supported by an NHMRC Career Development Fellowship (1143429). SB and RR’s positions are supported by the NHMRC Cochrane Collaboration Funding Program. HT is funded by the UK Medical Research Council (MC_UU_12017-13 and MC_UU_12017-15) and Scottish Government Chief Scientist Office (SPHSU13 and SPHSU15). RJ’s position is supported by the NHMRC Cochrane Collaboration Funding Program and Cabrini Institute.

9.7 References

Chamberlain C, O’Mara-Eves A, Porter J, Coleman T, Perlen SM, Thomas J, McKenzie JE. Psychosocial interventions for supporting women to stop smoking in pregnancy. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2017; 2 : CD001055.

Hollands GJ, Shemilt I, Marteau TM, Jebb SA, Lewis HB, Wei Y, Higgins JPT, Ogilvie D. Portion, package or tableware size for changing selection and consumption of food, alcohol and tobacco. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2015; 9 : CD011045.

Kroon FPB, van der Burg LRA, Buchbinder R, Osborne RH, Johnston RV, Pitt V. Self-management education programmes for osteoarthritis. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2014; 1 : CD008963.

López-López JA, Page MJ, Lipsey MW, Higgins JPT. Dealing with effect size multiplicity in systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Research Synthesis Methods 2018; 9 : 336–351.

For permission to re-use material from the Handbook (either academic or commercial), please see here for full details.

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7.5: Synthesis

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Synthesis Writing

Although at its most basic level a synthesis involves combining two or more summaries, synthesis writing is more difficult than it might at first appear because this combining must be done in a meaningful way and the final essay must generally be thesis-driven. In composition courses, “synthesis” commonly refers to writing about printed texts, drawing together particular themes or traits that you observe in those texts and organizing the material from each text according to those themes or traits. Sometimes you may be asked to synthesize your own ideas, theory, or research with those of the texts you have been assigned. In your other college classes you’ll probably find yourself synthesizing information from graphs and tables, pieces of music, and art works as well. The key to any kind of synthesis is the same.

Synthesis in Every Day Life

Whenever you report to a friend the things several other friends have said about a film or CD you engage in synthesis. People synthesize information naturally to help other see the connections between things they learn; for example, you have probably stored up a mental data bank of the various things you’ve heard about particular professors. If your data bank contains several negative comments, you might synthesize that information and use it to help you decide not to take a class from that particular professor. Synthesis is related to but not the same as classification, division, or comparison and contrast. Instead of attending to categories or finding similarities and differences, synthesizing sources is a matter of pulling them together into some kind of harmony. Synthesis searches for links between materials for the purpose of constructing a thesis or theory.

Synthesis Writing Outside of College

The basic research report (described below as a background synthesis) is very common in the business world. Whether one is proposing to open a new store or expand a product line, the report that must inevitably be written will synthesize information and arrange it by topic rather than by source. Whether you want to present information on child rearing to a new mother, or details about your town to a new resident, you’ll find yourself synthesizing too. And just as in college, the quality and usefulness of your synthesis will depend on your accuracy and organization.

Key Features of a Synthesis

(1) It accurately reports information from the sources using different phrases and sentences; (2) It is organized in such a way that readers can immediately see where the information from the sources overlap;. (3) It makes sense of the sources and helps the reader understand them in greater depth.

The Background Synthesis

In the process of writing his or her background synthesis, the student explored the sources in a new way and become an expert on the topic. Only when one has reached this degree of expertise is one ready to formulate a thesis. Frequently writers of background synthesis papers develop a thesis before they have finished. In the previous example, the student might notice that no two colleges seem to agree on what constitutes “co-curricular,” and decide to research this question in more depth, perhaps examining trends in higher education and offering an argument about what this newest trend seems to reveal. [ More information on developing a research thesis .] The background synthesis requires that you bring together background information on a topic and organize it by topic rather than by source. Instructors often assign background syntheses at the early stages of the research process, before students have developed a thesis–and they can be helpful to students conducting large research projects even if they are not assigned. In a background synthesis of Internet information that could help prospective students select a college, for example, one paragraph might discuss residential life and synthesize brief descriptions of the kinds of things students might find out about living on campus (cited of course), another might discuss the academic program, again synthesizing information from the web sites of several colleges, while a third might synthesize information about co-curricular activities. The completed paper would be a wonderful introduction to internet college searching. It contains no thesis, but it does have a purpose: to present the information that is out there in a helpful and logical way.

