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Ict use, digital skills and students’ academic performance: exploring the digital divide.

1. Introduction

2. the impact of ict on student performance, 2.1. the effects of ict equipment on student performance, 2.1.1. the beneficial effects of university ict equipment on the average performance of students, 2.1.2. personal equipment as an explanatory factor for performance differentials and the digital divide, 2.2. students’ innovative and collaborative uses of ict improve their results, 2.3. impact of digital skills on student performance, 2.4. strategies for acquiring digital skills limited to the implementation of ict-specific training by universities, 3. research methodology, 3.1. sample and data collection, 3.2. defining the selected variables, 3.2.1. the dependent variable, 3.2.2. the variables of interest.

• The amount ICT equipment made available to students by universities;
• Students’ computer skills;
• Students’ Internet skills, i.e., level of skills to search, select and analyze large amounts of information in a meaningful way;
• The perceived usefulness of ICT-specific tools. Items positively correlated to this component reflect students’ beliefs about the performance and efficiency gains resulting from use of these tools;
• Innovative educational uses resulting from ICTs and developed by the student;
• The educational benefits of using remote working tools, including collaborative work enabled by the co-presence of students via asynchronous and synchronous collaborative communication tools;
• Creative uses enabled by ICT;
• The impact of using ICT-related tools on flexible working.

3.2.3. Control Variables

3.3. model specification.

• P i Y i = j is the probability that student i will achieve grade j ;
• φ ⋅ is the cumulative standard normal distribution function;
• μ j and μ j − 1 are the upper and lower threshold values for category j .

4.1. ICT Investments Have a Small Impact on Students’ Academic Success

4.2. innovative and collaborative uses of ict improve students’ results, 4.3. impact of digital skill levels on student performance, 4.4. ict-specific training does not improve student performance, 5. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Share and Cite

Ben Youssef, A.; Dahmani, M.; Ragni, L. ICT Use, Digital Skills and Students’ Academic Performance: Exploring the Digital Divide. Information 2022 , 13 , 129. https://doi.org/10.3390/info13030129

Ben Youssef A, Dahmani M, Ragni L. ICT Use, Digital Skills and Students’ Academic Performance: Exploring the Digital Divide. Information . 2022; 13(3):129. https://doi.org/10.3390/info13030129

Ben Youssef, Adel, Mounir Dahmani, and Ludovic Ragni. 2022. "ICT Use, Digital Skills and Students’ Academic Performance: Exploring the Digital Divide" Information 13, no. 3: 129. https://doi.org/10.3390/info13030129

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• Research article
• Open access
• Published: 10 September 2020

Enhancing the roles of information and communication technologies in doctoral research processes

• Sarah J. Stein   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0024-1675 1 &
• Kwong Nui Sim 2  

International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education volume  17 , Article number:  34 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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While information and communication technologies (ICT) are prominent in educational practices at most levels of formal learning, there is relatively little known about the skills and understandings that underlie their effective and efficient use in research higher degree settings. This project aimed to identify doctoral supervisors’ and students’ perceptions of their roles in using ICT. Data were gathered through participative drawing and individual discussion sessions. Participants included 11 students and two supervisors from two New Zealand universities. Focus of the thematic analysis was on the views expressed by students about their ideas, practices and beliefs, in relation to their drawings. The major finding was that individuals hold assumptions and expectations about ICT and their use; they make judgements and take action based on those expectations and assumptions. Knowing about ICT and knowing about research processes separately form only part of the work of doctoral study. Just as supervision cannot be considered independently of the research project and the student involved, ICT skills and the use of ICT cannot be considered in the absence of the people and the project. What is more important in terms of facilitating the doctoral research process is students getting their “flow” right. This indicates a need to provide explicit support to enable students to embed ICT within their own research processes.

Background/context

Information and communication technologies (ICT) can bring either joy or challenge to well-versed academic practices, and either create barriers to learning and development or be the answer to needs. While some grasp and pursue opportunities to make use of various ICT for study, research and teaching, others struggle. Despite documented and anecdotal positive urges to adopt ICT to increase and improve efficiency and effectiveness, staff and students struggle experience ICT as needless and difficult-to-use interruptions. There is often little need seen to change practices by introducing ICT into ways of working. Exploring these views and experiences was the focus of this project. Being empathetic to views such as those expressed by Castañeda and Selwyn ( 2018 ), we did not approach this investigation from a position that assumes that ICT are natural and needed solutions to problems related to improving and facilitating effective learning, teaching and research. Rather, we took a more neutral stance, wishing to explore the experiences of those involved, namely, students and staff, through discussion with them about their ICT practices and views, and with a specific focus on doctoral study and supervision.

Doctoral supervision and the role, place and nature of the doctorate are receiving increasing attention in higher education research literature. A wide range of topics have been covered from, for example, the importance and types of support for students throughout candidature (e.g., Zhou & Okahana, 2019 ); to the teaching and supervision aspects of doctoral supervision (e.g., Åkerlind & McAlpine, 2017 ; Cotterall, 2011 ; Lee, 2008 ).

With advancements in, accessibility to, and development of, ICT within education settings has come a plethora of research into online and blended learning. These studies often highlight the capacity of ICT for facilitating teaching, learning and administrative activity within educational institutions and systems (e.g., Marshall & Shepherd, 2016 ). They cover numerous areas of importance from theoretical, practical, and philosophical angles and include the perspectives and needs of learners, educators and institutions (e.g., Nichols, Anderson, Campbell, & Thompson, 2014 ).

There are also studies on student use of ICT, though not necessarily doctoral students, and these cover a wide range of topics including specific ICT skills (e.g., Stensaker, Maassen, Borgan, Oftebro, & Karseth, 2007 ). Where postgraduate research students are concerned, some studies on ICT skill development and support provide some insights about students (e.g., Dowling & Wilson, 2017 ), and institutional ICT systems (Aghaee et al., 2016 ).

Notable about the many of these studies cited above is the use of self-reporting tools as mechanisms for gathering data about student use and views about ICT. While self-reports are valuable ways to collect such data about self-efficacy, they do have limits. In online learning environments, the role of self-efficacy, for example, is still being contested. It has been argued that learners from a variety of disciplines and learning settings will tend to overestimate claims about their performance and/or knowledge and skills (e.g., Mahmood, 2016 ).

All these studies help to ‘map the territory’ of ICT, their use at individual and institutional levels and related practices. Much advice and guidance can be gleaned from the literature as well, although relatively little for the specific integration of ICT within the doctoral research and supervision environment. Based on the literature that is available though, all indications are that (doctoral) students adopt educational practices incorporating limited ICT use, even though the use of ICT has grown enormously in the last 10 to 20 years. With the current interest in ensuring success of students and completion of doctoral degrees being closely related to high quality supervision, there is a need to improve supervision practices and within that, advance understandings about how to support students in their use of ICT for their doctoral research.

This project

This project aimed to explore doctoral student and supervisor views and use of ICT within the doctoral process. The intention was to bring to light perceptions that could give clues as to how to make practical modifications to the content and scope of professional development support for supervisors and students, in order to help them to make best use of ICT. In addition, consideration was given to the way data would be collected to ensure that more than just the self-reported perspectives of the participants were included.

An interpretivist research approach (Erickson, 2012 ) framed this study to support a focus on understanding the world from the perspectives of those who live it. Thus, the approach was well-suited to exploring perceptions about the use of ICT in our context.

Thus, this study did not commence with any hypotheses related to the influence of ICT in doctoral research in mind. Instead, as the interpretive frame of the research implies, this study investigated ways in which participants expressed their experiences of engaging and integrating ICT in support of their doctoral research processes. The data tapped into the participants’ (PhD students and doctoral supervisors) perspectives, as they expressed them. The research approach thus defined and shaped all aspects of the data gathering, analyses and presentation. In this way, alignment was ensured among the ontological, epistemological and practical implementation of the research project.

The study took place in two New Zealand universities where participants were either employees or students. Both universities are research-intensive, with histories of producing high-level research across many disciplines. Both institutions have clear and well-formulated policies and practices governing doctoral study - PhD and professional doctorate - and these include supporting that study through supervision. A specialised unit in each institution manages the administration of the doctoral degree. Couching “supervision” as essentially a (specialised) teaching activity, each unit also provides or coordinates professional development for staff in the art of supervision, and for students in the skills and processes of undertaking doctoral degree study.

Participants

Participants included doctoral students and supervisors from the two universities. As a result of an invitation to all students and supervisors, in total, 11 students and two supervisors responded. The students were PhD students at varying levels of completion. There was a mix of part time and full-time students from a variety of discipline backgrounds including health sciences, sciences, commerce and humanities. The supervisors were experienced and were from humanities and sciences.

Data sources

Data were collected using a 3-tier participative drawing process (Wetton & McWhirter, 1998 ). This strategy involved a series of two or three interview/discussions, along with participant-made drawings, which formed the focus of the interview/discussions.

This strategy generated two sources of data - interview transcripts and participant drawings – and involved the following (3-tier) phases:

Initial semi-structured interview/discussion to ascertain information about participants’ backgrounds and other details they saw relevant to share. In addition, they were asked about their use of ICT generally as well as within the doctoral process. It was a chance for the researchers to gain some understanding of participants’ views and practices in relation to ICT and their doctoral/supervision journeys.

Participant drawing . The participants were asked to make a drawing in their own time and before the second interview/discussion. Guidelines for the drawing suggested that they think of a way to illustrate their research process first, then to add onto the drawing any ICT (such as devices, websites, programmes, applications) that they make use of in the process.

Follow-up interview/discussion . During this phase, each participant was asked to explain the drawing’s features and how it made sense in terms of the project he or she was undertaking. This included discussion about how their supervision was working, how they worked with supervisors, and how the ICT they had included in the drawing worked within the process. They were also asked about elements that were not in the drawing, for example, certain ICT or activities that might have appeared in a typical account of a doctoral research process but were not included.

All interview/discussions were audio recorded and transcriptions of the recordings were returned to the participants for checking. The drawings were scanned and stored electronically.

In line with the interpretive approach that framed and governed our study, the data were analysed shortly after being gathered. Analysis of the data contributed to the development of ideas about participants’ perceptions, and these were refined progressively across the instances that researchers met with participants. Perceptions were thus checked, rechecked and refined against each data set.

This iterative and inductive approach (Thomas, 2006 ) involved thematic analysis (Silverman, 2001 ) and the capture of major and common ideas (Mayring, 2000 ) expressed by participants about how ICT are perceived and used in doctoral research processes. This approach helped to operationalise a process of co-construction between researchers and participants. Through checking, rechecking, refining and confirming, the researchers were able to articulate their understanding of participant perceptions that matched participants’ expressed thoughts.

The outcome of the analysis process was four assertions concerning ways the students perceived and understood ICT within doctoral study. Because there were only two supervisor participants, the data from the supervisors served to support the assertions we were more confidently able to make about student perceptions.

Research approach, quality assurance conditions and context

Despite the (what might be argued, small) number of volunteer participants who showed interest in, and committed themselves to, this study (i.e., no drop-outs or selection being made from a pool), it is worth noting that the researchers worked with each participant over an extended period of time (prolonged engagement), focused on investigating and gathering identifiable, as well as documentable, aspects of the participants’ ICT understandings and practices (persistent observation), and employed analysis techniques that incorporated peer debriefing, member checking, and fair presentation of assertions (Guba & Lincoln, 1989 ).

The aim was to unlock and identify views of reality held by the participants. The empirical evidence was used to help develop commentary and critique of the phenomenon which was the focus of the study (i.e., ICT use), including what the phenomenon is and how it occurs/is enacted/revealed in a particular context (viz., in doctoral research). This was, therefore, a different kind of study from one that might commence with a hypothesis, which would be concerned more with objectivity, explanation and testable propositions. In short, the methods employed in the current study fitted the intention to solve a “puzzle” about a phenomenon in relation to a particular context.

As this study involved human participants, ethical approval was gained through the institutional processes. This approval (University of Otago Human Ethics Committee reference number D17/414 and Victoria University of Wellington, Ethics Committee reference number 0000023415) enabled data collection methods described in the previous section to be carried out for any doctoral students and supervisors who volunteered to participate in this study. Ethical consent, use and care of the data as well as the ethical treatment of students and staff as participants were integral to the research design, planning and implementation of the whole study.

Findings and discussion

The four assertions are now presented. Each assertion is described and quotations from the interview/discussions along with examples of drawings from the student participants are used to illustrate aspects of each assertion.

Assertion 1: ICT are impartial tools; it does not matter how ICT are used, because the endpoint, that is, thesis completion, is the justification. ICT and people are separate and separated entities.

Students talked about how they worked on their thesis document and on the process of the study they were undertaking. Comments focused on various ICT being used and often on skills needed in order to use them. Some students expressed the view that ICT were tools, separate from the project and the person involved, to be used to achieve an endpoint. For example,

So long as it's formatted – it shouldn't matter - that's their [editors’] responsibility, not mine.

There’s probably a bit more about Zoom [web conferencing application] I could learn but again for me unless it’s a problem, I’m not going to go looking for it… not just for the sake of it at the moment.

Motivation to achieve an outcome was a focus of comments that support this assertion. For many participants, the aim to complete the study and write a thesis was, naturally, a large driver for how they were managing their study. Time was precious, and they would do what they had to do to reach their goal. To be motivated to learn about a new ICT, there needed to be a purpose that sharply focussed on achieving that end.

If the technologies are suddenly not available] I’m happy to sit down with a typewriter and learn it… If I’m not driven, I won’t bother.

This focus is illustrated in Fig.  1 . The drawing shows clearly identified components that make up major elements within the stages of producing the research for the thesis. ICT are listed in relation to those components.

ICT and people are separate and separated entities

Supervisors too, tended to focus on thesis production rather than on the process of producing a thesis that includes the use of ICT (i.e., as opposed to their very clear and explicit focus on the research process). An example illustrating this is:

Generally, people think the standard of the people getting or earning a PhD is that this person should be an independent researcher. [But no] After all, we only examine a particular thesis [and] there are lots of inputs from supports and supervision from supervisors.

In summary, this assertion focusses strongly on the experience of doctoral study being about getting the project done within a research journey that gives minimal regard to the affordances of ICT. ICT are framed as necessary but also fraught, especially due to the effort and time that draw attention away from the primary goal.

Assertion 2: ICT are tools or mechanisms that prompt active thought on practices with respect to planning and managing thesis writing and project execution. ICT and individuals work alongside each other.

Views that expressed notions of there being a close interactive relationship between students and ICT came through in several of the discussions with the participants. The focus on achieving goals and endpoints was strong, but the expression of how to achieve those goals, capitalising upon the affordances that ICT present, was different from the way views were expressed in relation to Assertion 1.

On a simple level, this student describes the checking he did when weighing up the merits of a piece of software to meet his needs.

I normally do a trial version… have a play with it. And if I think they are useful then I might try it on a project. And if then I feel it’s definitely worth investing… then I’ll go buy it.

Others simply liked to explore, to see whether there was potential in any ICT they encountered, as in,

Sometimes I just like playing with stuff to see what they can do and then if they tick my boxes then I keep them and if they don't, I move on. So it's more kind of ‘search and discover’ than kind of looking for something, you know.

Describing a deeper level of activity, a degree of critique and active reflection were indicated by another student when he said,

…we tried an electronic version of putting together a programme for a New Zealand conference and I was surprised how long it took us. Whereas in the past I’ve worked with [colleagues] and we’ve just moved pieces of paper around on the floor for abstracts and we were done really quickly.

These sentiments are well-captured in Fig.  2 . Here, the focus is on experimenting with ICT rather than the research process. The process of working things out to suit the individual is foregrounded.

ICT and individuals work alongside each other

Whereas Assertion 1-type expressions presented effort in a generally negative light, Assertion 2-type expressions couched effort as an assumed part of learning something new. There was a sense expressed in comments that there will be a way to manage the “problem” to be solved, which then generated the necessary motivation to engage effort. For example,

You just know what you know when you start off; when you're unsure about what you need to do. There's a bit of a barrier in front of you. It feels a bit intimidating and overwhelming, and then you get into it and it just works. And you just kind of put all the pieces together and get something out at the end.

There was a sense that supervisors’ perspectives of ICT might support this assertion too. For instance,

[ICT are] integral to everything now – there's no such thing as doing it without [them] anymore – these are the tools with which we do all the things we do.

In summary, this assertion captures the views of students who engage actively in making decisions about which, how and why they incorporate ICT into doctoral research practices.

Assertion 3: Knowing about ICT is only part of the thinking; what is more important is getting the “flow” right. ICT and the individual are in a complementary partnership.

Perhaps prompted by the nature of the drawing task, which was to illustrate how ICT fitted within the whole process of doctoral study, several students described the challenges to bringing everything together into one process made up of many parts, sections and subsections. One participant focussed on her “workflow” in order to manage the multiple documents, tasks and schedule involved in her doctoral research journey.

What systems do I use, what's my workflow? So, I actually spent some weeks looking at … ideas from other PhD students about their workflows and how they manage it.