[See also “ Preparing to Write the Synthesis Essay ,” “ Writing the Synthesis Essa y,” and “ Revision .”]

A Thesis-driven Synthesis

On the other hand, all research papers are also synthesis papers in that they combine the information you have found in ways that help readers to see that information and the topic in question in a new way. A research paper with a weak thesis (such as: “media images of women help to shape women’s sense of how they should look”) will organize its findings to show how this is so without having to spend much time discussing other arguments (in this case, other things that also help to shape women’s sense of how they should look). A paper with a strong thesis (such as “the media is the single most important factor in shaping women’s sense of how they should look”) will spend more time discussing arguments that it rejects (in this case, each paragraph will show how the media is more influential than other Sometimes there is very little obvious difference between a background synthesis and a thesis-driven synthesis, especially if the paper answers the question “what information must we know in order to understand this topic, and why?” The answer to that question forms the thesis of the resulting paper, but it may not be a particularly controversial thesis. There may be some debate about what background information is required, or about why, but in most cases the papers will still seem more like a report than an argument. The difference will be most visible in the topic sentences to each paragraph because instead of simply introducing the material for the paragraph that will follow, they will also link back to the thesis and assert that this information is essential because…

factors in that particular aspect of women’s sense of how they should look”).

[See also thesis-driven research papers .] [See also “ Preparing to Write the Synthesis Essay ,” “ Writing the Synthesis Essa y,” and “ Revision .”]

A Synthesis of the Literature

Because each discipline has specific rules and expectations, you should consult your professor or a guide book for that specific discipline if you are asked to write a review of the literature and aren’t sure how to do it. In many upper level social sciences classes you may be asked to begin research papers with a synthesis of the sources. This part of the paper which may be one paragraph or several pages depending on the length of the paper–is similar to the background synthesis . Your primary purpose is to show readers that you are familiar with the field and are thus qualified to offer your own opinions. But your larger purpose is to show that in spite of all this wonderful research, no one has addressed the problem in the way that you intend to in your paper. This gives your synthesis a purpose, and even a thesis of sorts.

Preparing to write your Synthesis Essay

Sometimes the wording of your assignment will direct you to what sorts of themes or traits you should look for in your synthesis. At other times, though, you may be assigned two or more sources and told to synthesize them. In such cases you need to formulate your own purpose, and develop your own perspectives and interpretations. A systematic preliminary comparison will help. Begin by summarizing briefly the points, themes, or traits that the texts have in common (you might find summary-outline notes useful here). Explore different ways to organize the information depending on what you find or what you want to demonstrate ( see above ). You might find it helpful to make several different outlines or plans before you decide which to use. As the most important aspect of a synthesis is its organization, you can’t spend too long on this aspect of your paper! Regardless of whether you are synthesizing information from prose sources, from laboratory data, or from tables and graphs, your preparation for the synthesis will very likely involve comparison . It may involve analysis , as well, along with classification, and division as you work on your organization.

Writing the Synthesis Essay

The introduction (usually one paragraph :

A synthesis essay should be organized so that others can understand the sources and evaluate your comprehension of them and their presentation of specific data, themes, etc. The following format works well:

• Contains a one-sentence statement that sums up the focus of your synthesis.
• Also introduces the texts to be synthesized: (i) Gives the title of each source (following the citation guidelines of whatever style sheet you are using); (ii) Provides the name of each author; (ii) Sometimes also provides pertinent background information about the authors, about the texts to be summarized, or about the general topic from which the texts are drawn.

The body of a synthesis essay :

This should be organized by theme, point, similarity, or aspect of the topic. Your organization will be determined by the assignment or by the patterns you see in the material you are synthesizing. The organization is the most important part of a synthesis, so try out more than one format.

Be sure that each paragraph : 1. Begins with a sentence or phrase that informs readers of the topic of the paragraph;

2. Includes information from more than one source;

3. Clearly indicates which material comes from which source using lead in phrases and in-text citations. [Beware of plagiarism: Accidental plagiarism most often occurs when students are synthesizing sources and do not indicate where the synthesis ends and their own comments begin or vice verse.]

4. Shows the similarities or differences between the different sources in ways that make the paper as informative as possible;

5. Represents the texts fairly–even if that seems to weaken the paper! Look upon yourself as a synthesizing machine; you are simply repeating what the source says in fewer words and in your own words. But the fact that you are using your own words does not mean that you are in anyway changing what the source says.