Similar to Assertion 2-type comments, ‘getting one’s flow right’ involved exploration and an amount of reflective decision-making. For example,

So I did a play around with that [ICT] and found it was quite useful … So I’m trying to be quite disciplined about when I’ve got a document, entering it at the time, reading an article, throw in heaps of tags rather than not …And I simply keep a note, cross referencing to the actual articles. I like to have the articles and for some key ones I like to make a note. So, if it’s a seminal paper that I know I’ll be referring back to.

Thus, students talked about how hard they worked to set up routines and processes to enable them to manage time and their research projects. As in the above excerpts, they referred to categorising documents, searching for resources, undertaking analysis, managing data, and producing the thesis itself.

In working out one’s system or flow, this student highlighted the need to know about the affordances of ICT and how others had made use of them.

…you do need to know a bit about each of the individual … capabilities of the different systems to know what's even possible… but alongside that you're kind of reading other people's ideas of how they did it, and you think that bit might work for me oh, but that bit won't… so then you can kind of mix and match a bit.

The drawing in Fig.  3 highlights the “flow”. Absent of all words, this illustration draws attention to the movement of ideas, thoughts, processes and actions, from a number of different points but all ultimately converging or contributing to the one path.

ICT and the individual are in a complementary partnership

There was a hint that at least one of the supervisors saw the need for a workflow in this same vein: “So long as [the students are] happy with what they’re using – they should use ‘a’ system,”

In summary, this assertion highlights that what is important with respect to ICT and the doctoral process is how it all comes together within one’s flow. That flow incorporates active effort on the part of the individual in finding ICT and practices that suit the individual’s approaches as well as their project demands.

Assertion 4: ICT are not neutral; there is a two-way interaction between technologies as artefacts and the use of them to achieve ends. ICT and the person are intricately linked through multiple active, practical, goal-oriented connections.

This assertion draws attention to the nature of technology as a phenomenon; that technology is not an impartial tool that has no influence on the way humans act and react. This assertion presents ICT as an artefact of technological design activity; as a source of improving efforts to achieve an endpoint; but also as an influencer and even determiner of the thinking and practices of the person interacting with the ICT (e.g., Baird, 2002 ).

On what could be argued a superficial level, this student noted some active connection between the person and the software application, beyond simple use, when he commented:

I think it goes both ways, the product has to be intuitive and you’ve got to have a little bit of inclination to try out different things.

Others went beyond the superficial to describe more in-depth relationships between themselves and the ICT they were using. When discussing her use of software to help her manage her project and her time, this student talked about how the ICT she was using supported and enhanced her thinking.

Using the application] really changed the way I started to think about [my research]. I started to be less worried about the big overwhelming long term stuff that was out there and just think, okay, this week, what am I going to do this week, how am I going to be really efficient and targeted, and I think that really helped me.

Following is another example of how ICT helped solve a problem while simultaneously having an influence on behaviour; in this instance with organising notes, ideas and documents.

“… and it's the same with my note-taking because [the programme] that I use has a similar sort of functionality that it can search text that you've written but also search notes and PDF docs and those kind of things, so it means that when you've had a random thought and put it somewhere you can find it again. Which is huge for me, so I guess that … the power of the search engine is probably the thing that drove me to become paperless, so it helps me to organize myself much better. … filing paper is a skill that I have not mastered whereas filing digital stuff is not as important because you can always just find it again.

Figure  4 illustrates this intricately intertwined interactivity among person, purpose, project, ICT and outcomes.

ICT and the person are intricately linked through multiple active, practical, goal-oriented connections

While we did not find strong evidence for supervisors’ thoughts about this integrated and embedded notion of ICT, one supervisor did note “I could probably build them into my system, but I just never have”.

In summary, Assertion 4 highlights the integral role that ICT can be perceived to play in doctoral research processes. This is more than the working-alongside connection illustrated by Assertion 2 and the complementary partnership characterised by Assertion 3.

Assertions 1 and 2 highlight that individuals hold assumptions about, and have expectations of, ICT use; and those expectations and assumptions influence and determine their judgements about ICT and their use of ICT. The assertions point to connections between perceptions and practices. Assertion 1 describes a perception that ICT are separate from the person and the task-at-hand, while Assertion 2 presents a perception in which the person and the ICT are working alongside each other in harmony or at least in a loose partnership. Both assertions focus on endpoints, but the endpoints vary according to the perception of where ICT fit into the journey towards their achievement. For Assertion 1-type expressions, there is one major endpoint. For Assertion 2-type expressions, there are multiple, shorter-term endpoints that build towards achieving the major goal of completing the thesis.

Building on Assertions 1 and 2 are Assertions 3 and 4, which highlight what may be argued as more complex levels of perceiving and working with ICT. Both assertions give some focus to inter-connections, where people and ICT partner or collaborate. Assertion 3 depICT a perception that is about complementarity; where ICT affordances are seen as worthwhile when they support and enhance the work of the individual in ways that make sense to that individual. Assertion 4 builds on Assertion 3 by bringing to light the relationship in which the person alters and changes thinking or practices because of the influence that ICT affordances can have. No evidence was found to support a possible additional claim that as well as ICT causing individuals to alter and modify thinking and behaviours due to their existence, ICT, in turn, are perceived to be able to alter their ways of responding to the people who use them. This is not out of the realms of possibility of course, with ICT increasingly being designed and built to be able to respond to users’ needs.

It is also worth mentioning that the ‘types’ of ICT and the extent of their use by the participants was not the focus of this study. However, the findings suggested that the participants’ ICT use, regardless of their PhD phase and broad discipline background, might have reflected their inability to realise the advantages of learning how to use current ICT-related devices, tools, and applications to enhance the process of undertaking their doctoral research. The evidence that emerged in this study indicated that participants’ perspectives of ICT determined their adoption practices in general (i.e., as illustrated through the four assertions). The boarder higher education context including the specific institution and supervisors, might have neglected the explicit support of PhD students’ ICT capability development in this process.

In addition, while there is no similar study being found thus far, the insights gained from this study are actually similar to the findings in the research studies into the role of ICT in undergraduate education (Butson & Sim, 2013 ; Sim & Butson, 2013 , 2014 ). Results in those studies, demonstrated students’ low levels of ICT use, may be an indication that digital devices and digital tools do not play a significant role in daily study practices. Researchers such as Esposito, Sangrà & Maina ( 2013 ) also show that the PhD students’ learning to become researchers in the digital age is much more complex than is often suggested (e.g., the skills of Prenksy ( 2001 ) “digital natives”). Becoming a researcher involves developing a complex set of knowledge, intellectual abilities, techniques and professional standards. The Researcher Development Framework (Careers Research and Advisory Centre (CRAC), 2010 ) illustrates one useful attempt at mapping out that complexity. It could be that both students’ and supervisors’ adoption of ICT for academic purposes has been overshadowed or taken for granted as a consequence of their advanced academic level.

Implications

The four assertions can be used to provide some guidance to those supporting and participating in doctoral research processes. Students and supervisors do possess a vast array of skills, knowledge and abilities. They have a variety of experiences as well as varying reasons and levels of motivation. Their skills and capacity to make use of ICT to support their roles in the research process vary as well. The assertions that have emerged from this study will inform the planning for support activities to enhance supervisors’ and students’ professional development, whatever their background and needs.

Depending on the perceptions held about ICT and the relationship between ICT and the person in the context of the task and its goals (i.e., the doctoral study) within the doctoral research process as depicted in the four assertions, ICT tend to be seen as a challenge, a change or an opportunity. In the context of ICT use, doctoral students and supervisors may:

assume that if they do not already know how to use something it is not worth learning or exploring as that learning brings with it risk to quality, efficiency and effectiveness of the doctoral research process; and/or.

assume that students will work out the place that ICT play within the research process for themselves.

The findings of this study suggest the need to.

challenge existing ICT knowledge and skill, and to support acceptance of the need to change practices;

teach technological thinking, to enable choice and decision making about ICT;

embed ICT into practices in meaningful ways to suit individual and project needs;

highlight (explicit) responsibilities about thinking and planning skills with respect to making the best use of ICT, to ensure efficiency and effectiveness;

realise that the research process is as much about how it happens as what happens;

recast assumptions about the doctoral research process to embed ICT within it;

reflect on the meaning of effectiveness and efficiency in the context of doctoral research; and the effects of ICT in supporting and facilitating them;

understand that there is a link among ICT thinking and practice: using ICT can enhance or raise ideas that were never thought of before.

This study explored perceptions of doctoral supervisors and students of the role and place of ICT in supervision and study. It generated four assertions characterising those perceptions the relationships among people, ICT and the task-at-hand, that is, the supervised research process. As Castañeda and Selwyn ( 2018 ) argue, it is important that we have an active commitment to ‘think otherwise’ about how ICT might be better implemented across higher education settings” (p. 8). We should not assume that ICT are not important enough to let them fade into the background as they become normalised, without questioning the interrelationships that are happening between the person and the ICT. In the doctoral research setting, as one example of a higher education context, ICT do have a role to play. They cannot and should not be ignored. But seeing ICT in relationship to the person and to the setting is essential.

This project has provided insights into the doctoral students and supervisors’ perceptions of the roles played by ICT during doctoral research process. There are complex human factors, including assumptions, attitudes and conceptions about academic practices, influencing and determining perspectives as well as how ICT are incorporated into doctoral research process, behaviours and practices. Just as Kandiko and Kinchin ( 2012 ) argue that supervision cannot be looked at in the absence of the research work in which it occurs, we argue that doctoral students’ understanding and use of ICT cannot be considered independently of their research work; and that work includes relationships with their project, their supervisors, within the context of the institution, and with the ICT they do and could engage with.

Directly associated with the outcomes of this study, future studies and further exploration could focus on:

ICT use by larger and more diverse groups of doctoral students from a range of fields within discipline areas at institutions outside New Zealand;

building on the findings in order to determine how intensity of ICT use might change for students across the course of their candidature, and in relation to the nature of their research projects;

the role of supervisors, academic departments, and institutions in supporting and enhancing students’ practices and beliefs about ICT in research processes;

the ways in which supervisors engage ICT in their daily academic practices, with a view to exploring how, or if, their ICT use is an influence on PhD students’ beliefs and behaviours in using ICT.

Studying ICT in these directions could offer fresh perspectives and opportunities to think differently and reveal an active way of understanding the role of ICT in doctoral education.

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These are not available for open access as their access is bound by the ethical agreement approved by the two institutions and made with the participants in the study.

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Acknowledgements

We thank the students and supervisors who shared their reflections and willingly engaged with us in this project.

We acknowledge the support of Ako Aotearoa, The National Centre for Tertiary Teaching Excellence, New Zealand through its Regional Hub Project Fund (RHPF), and the support of our institutions, University of Otago and Victoria University of Wellington.

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Stein, S.J., Sim, K.N. Enhancing the roles of information and communication technologies in doctoral research processes. Int J Educ Technol High Educ 17 , 34 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-020-00212-3

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The relationship between students’ use of ICT for social communication and their computer and information literacy

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This study investigates the relationship between students’ use of information and communication technology (ICT) for social communication and their computer and information literacy (CIL) scores. It also examines whether gender and socioeconomic background moderates this relationship. We utilized student data from IEA’s International Computer and Information Study (ICILS) to build multivariate regression models for answering the research questions, and accounted for the complex sample structure of the data by using weights for all statistical analyses, employing jackknife repeated replication for variance estimation. Students who frequently use the internet for messaging and participation in social networks (i.e., at least once a week) scored on average 44 points higher than those who use ICT for the same purpose only less than once a week or never. The direction of this effect was the same in all 21 participating educational systems, the difference ranging from 19 to 75 points (always statistically significant). We continued the analysis by testing whether the relationship is moderated by gender; as girls use more often ICT for social communication and have higher CIL scores on average. After controlling for the gender effect the CIL scores between the two examined groups decreased only by 2 points on average. Even after including students’ socio-economic background into the model, the difference in CIL between the two groups of interest declined only little—to 32 points on average across all countries. The difference remained to be statistically significant in all countries but one. The results suggest a strong relationship between students’ CIL proficiency level and the frequency of their use of electronic devices for social communication; hence, respective skills needed at schools and later on at the workplace are reflected in their use outside of school and for socializing.

Purpose, significance of research and theoretical frame work

In the last decades we encountered rapid developments in information and communication technologies. The inclusion of the worldwide web into daily life brought new and important implications also for education. Most of the schools and educational systems started providing extensive computer networks for their students and these are increasingly becoming main components of the teaching and learning environment, but so far little is known about the effectiveness and use of these technologies (Fraillon et al. 2014 ). Conclusions from research carried out in the field are partly contradictory. Many authors who examined computer use and student achievement found they were positively related (e.g., Becker 1994 ; Hativa 1994 ; Kozma 1991 ; Kulik and Kulik 1987 ; Liao 1992 ; Osunade 2003 ; Ryan 1991 ; Van Dusen and Worthren 1994 ; James and Lamb 2000 ; Attewell and Battle 1999 ; Sivin-Kachala 1998 ; Weaver 2000 ; Weller 1996 ; Wenglinsky 1998 ). Wen et al. ( 2002 ) suggest that there is a positive relationship between the number of computers available at school and students’ science achievement. Alspaugh ( 1999 ) reports that computer use has no effect on students’ achievement in reading, mathematics, science or social studies. There is also a number of studies that identified negative relationships between computer use and student achievement (Ravitz et al. 2002 ; Papanastasiou 2002 , 2003 ). Papanastasiou ( 2002 ) who analysed the results of TIMSS, found a negative relationship between computer use and achievement in a number of countries such as Cyprus, Hong Kong and United States of America. According to this study, students who use computers most frequently in the classroom were lowest achievers in TIMSS in 1995. Papanastasiou ( 2003 ) and Papanastasiou et al. ( 2005 ) found that computer use does not have a positive nor negative effect on students’ science achievement based on PISA results, but the way of computer use affects science achievement.

Most of the international studies focused so far on the relation of ICT use and students’ competencies in reading, science and mathematics. The amount of research dedicated on computer and information literacy is very limited and most studies examine mainly internet access and online use (Olafsson et al. 2014 ). In the computer and information literacy (CIL) area, the first cross-national study is ICILS (Fraillon et al. 2014 ). It assesses the extent to which students know about, understand, and are able to use information and communication technology (ICT). The main purpose of ICILS is to determine how well students are prepared for study, work and life in the digital age. With the information age the term “digital natives” was coined for the generation born in the early 1980s, also referred to as the first members of the millennial generation (Prensky 2001 ). In his article, Prensky claimed that “the arrival and rapid dissemination of digital technology in the last decade of the twentieth century” had changed the way students think and process information, making it difficult for them to excel academically being exposed to outdated teaching methods. However, according to the ICILS results, although students have had an increased amount of exposure to technology, it does not necessarily imply that they are digital natives. In all the participating countries, on average 17 % of the students did not even achieve the lowest level of CIL determined by the study. On average, only 2 % of the students achieved the highest level with a maximum of 5 % in Korea (Fraillon et al. 2014 ). Footnote 1

This finding raises the question how so called digital natives use twenty first century technology in daily life. It is known from the literature that age plays a significant role in the usage of computers and internet. As shown in Fig.  1 (Zichuhr and Madden 2012 ), and Fig.  2 (TurkStat 2014 ) below, there was a steady increase in internet use across all age groups in Turkey and the US. In the beginning of the current century, however, the younger age groups use internet more often compared to the older age groups in both countries.

(Source: Zichuhr and Madden 2012 )

Internet use by age group in America, 2000–2012

(Source: TurkStat 2014 )

Internet use by age group in Turkey, 2004–2014

In most European countries, as shown in Fig.  3 , more than 80 % of young people (aged 16–29) used a computer on a daily basis. In all countries, percentages of the daily use of computers among young people is higher than for the whole population (Eurostat 2014 ).

Source: Eurostat ( 2014 )

Proportion of people who used a computer on a daily basis, 2014 (%).

Further, literature suggests that many children engage in a wide range of online activities. ICT use by students has expanded to Internet, e-mail, chat, programming, graphics, spreadsheet, online shopping, online searching for literature and other educational materials. The students mostly use ICT for general purposes, i.e., communication, word processing, entertainment, etc. rather than for educational means (Mahmood 2009 ). According to Olafsson et al. ( 2014 ), the most common online activities of 9–16 years olds in Europe are: using internet for school work (85 %), playing games (83 %), watching video clips (76 %) and instant messaging (62 %). Communication via the internet is ubiquitous; often schoolwork is accompanied by chatting and texting. A study published by Gokcearslan and Seferoglu ( 2005 ) showed that—at that time—Turkish students’ main focus is on playing games instead on learning activities.

The internet use has high rates among young people when it is compared to the whole population in the EU-28 for basic skills such as using a search engine (94 %) or sending an e-mail with attachments (87 %), while more than two-thirds of young people posted messages online (72 %), just over half used the internet for calling people (53 %) and around one-third (32 %) used peer-to-peer file sharing services. The proportion of young people of posting messages online was 34 percentage points higher than the average for the whole population (Eurostat 2014 ; Fig.  4 ).