Conclusion :

When you have finished your paper, write a conclusion reminding readers of the most significant themes you have found and the ways they connect to the overall topic. You may also want to suggest further research or comment on things that it was not possible for you to discuss in the paper. If you are writing a background synthesis, in some cases it may be appropriate for you to offer an interpretation of the material or take a position (thesis). Check this option with your instructor before you write the final draft of your paper.

Checking your own writing or that of your peers

Read a peer’s synthesis and then answer the questions below. The information provided will help the writer check that his or her paper does what he or she intended (for example, it is not necessarily wrong for a synthesis to include any of the writer’s opinions, indeed, in a thesis-driven paper this is essential; however, the reader must be able to identify which opinions originated with the writer of the paper and which came from the sources).

• What do you like best about your peer’s synthesis? (Why? How might he or she do more of it?);
• Is it clear what is being synthesized? (i.e.: Did your peer list the source(s), and cite it/them correctly?);
• Is it always clear which source your peer is talking about at any given moment? (Mark any places where it is not clear);
• Is the thesis of each original text clear in the synthesis? (Write out what you think each thesis is);
• did you identify the same theses as your peer? (If not, how do they differ?);
• did your peer miss any key points from his or her synthesis? (If so, what are they?);
• did your peer include any of his own opinions in his or her synthesis? (If so, what are they?);
• Where there any points in the synthesis where you were lost because a transition was missing or material seems to have been omitted? (If so, where and how might it be fixed?);
• What is the organizational structure of the synthesis essay? (It might help to draw a plan/diagram);
• Does this structure work? (If not, how might your peer revise it?);
• How is each paragraph structured? (It might help to draw a plan/diagram);
• Is this method effective? (If not, how should your peer revise?);
• Was there a mechanical, grammatical, or spelling error that annoyed you as you read the paper? (If so, how could the author fix it? Did you notice this error occurring more than once?) Do not comment on every typographical or other error you see. It is a waste of time to carefully edit a paper before it is revised!
• What other advice do you have for the author of this paper?

Sandra Jamieson, Drew University. 1999. Adapted from material written by Rebecca Moore Howard and Sandra Jamieson. This work is provided free of charge under a Creative Commons License.

How to write a synthesis essay

• January 1, 2024

Synthesis essay is a challenging form of academic writing in which you combine multiple sources into a coherent and persuasive argument.

When writing one, better follow a series of basic steps that we will explain in the next paragraphs to write a great essay.

So let’s quickly start learning how to write a great synthesis essay.

Quick summary

• Take the time to understand the essay prompt to grasp the requirements of the assignment.
• Engage in extensive research and gather information from a variety of reputable sources.
• Develop a strong thesis statement and outline.
• Start writing your introduction, body paragraphs, and conclusion. Make sure to include smooth transitions between these paragraphs.
• Use the proper citation or formatting (APA, MLA, etc.) and make sure you proofread your essay.

Synthesis essay definition

What is a synthesis essay?

Your primary goal with a synthesis essay is to provide a unique perspective, supported by evidence. For example, suppose you have two distinct essays or research papers on “excessive social media usage” and “the effects of social media on psychology.”

In your synthesis essay, you can blend these two sources into a cohesive argument like “the psychological impacts of excessive social media usage on individuals.”

Synthesis essay introduction

The introduction is the opening paragraph of a synthesis essay, where you present the topic and provide background information. Like a usual introduction , it should not be more than 10% of your essay.

• It should include a clear and concise thesis statement that states the main argument or viewpoint of the essay.
• It should reflect the synthesis of information from multiple sources.

Now let’s have a look at the introduction example below. 

Synthesis essay introduction example

Introduction, body paragraphs.

The body paragraphs form the core of the synthesis essay. Each paragraph should focus on a specific aspect of the argument and present evidence and analysis from the sources to support the thesis statement. When writing body paragraphs: 

• Use topic sentences to introduce the main idea of each paragraph
• Make use of transition words to create a smooth flow between paragraphs.

Let’s have a look at a body paragraph example.

Synthesis essay body paragraph example

Synthesis essay conclusion.

The conclusion is the final paragraph of your essay. A compelling conclusion leaves a lasting impact on the reader, reinforcing the essay’s main message. 