(data from 2013; source: Eurostat 2014 )

Proportion of people who used selected internet skills, EU-28

Already in 2003 Prensky reported that young Americans talk more than 10.000 h on the phone and send more than 200.000 e-mails and text messages until the age of 21. A study conducted in the US found that 80 % of online teens use social network sites, Facebook being the most popular, with 93 % of those teens reporting its use (Lenhart 2012 ). In 2014, according to number of active users, Facebook is the most popular social media platform with 1184 billion users (Digital/Ajanslar 2014 ). In 2015, Facebook is still most popular social media platform among young people and 71 % of all teens from 13 to 17 use Facebook, 52 % of them use Instagram and 41 % use Snapchat. (Pew Research Center 2015 )

“The use of social networks among children research report” focused on the use of social media among 9–16 year olds in Turkey showed that 85 % of students have computers at home, 70 % of all students get online at least once a day and 66 % use social media at least once a day, spending 72 min on average. This shows that most of the time spent on internet is dedicated to social media. The same study shows that 99 % of the children who have a social media account use Facebook. 60 % of the children reported that they don’t study enough because of spending too much time on Facebook, 25 % of them said that they spend less time with their parents and friends (TIB 2011 ).

The most common online social activities for young people in the EU-28 in 2014 included sending and receiving e-mails (86 %) and participating on social networking sites (82 %)—for example, Facebook or Twitter, by creating a user profile, posting messages or making other contributions—while close to half (47 %) of all young people in the EU-28 uploaded self-created content, such as photos, videos or text to the internet (Eurostat 2014 ).

Summarizing the literature, the high importance of students’ use of ICT for social communication in their daily life is evident. But does this type of ICT use enhance students’ CIL skills? Or, does it even rather have a negative effect, because less time remains for “worthwhile” computer usage, such as learning activities? This study examines the relationship between students’ use of ICT for social communication and their computer and information literacy and attempts to contribute to a deeper understanding of this relationship.

Methods and data sources

Students’ data of ICILS was used to explore the hypotheses. ICILS gathered data from almost 60,000 Grade 8 (or equivalent) students and 35,000 teachers in more than 3300 schools from 21 countries or education systems within countries. These data were augmented by contextual data collected from school ICT-coordinators, school principals, and the ICILS national research centres.

Students completed a computer-based test of CIL that consisted of questions and tasks presented in four 30-min modules. Each student completed two modules randomly allocated from the set of four so that the total assessment time for each student was 1 h.

After completing the two test modules, students answered (again on computer) a 30-min questionnaire. It included questions relating to students’ background characteristics, their experience and use of computers and ICT to complete a range of different tasks in school and out of school, and their attitudes toward using computers and ICT (Fraillon et al. 2014 ).

IEA’s IDB Analyzer was utilized for all statistical analyses, including the estimation of percentages, means and regression models. The IDB analyzer takes the complex data structure of ICILS data into account by applying sampling weights and employing jackknife repeated replication for variance estimation. Comparisons between dependent samples were conducted using regression models in order to account for the covariance between the comparative groups.

Analysis results

We first analysed the relationship between students’ CIL score and their use of ICT for social communication. In the ICILS study, the student questionnaire included three questions that require students to rate the frequencies of their use of ICT applications. From these questions four scales were derived. One of them was “Students’ use of ICT for Social Communication” (S_USECOM). The students were asked to identify the frequency with which they were using the internet for various communication and information exchange activities outside of school. The response categories were “never”, “less than once a month”, “at least once a week but not every day” and “every day”. S_USECOM had an average reliability of 0.74 (Fraillon et al. 2015 ).

The index variable (“S_USECOM”) consists of the following items:

How often do you use the Internet outside of school for each of the following activities?

Posting comments to online profiles or blogs.

Uploading images or videos to an [online profile] or [online community] (for example. Facebook or YouTube).

Using voice chat (for example Skype) to chat with friends or family online.

Communicating with others using messaging or social networks [for example instant messaging or (status updates)].

We could identify indeed a relationship between students’ CIL score and their use of ICT for social communication: in all educational systems participating in ICILS (further for simplicity referred to as “countries”), the CIL score increased along with an increase of students’ scale score in “Use of ICT for social communication”. This relationship was statistically significant in 16 out of 21 countries. However, the relation was weak; the explained variance of the CIL score was less than 10 % in most countries. We continued the analysis by investigating further the relationship between CIL and each of the four variables constructing the scale score for “Use of ICT for social communication”.

Posting comments to online profiles or blogs

There were no consistent patterns for relations between the reported frequencies for this variable in most countries except for Chile, Thailand and Turkey—the countries with relatively low CIL average scores. In these three countries, the CIL score increased along with an increasing frequency of postings.

Uploading images or videos to an [online profile] or [online community] (for example. facebook or youtube)

Interestingly, students with a medium frequency of ICT use for uploading images or videos had an average CIL score of 20 more points than those who reported to either never do that or do it every day. This pattern could be observed in all countries and was statistically significant in all countries but three (Republic of Korea, Turkey, Canada—Newfoundland and Labrador).

Using voice chat (for example Skype) to chat with friends or family online

No clear patterns could be identified for relationships between the CIL scores and frequencies of ICT usage for voice chats.

Communicating with others using messaging or social networks [for example instant messaging or (status updates)]

Apparently this variable had the closest relationship with CIL among the variables constructing the index variable (“S_USECOM”): as shown in Fig.  5 , the more frequent students use ICT for communication using messaging or social networks the higher was their CIL score, a finding that generally holds in all countries. Looking at the cross-country average, mean CIL scores of students who never use the internet for communication are as low as 463 points while are as high as 522 points for students who do that on a daily basis (see Table  1 ).

Average CIL scores by ICT use for communicating with others using messaging or social networks

For further in-depth analysis we decided to simplify the data by collapsing categories, resulting in a dichotomous variable. The split was taken between the response categories where the difference in CIL scores was the greatest. Referring to the patterns visible in Fig.  5 , CIL scores of students reporting to use ICT for communication at least once a week or even every day were rather close to each other; also, no large differences in CIL scores occurred for students using ICT for communication less than once a week (or never). Therefore we collapsed the respective categories accordingly. This procedure split the countries’ target populations into two groups of varying proportions, as can be seen in Fig.  6 . On average, three-fourth of the students use the Internet for communication more than once a week. This proportion is less in Thailand and Turkey.

Proportion of students by use of ICT for communicating with others using messaging or social networks

Comparing the resulting two groups of students, we found an average difference in CIL scores of 44 points on favor of students using ICT for social communication more frequently. The direction of the effect was the same in all countries and ranged from 19 points difference in Switzerland to as much as 75 points in the Slovak Republic (refer to Table  2 , Model 1, coefficients of E-communication). In all countries, the difference was found to be statistically significant. Since these results were rather striking, we wondered if this effect was moderated by other variables. Consequently we set up various multivariate regression models in order to control for such effects.

Gender as moderating variable

It is known from the literature that girls spend on average more time on social network sites and use them more actively than boys (Duggan and Brenner 2013 ). Lenhart ( 2012 ) reported that some 95 % of teenagers use the internet in the US. 42 % of girls who use the internet report to video-chat, while only about a third of boys engage in that activity. Girls are also more active in their texting and mobile communication behaviours (Lenhart et al. 2010 ). Our own study confirms this finding for all ICILS countries as can be seen in Fig.  7 — except for Turkey. Interestingly, in Turkey (highlighted by the black arrow in Fig.  7 ) boys report to use the Internet for social communication more often than girls. The differences of the gender group percentages are statistically significant in all countries.

Percentages of students using ICT for communicating at least once a week by gender

Although gender is a major determinant in CIL scores of ICILS, it did hardly moderate the difference in CIL scores between the two groups presented in Fig.  5 . The group differences remained significant in all countries (see Model 2 in Table  2 , coefficients of E-communication.

Socio-economic background as moderating variable

In a next step we included the national index of students’ socio-economic background (variable “S_NISB”) into the model, reasoning that the availability of internet access and communication devices may depend on the socio-economic status (SES) of the students.

The “digital divide”—referring to the gap between those who do and those who do not have access to ICT’s (Warschauer 2003 )—generally affects individuals who are unemployed or in low-skilled occupations, and who have a low income and/or a low level of education. Students from families with a lower SES tend to be less confident and capable in navigating the Web to find credible information (Adler 2014 ). Also Adegoke and Osoyoko ( 2015 ) support the theory that SES influences students’ access (exposure) to ICT and internet. The findings of Hargittai ( 2010 ) suggest that even when controlling for basic Internet access, among a group of young adults, SES is an important predictor of how people are incorporating the Web into their everyday lives. Bozionelos ( 2004 ) showed that SES had a direct positive relationship with computer experience and an indirect negative relationship with computer anxiety. The findings are supportive of the digital divide and they imply that information technology may in fact be increasing inequalities among social strata in their access to employment opportunities.

After controlling for both, gender and SES, the difference in CIL between our two groups of interest declined to 32 points on average across all countries. However, the difference remained to be statistically significant in all countries but one (Denmark).

Table  2 presents regression coefficients of all three discussed models; Fig.  8 presents the differences in CIL scores of students using ICT for social communication more vs. less than once a week for all three considered models (coefficient of “E-communication” in Table  2 ). Evidently, this difference is hardly moderated in any country by gender, while the socio-economic status plays a larger role. In twelve out of twenty countries, after controlling for gender and SES, the examined difference in the CIL score decreases by more than 10 points. Only in Switzerland neither SES nor gender seemed to be associated with the difference in CIL scores between the two groups of interest, i.e., the coefficient of E-communication remains constant across the three models.

Differences in CIL scores of students using ICT for social communication more vs. less than once a week by model

Further variables with potential moderating effects

We also investigated the effect of further variables that may have moderated the found relationship and thereby could have affected the presented relationship in significant ways. We identified such variables based on evidence from the literature, evidence from ICILS (Fraillon et al. 2014 ) or simply by applying common sense. It would exceed the purpose of this paper to present all details of these analyses; however, the following paragraphs give some major findings.

While girls use ICT more often for social communication, boys use it more often for playing games (Rideout and Foehr 2010 ). This is also evident from ICILS data and is presented as cross-country average in Fig.  9 . The patterns are similar for all participating countries. However, there was no general relation between using ICT for playing games and CIL except for Turkey and Thailand, where an increased frequency of gaming was related with increasing CIL scores.

Using a computer for playing games (outside of school) by gender (estimated percentages across all participating countries)

Further, one may argue that the overall use of computers could have a moderating effect on the studied relationship. However, including the respective variable into the regression model proofed to not change much the effect of ICT use for social communication on CIL and also did not enhance the explained variance of the CIL score significantly.

Discussion and conclusions

The arrival and rapid dissemination of digital technology in the last decade of the twentieth century raises the question how so called digital natives use technology in daily life and what relevant skills they need to develop in order to participate effectively in the digital age. From the literature, the high importance of students’ use of ICT for social communication in their daily life is evident. In this paper we tried to answer the question if this type of ICT use enhances students’ CIL skills or if it—on the opposite—perhaps even rather has a negative effect, because less time remains for “worthwhile” computer usage, such as learning activities.

We first analyzed the relationship between students’ CIL score and their use of ICT for social communication. The CIL score increased along with an increase of students’ scale score in “Use of ICT for social communication” in all educational systems participating in ICILS. This relationship was statistically significant in 16 out of 21 countries. However, the relation was weak. We continued the analysis by investigating further the relationship between CIL and each of the four variables constructing the index “Use of ICT for social communication”. We found out that the variable which has the closest relationship with CIL was “Communicating with others using messaging or social networks [for example instant messaging or (status updates)]”, while other variables comprising the index showed different or no patterns related with CIL.

For accommodating further analysis on this variable, we decided to split students’ data into two groups. We collapsed the five original categories of the variable into two categories, reflecting the use of messaging or social networks “at least once a week or even every day” versus “less than once a week (or never)”.

Comparing the resulting two groups of students, we found a large average difference in CIL scores (44 points) favoring students using ICT for social communication more frequently. The direction of the effect was the same in all countries; the difference ranged from 19 points in Switzerland to as much as 75 points in the Slovak Republic. Since these results were rather striking, we examined whether this effect was moderated by other variables such as SES and Gender. We found however that the moderating effect of these variables on the observed relationship was weak or even negligible in all participating countries. In other words, the relation between the use of ICT for communicating with others using messaging or social networks and CIL scores was still high and consistent across countries when controlling for SES and Gender.

This positive and cross-nationally observed relationship was rather unexpected, especially because the relationship between the communication index created by ICILS and the CIL scores was weak. Trying to understand this phenomenon, we considered the nature of messaging and participation in social networks. We see that it actually includes posting comments, uploading and downloading images and videos—hence, these features are no different than the separate items creating the social communication index. In fact the single item basically contains the other index items. Possibly the written communication portion included makes the difference, or the actual widespread of activities involved in messaging/electronic social networking explains the indistinct positive relationship with CIL. In future cycles of ICILS it may be worthwhile to review the index items accordingly.

To explore this phenomenon further, we also should focus on the CIL construct. As Fraillon et al. ( 2014 ) pointed out in the ICILS international report, the CIL construct was conceptualized in terms of two strands:

Strand 1; collecting and managing information , focuses on the receptive and organizational elements of information processing and management,

Strand 2; producing and exchanging information , focuses on using computers as productive tools for thinking, creating, and communicating.

When we consider the interactive nature of social media, it can be assumed that they provide students with a medium for collecting and managing information as anticipated in Strand 1 and also for producing and exchanging information as conceptualized in Strand 2. Hence, this item seems truly be related with both strands of the CIL construct, which may be one reason for the close relationship. Lacking of an experimental design, this study cannot make causal inferences on the relation between CIL and e-communication. Therefore we cannot conclude if frequent use of ICT for communication enhances CIL skills, or if in turn students with high CIL use more frequently ICT for social communication.

Future studies should also monitor the use of social networks in education further. Students should not be expected to accomplish high skills in using information and computer technology and at the same time expect them to keep this aspect of their personality outside of their social life. Rather, it is worth to explore the additional learning opportunities arising from electronic tools and media out- but also and especially inside schools. According to findings from Fraillon et al. ( 2014 ), there is a need in many countries to equip teachers with the respective knowledge to use ICT (including social communication tools) in their teaching. Utilizing social media for teaching may hold the potential to increase CIL for all students independently from their gender and SES backgrounds; and thereby avoid that students with low CIL or limited access to ICT may increasingly lack opportunities to actively participate in the modern society.

As a matter of fact, nowadays messaging and Facebook or other social networks became a part of students’ daily life. As parents, teachers and educators, our responsibility is to help our children to benefit from social networks educationally.

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Authors’ contributions

MA developed the research questions, conducted the literature research and drafted significant parts of the manuscript. SM developed the research design, conducted data compilation, the statistical analysis and interpretation of results and drafted significant parts of the manuscript. Both authors have given final approval of the manuscript version to be published and agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated and resolved. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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The authors are thankful to Diego Cortes for his very useful comments while reviewing this paper.

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Alkan, M., Meinck, S. The relationship between students’ use of ICT for social communication and their computer and information literacy. Large-scale Assess Educ 4 , 15 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40536-016-0029-z

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Received : 23 September 2015

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s40536-016-0029-z

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Teachers’ use of ICT in implementing the competency-based curriculum in Kenyan public primary schools

• Julius Murithi 1 &
• Jin Eun Yoo   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7082-5409 2  

Innovation and Education volume  3 , Article number:  5 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

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The use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in education has been widely advocated as much needed 21st-century skills by governments and policymakers. Nevertheless, several challenges in integrating ICT into the curriculum have been reported in previous research, especially in studies on Sub-Saharan African countries. Focusing on the case of Kenyan public primary schools, this study investigated the availability of ICT facilities; teacher capacity to integrate technology into their lessons; and teacher perceptions towards technology in schools. In particular, the study is premised on the constructivist learning theory and the Technology Acceptance Model. A total of 351 teachers completed an online questionnaire. Teachers perceived that ICT facilities were inadequate in schools, which presented a challenge in the integration of technology during the implementation of the new curriculum. Most of the teachers answered that they received only basic computer literacy training. Although teachers perceived the use of computers as necessary, they faced difficulties integrating technology in their lessons. The effect of age and gender on teacher capacity was also investigated in inferential statistics, specifically with Welch tests and Games-Howell post hoc comparisons. Teachers in their 40s had a higher perception of usefulness than teachers in the 30s. Implications of the study are discussed as well as future research topics.

Introduction

Today more than ever before, the world faces competition in all sectors as a result of the advent of a knowledge-based economy. Governments in all parts of the world are striving to achieve access and good quality education for their citizens (UNESCO, 2013 ). For this reason, ICT in education is seen as a means of increasing access to education especially to the rural population and making teaching and learning enjoyable. Different studies have supported the use of ICT in education as an enabler in the process of teaching and learning by assisting the learners to grasp concepts that would otherwise have remained abstract (Kozma, 1991 ). Other scholars contend that the use of ICT in education has little benefit because they are merely delivery mechanisms relying on the teacher’s pedagogical abilities (Clarke, 1983 ). Amid these debates, policymakers have continued to lay foundations for the use of ICT to profit from the perceived benefits.