• Restate the thesis statement slightly different.
• Summarize the main points discussed in the body paragraphs and emphasize the significance of the overall synthesis 

Let’s have a look at the components of a conclusion paragraph below. 

Synthesis essay conclusion example

Now that we’ve seen a short example of synthesis essay, let’s continue with the steps to write a great one.

Steps on writing a synthesis essay

In this section, we’ll guide you through the writing process with each steps explained in detail and examples. 

Step 1 - Understand your assignment

• Depending on your field of study, you may need to adhere to standard formatting styles such as MLA , APA , or Chicago.
• Consider that formatting expectations may be different. Pay attention to certain guidelines provided by your instructor.

Example of a synthesis essay assignment

• Investigate the impact of artificial intelligence on the job market and society.
• Synthesize at least three different sources, including academic articles, news reports, and opinion pieces, to discuss the benefits and challenges posed by AI's integration into various industries.
• Consider the ethical implications, potential job displacement, and the role of policymakers in addressing these changes.
• Use correct APA 7 citation format and make sure the essay is at least 1000 words.

So you see an example above, take some time to carefully review the prompt, and give particular attention to the formatting requirements. 

Step 2 - Read and annotate the sources

After finding relevant sources, read each one critically by highlighting key ideas and arguments. Annotating sources with concise summaries and evaluative comments helps in later stages of the essay writing process.

• Academic Journals and Research Papers: These are scholarly articles written by experts in a particular field.
• Books: Books: written by reputable authors and published by well-known publishers can be valuable sources of information.
• Government Publications: Reports, statistics, and studies published by government agencies can be reliable sources of data.
• Newspapers and Magazines: Articles from reputable newspapers and magazines can offer current and relevant information on various topics.

Step 3 - Draft a thesis statement

A well-crafted thesis statement forms the basis of any synthesis paper. It serves as the central argument, summarizing the synthesis of information gathered from selected sources. 

A compelling thesis statement should be clear, concise, and debatable as it sets the tone for the entire paper. 

Synthesis essay thesis statement example

....(introduction starts) ....(introduction continues) ....(introduction continues) The pursuit of space exploration has had profound effects on scientific advancement, global cooperation, and technological innovation, and has also raised ethical considerations. Thesis statement, which is usually the last sentence of your introduction

Step 4 - Create an outline

Creating an outline helps to organize the structure of the essay systematically. Using a formal approach with Roman numerals allows for an orderly arrangement of topics and supporting details.

With an outline , you can use subcategories to cite specific points and integrate references to various sources. Or simply structure your whole essay before you start. 

Synthesis essay outline example

Outline sample

• Hook sentence
• Background information
• Thesis statement (Your argument & claim)
• Topic sentene
• Supporting detail 1
• Supporting detail 2
• Supporting evidence
• Topic sentence
• Counterpoint
• Restatement of thesis
• Summarize main points
• Closing sentence

Step 5 - Start writing your essay

With the outline, structure your essay into introduction , body paragraphs , and conclusion .  

First draft won’t be perfect, no worries. Here you simply start writing your essay from intro to the conclusion. 

Refer to our Introduction-Body-Conclusion examples above to complete this step!

Step 6 - Proofread your essay

• Make sure your grammar is accurate and clear. If possible, use tools like Grammarly .
• Read aloud your essay to notice details and mistakes.
• Let your essay sit for a couple days and make someone else read it. They may notice the mistakes you've overseen.
• Utilize an AI paraphrasing tool to check for any potential improvements in sentence structure and wording.

5-Paragraph Synthesis Essay Example

So now that you’ve seen all steps of writing a synthesis essay, it’s time to analyze a 5-paragraph example to have practical information. Simply see the essay example below and analyze how each sentence contributes to overall structure of essay. 

The Rise of Telecommuting: A Blessing or a Curse?

And that’s all for today. If you want to keep learning more about academic writing, feel free to visit our extensive Learning Center or YouTube Channel . 

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How To Write Better Sentences For A Research Paper?

• Smodin Editorial Team
• Updated: May 17, 2024

When you’re faced with writing a research paper, coming up with clear, impactful sentences can be a headache. This is especially true when you aim to convey complex ideas effectively.

If you struggle with sentence structure or cannot express your thoughts clearly, this guide will help you.

From basic grammar to using AI tools, we’ll look at how to craft sentences that resonate with readers and bolster your arguments.