Even in developing countries, there have been increased investments in ICTs for schools despite the lack of adequate empirical evidence on the outcomes of such efforts (Piper et al., 2015 ). However, the Global Innovation Index (GII) 2019 report by the World Intellectual Property Organization ranks South Africa, Kenya, and Mauritius as the leading innovation hubs in Sub-Saharan Africa. This means that there is a need to explore the opportunities and the challenges that exist in these countries about technology and its use in education. In Kenya, the policymakers view ICT in education as an enabler for knowledge acquisition leading to innovation and skill development to address the challenges faced by the country’s education system (Republic of Kenya, 2019 ). In line with Kenya’s development blueprint, Vision 2030, the education curriculum has been reviewed from the 8-4-4 system to a competency-based curriculum (CBC). The vision of the basic education curriculum reforms is to equip learners with world-class standards and skills needed to thrive in the 21st Century such as digital literacy (KICD, 2017 ). To achieve this, the integration of ICT in the curriculum is emphasized in the teaching of every subject a shift from the previous system which did not include the integration of ICT in primary schools but only in secondary schools as an elective subject.

Distinctly in the year 2020, education systems in all parts of the world were faced with the challenge of the COVID-19 pandemic. Governments in most countries were forced to close schools and minimize any form of gatherings to contain the spread of the deadly respiratory disease. In Kenya, UNICEF estimated that close to 20 million learners spread across the country were out of school because of COVID-19 (Brown & Otieno, 2020 ). Therefore, to get a better understanding of whether alternative methods of learning such as e-learning would succeed, this study focused on how teachers and schools were prepared for technology integration before the crisis. The study focused on the assessment of the availability of ICT facilities in public primary schools, teachers' ability to use technology in teaching and learning, and the perception of teachers on the usefulness and the ease of use of ICT. Since digital literacy is considered an important skill to cope with the 21st C developments, the teacher is a crucial player in the successful implementation of ICT and should be well prepared through adequate training (Hwang et al., 2010 ).

Furthermore, a look at previous studies shows that some challenges have been hindering technology integration in the country. For instance, in a study conducted by Karsenti et al. ( 2012 ) in over ten schools around Kenya, various factors were identified as hindrances to the pedagogical integration of ICT. Some of these factors included: lack of ICT devices, the perception of ICT by teachers as time-consuming and as an additional workload, technophobia by older teachers, teachers’ inadequate ICT expertise among others. To address some of the issues, the Jubilee government had a plan in 2013 to integrate ICT in education by providing laptops to all class one pupils (Muinde & Mbataru, 2019 ). According to Wanzala and Nyamai ( 2018 ), by July 2018 19,000 out of 23,951 public primary schools had been provided with technology devices but only 70,000 out of over 300,000 teachers had been trained just months to the rollout of CBC.

A survey by the Teachers Service Commission that purposefully targeted some schools and 1200 respondents also revealed that teachers in public institutions had serious challenges in using ICT in their teaching. 84.2% of the teachers who responded to the survey agreed that they had problems with the use of technology in classrooms. The survey ranked technology integration as the top professional skills gap affecting the delivery of services by teachers (Oduor, 2018 ; Wanzala & Nyamai, 2018 ). Therefore, although similar studies have been carried out in the country focusing on the integration of ICT in education, they mostly targeted secondary schools and were done under the 8-4-4 curriculum. In the 8-4-4 curriculum ICT integration was not compulsory in the primary level of education and computer studies were taught as an elective subject in secondary schools. The study was guided by the following three research questions (RQ1 to RQ3):

RQ1. To what extend is ICT infrastructure available in schools to enable the integration of technology in teaching and learning? RQ2. What is the capacity of teachers to integrate ICT in primary schools in line with the new competency-based curriculum? Are there statistically significant differences in terms of teacher capacity across different age and gender groups? RQ3. In implementing the new curriculum, what are the perceptions of teachers on the usefulness of ICT, respectively? Are there statistically significant differences in terms of perception on the usefulness across different age and gender groups?

Literature review

Theoretical framework, constructivist theory.

The constructivist approach is based on the belief that learners can construct and create knowledge from prior experiences in their environment (Kalpana, 2014 ; KICD, 2017 ; Waweru, 2018 ). The proponents of this theory shift the focus from the teacher who was traditionally believed to be the source of knowledge to the learner (Wang, 2008 ; Waweru, 2018 ). Two approaches of the constructivist theory were used one targeting teachers' understanding of individual learners and the other that focuses on group learning.

Constructivism can be approached in a way that targets individual learners as well as groups of learners as advanced by Jean Piaget (Kalpana, 2014 ; Wang, 2008 ). The theory explains that a learner assimilates new knowledge that adds to an existing body of knowledge. It is therefore important for teachers in the process of integrating ICT to understand that learning can be based on individual discovery and interpretation of information. This realization would help the teacher to emphasize the active participation and involvement of learners to harness their creativity and produce individuals fit for the 21st Century (Kalpana, 2014 ).

The second approach to the constructivist theory is Vygotsky’s social constructivism that emphasizes collaboration as opposed to individual learning (Waweru, 2018 ). The proponents of this theory argue that learners grasp concepts better when they work in mixed-ability groups where they share experiences and come up with a common understanding. In such a scenario, the teacher must create a classroom environment that is based on cooperation, democratic principles, and shared creation of content that makes the learners have a sense of ownership of knowledge (Sang et al., 2009 ). This theoretical understanding was crucial for this study because, in low-resource settings where ICT facilities may not be enough for every learner, the teachers can encourage collaborative learning through device sharing.

Technology acceptance model

The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) is based on the user’s perception of usefulness and the perceived ease of use as cited by Sharples and Modules ( 2014 ). The theory has been used widely by researchers in the field of technology in education with various modifications as well as criticism (Bagozzi, 2007 ). The perceived usefulness of technology relates to the conviction among users such as teachers that it will make their work or that of their learners easier thus enhance job performance (Muinde & Mbataru, 2019 ). This means that if teachers think that the use of computers would make their day-to-day activities such as preparation of lesson plans, lesson materials, or analyses of student’s results more organized and accurate, then they would probably use them. The perceived ease of use of new or existing technology would mean that the users view technology as one that does not require a lot of effort to learn how to use (Venkatesh et al., 2003 ). This suggests that teachers would possibly adopt technology that they consider easy to learn and use with minimal need for expert consultation.

Venkatesh et al. ( 2003 ) have modified the TAM to include other models in a study that created the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT). The study came up with three variables that were thought to directly influence behavioral intention in the use of technology: performance expectancy (perceived usefulness), effort expectancy (perceived ease of use), and social influence. Venkatesh et al. ( 2003 ) posit that gender, age, experience, and voluntariness could be classified as moderator variables in the studies on the intention to use technology. They argue that based on socialization, men will prefer to use a certain technology if they perceive that it would help them to accomplish a task. The theory also suggests that the moderating effect of age could be based on the tendency for younger people to be motivated by extrinsic factors such as rewards. We used the moderator variables of age and gender of teachers to compare the differences in perception of the use of technology in education. This was based on the presumed effect of the compulsory use of ICTs in education at the primary level (KICD, 2017 ) in implementing the new curriculum on the constructs of voluntariness and experience. Therefore, the inclusion of voluntariness in studying a mandatory use system as well as experience in a new system would lead to inconsistencies.

Global perception of ICT in education

Globalization and rapid changes in technology have created a knowledge-based economy in the 21st Century. Consequently, governments have invested in the integration of ICT in education at all levels to equip the learners with the skills needed for modern life and beyond (Wambiri & Ndani, 2016 ). This inclusion and massive investment in educational technology is believed to have had a positive effect in some countries like South Korea where extraordinary economic growth has been experienced since the 1970s (Sanchez et al., 2011 ).

In addition, Kozma ( 2003 ) in a cross-national comparative study of technology and classroom practices involving 28 states posits those different countries such as Taiwan, Finland, the Netherlands, Norway, and Singapore, have had educational reforms to align with global changes. The study adds that the educational reforms in these countries focused on what students learned in school and placed more emphasis on ICT training and interpersonal skills. Various studies have also reported the benefits that technology in education brings to the teachers and learners in different contexts including in developing countries. For instance, Kozma ( 1991 ) summarizes his support for the use of technology in education by arguing that different voices and sounds attract the attention of children leading to mental processes that create meaning. Aktaruzzaman et al. ( 2011 ) further assert that, when used in the right manner, ICTs in education can bring several benefits such as increased access to education making it more relevant, as well as improving the quality since they make teaching and learning an active process.

The World Wide Web has revolutionized access to information and brought opportunities for e-learning and lifelong learning. Omwenga et al. ( 2004 ) argue that this kind of access will not replace the teacher but will provide an opportunity for the learners to meet experts in various fields, researchers, and fellow students. This way they can get firsthand information as well as exchange ideas with their peers from all parts of the world (Redempta, 2012 ). Hennessy et al. ( 2010 ) add that ICTs help in shaping a continued desire for learning that can develop throughout a person’s lifetime, a skill that is needed to survive in a rapidly changing society.