Understand the Basics of Sentence Structure

Understanding the basics of sentence structure is important in academic writing. Every sentence in your research paper is a building block, contributing to the clarity and persuasiveness of your argument. A good sentence begins with a clear focus: every word should help convey your main idea directly and effectively.

First, recognize the importance of a strong subject and verb combination. The subject of your sentence performs the action, which is described by the verb. Ensuring these elements are clear and concise prevents ambiguity and keeps the reader on their toes. For example: “The experiment demonstrates…” is more direct than saying: “It is demonstrated by the experiment that…”

Think about the structure of your sentences. A well-crafted sentence follows a logical pattern: subject, verb, object. Following this structure can make your writing easier while enhancing the article’s readability.

Finally, remember that every sentence you write should support the main point of your paragraph. Think of each sentence as a mini-argument that adds to your thesis, logically linking your ideas. Mastering these basics is the first step in ensuring that every sentence you write contributes substance.

Techniques for Enhancing Sentences

No, we weren’t about to leave you hanging. Here are some practical techniques that you can use to make each sentence add value to your research paper.

Achieving clarity is extremely important, especially in scientific writing and within your thesis statement. The argument must be clear to the reader immediately. One common issue is the overuse of complex sentences that muddy your points. Counter this by focusing on using active voice rather than passive voice. Passive voice can simply obscure “who” is performing the action.

Here’s an example: “The researcher conducted the experiment” (active) is clearer than: “The experiment was conducted by the researcher” (passive).

Also, when explaining processes or results that occurred in your study, past tense should be used consistently to maintain clarity. Ensure every verb in your sentence drives home a clear idea, supporting the main argument. So, when it comes to clarity, be sure to choose the right verb tense.

Sentence structure is an important part of keeping your academic articles engaging. The general rule is to mix different types of sentences to keep the reader’s interest and highlight key points.

Start by varying the length of your sentences: pair a shorter, impactful sentence with a longer, more descriptive one. This can prevent your writing from becoming boring. After a punchy statement, for example, extend the next sentence with additional details.

It’s also important to experiment with different starts to sentences . Using an adverb, an adjective, or a phrase to lead your thoughts can be helpful. Discussing your topics with various verbs also adds rhythm and dynamics to your text. Do this carefully, though: getting too creative with your diction can make a sentence more complex than it needs to be.

Trust us, it’s worth the effort to rephrase sentences to avoid repetitive structures and ensure your ideas are expressed as clearly and vividly as possible. This is key to crafting a compelling narrative for your article.

Transitions

Powerful transitions are the glue that holds your essay together, guiding the reader smoothly from one idea to the next. The first sentence of each paragraph should serve as a bridge from the previous paragraph. The most important point of a new section should be introduced clearly and succinctly.

This helps the reader follow your argument without struggling through abrupt changes and disconnected points. For example, if one paragraph discusses a specific aspect of your research, the next could link that aspect to another, deepening the reader’s understanding of the topic.

Within a paragraph, each sentence should logically flow to the next , using transition words and phrases to signal the connection between ideas. Using transitions effectively clarifies the relationship between paragraphs and sentences. It also reinforces the overall structure of your paper, ensuring each point contributes meaningfully to your thesis.

Write Better Sentences With Smodin

Using Smodin in your academic writing can transform how you structure sentences in your research papers. Smodin is equipped with tools to refine your writing and ensure it’s crisp, engaging, and informative. With it, you can expect meticulous attention to detail. This allows you to present more details clearly in your discussions.

The subject of your paper is handled with precision, backed by artificial intelligence (AI) that enriches your argument with well-structured ideas and only the relevant evidence.

Smodin’s AI tools help maintain a sharp focus on the topic at hand and select the best words to articulate your ideas. This can be particularly useful when you must express many research findings within a small word limit. Plus, Smodin’s ability to generate references accurately and integrate them seamlessly enhances credibility and saves you tons of time.

We should also mention that Smodin’s suite of AI writing tools goes way beyond just restructuring sentences. You can also do plagiarism checks and receive comprehensive research assistance, supporting your writing at every step.

Final Thoughts

To become a “good writer,” you must master sentence structure and clarity. It won’t be easy at first, but you can do it!

Present your subject in a way that resonates with your reader, ensuring that each sentence builds on the last to form a coherent argument. Eventually, with practice and attention to detail, you’ll improve.

Remember, you can speed this up by leveraging the power of artificial intelligence. Smodin lets you start for free, so what are you waiting for?