Technology in education also brings a change to the teaching methods used by teachers from the traditional teacher-centered approaches to heuristic styles (Mingaine, 2013a ). This change makes classrooms interactive as learners get the opportunity to manipulate technology adding to their creativity and thinking skills needed in the 21st Century (Mwangi & Mutua, 2014 ). Even in large class size situations where heuristic methods could be difficult to apply, the use of technology can be of great benefit to a teacher in capturing and retaining the attention of learners (Majumdar, 2005 ).

ICT integration in education in Kenya

Kenya like other Sub-Saharan African countries has over the years embedded ICT in its education policies (Mariga et al., 2017 ; Muinde & Mbataru, 2019 ). Despite the scarcity of empirical research to show the impact of ICT in learning improvement in the country, the Kenya National Education Sector Plan 2013–2018 focused heavily on ICT integration (Piper et al., 2015 ). This plan had followed the National ICT policy that was enacted in 2006 to enhance the availability of efficient, affordable, and reliable technology services across all sectors of the economy (Republic of Kenya, 2006).

The value for and recognition of the importance of ICT in education in achieving Kenya’s development blueprint ‘Vision 2030’ led to the provision of tablets to all grade one learners in public primary schools in the country (Langat, 2015 ; Mariga et al., 2017 ; Muinde & Mbataru, 2019 ). This was followed by curriculum reforms aimed at providing every learner in the country with core competencies and world-class digital literacy skills needed to be competitive in the 21st Century (Maluei, 2019 ).

Status of ICT infrastructure in schools

For effective implementation of the policies on ICT in education, there should be adequate infrastructure and facilities. Liang et al. ( 2005 ) in a study that draws from 6 years of experience in analyzing the digital classroom environment suggest that some basic facilities are fundamental for ICT integration. They posit that for effective use of technology in education classrooms should be equipped with learner’s devices, teacher’s devices, shared display projectors, network connectivity as well as other enabling installations. This argument is corroborated by Mingaine ( 2013b ) who notes that facilities such as power, computer devices, software, and connectivity are essential for effective ICT integration.

Further, a study by Langat ( 2015 ) found out that, infrastructure and ICT equipment shortages were among the challenges facing the implementation of ICT in primary schools in Kenya. The study that targeted 40 primary schools and 450 teachers noted that 94% of the schools did not have ICT equipment, all schools had a shortage of classrooms and only two private schools had functional computer laboratories. Similar challenges were noted in other studies that identified inadequate or limited academic use of computers in primary schools in Kenya as well as a lack of digital customization of classrooms (Tonui et al., 2016 ; Muinde & Mbataru, 2019 ).

Teacher capacity for ICT integration

Research has demonstrated that ICT in education helps in creating opportunities for the learners to develop 21st Century skills but this depends on the digital literacy of teachers (UNESCO, 2012 ). Studies on the capacity of teachers in primary schools in Kenya show that, despite the policy formulation for ICT in education and financial investment, the integration of technology in Kenyan classrooms remains low (Piper et al., 2015 ). For instance, Langat ( 2015 ) found that most of the teachers in the study on barriers hindering the implementation of ICT in primary schools in Kenya lacked computer literacy skills. Despite being aware of the importance of technology in education, the teachers blamed the government for the lack of effective planning to offer them in-service training on the use of technology in teaching and learning.

Similar sentiments were made by teachers in a study by Abobo ( 2018 ) who asserts two-thirds of the respondents could not integrate technology in the teaching of Kiswahili language. Further, Omolo et al. ( 2017 ) also found that student-teachers were able to practice the use of technology in the teaching of Kiswahili in classrooms after learning from their tutors. Both studies suggest that the teachers were willing to apply technology in their teaching after going through training sessions.

However, in some cases where teachers received training, it was basic computer literacy on computer programs such as Microsoft Office and Excel that did not equip them for technology integration in classrooms (Mwangi & Khatete, 2017 ). Comparably, Wambiri and Ndani ( 2016 ) opine that their analysis of documents on primary teacher training in Kenya proved that there was a gap in the pedagogical use of ICT. A study by Muinde and Mbataru ( 2019 ) in Machakos County, found that 85% of teachers had received ICT training from the ministry of education. However, 62.3% of the trained teachers felt that the training was not appropriate for teaching and learning. The findings in this study corroborate Majumdar ( 2005 ) who observed that most teachers who receive ICT training as part of the professional development (PD) programs still lacked the self-reliance needed to integrate ICT in teaching and learning because in most cases due to time limitations the training only focused on computer applications.

Further, a study to establish teachers’ computer skills in public primary schools was carried out in Homa Bay County by Omito et al. ( 2019 ). They used a cross-sectional survey design to collect data from 362 teachers and 85 headteachers. The findings indicated that the number of teachers trained by the government was low, and as argued by Omito et al. ( 2019 ) the situation was so since the trained teachers were supposed to train their colleagues. Ngeno et al. ( 2020 ) had a similar finding in Ainamoi sub-county that the PD training for teachers did not include all teachers. This study by Ngeno et al. ( 2020 ) relates to research by Sharples and Moldeus ( 2014 ) that sought to establish the perception of teachers on the readiness for the adoption of technology in public primary schools. The mixed-method case study focused on multi-sites covering different parts of Kenya such as Nairobi, Nakuru, Mandera, and Turkana to compare the integration in both urban and rural areas. Their findings show that only 8% of the teachers felt adequately prepared to use technology in their day-to-day teaching despite 78% of the respondents saying that they perceived computers as easy to use. The study concluded that this difference between the perception of the ease of use and actual use in classrooms was occasioned by poor training on ICT integration.

Teacher perceptions on ICT integration

Studies on how perception affects the integration of ICT in education show that what teachers think about the use of technology affects their acceptance and subsequent application in their activities (Wambiri & Ndani, 2016 ). They argue that the government’s investment through the provision of devices without addressing teachers’ attitudes and beliefs may not yield the desired results. In a study to assess teachers’ beliefs, attitudes, self-efficacy, computer competency, and age, Wambiri and Ndani ( 2016 ) found out that younger teachers had a high positive attitude towards technology. This finding they add could be attributed to the younger teachers having received technology training in the teacher training colleges. However, Bebell et al. ( 2004 ) observe that teachers’ age and the years of service should be used and interpreted sparingly concerning technology use in schools. They argue that in some specific uses of technology the difference by age would be insignificant if a multi-faceted approach were to be applied in measuring technology usage.

A study on the perception of teachers towards the usefulness of ICT in schools was also conducted by Buliva ( 2018 ) in Vihiga County in Western Kenya. The study that used a convenient sample of teachers from the county used the variable of gender to determine whether there were statistically significant differences between male and female teachers. The results obtained from an independent samples t -test suggested that there was no statistically significant difference between the mean scores of male teachers. The study concluded that there was no statistically significant difference in perception of the usefulness of computers between the teachers by gender in the County.

While studying the implementation of the laptops project in public primary schools, Muinde and Mbataru ( 2019 ) found that 68.5% of the sampled teachers had a high perception of the use of laptops in their teaching and learning. However, they established that 39% of the teachers felt that the time allocated for the integration of technology was not adequate and that most of their lessons were spent assembling the gadgets. In such circumstances, teachers are more likely to resist the use of ICTs in their teaching if they feel that they will spend more time and effort to make them work (Omwenga et al., 2004 ).

The perception of time and ICT integration was also noted by Heinrich et al. ( 2020 ) in a study on the potential and prerequisites of effective tablet integration in rural Kenya. The mixed-method study that involved classroom observation, teacher interviews, student surveys, and focus groups, found that teachers often excluded students perceived to be slow learners during technology integration. Some of the teachers interviewed said that they could not cater to the learners experiencing academic challenges due to the limited time in a lesson. The study recommends more professional development of teachers to equip them with the pedagogical ability to accommodate all learners including those with disabilities in a technology-integrated classroom.

Methodology

Participants.

Among the population of 1,436 teachers, this study targeted 30% of them (Mugenda & Mugenda, 2003 ), which was 430. Specifically, convenience and snowball sampling were executed, which was inevitable in the prevailing circumstances occasioned by the global COVID-19 pandemic. By employing snowball sampling, a small number of teachers in the target population responded to the questionnaire and then were asked to assist in reaching out to other prospective participants (Cohen et al., 2018 ). As teacher gender and age were frequently utilized in previous research, they were put into consideration in sampling. Given that previous research on ICT integration in Kenya has focused on urban areas, more representative sampling incorporating non-urban teachers is warranted (Newby, 2014 ). Among the 430 sampled teachers, 351 teachers completed the questionnaire with a response rate of 81.6%. The participants were teachers in urban (54.7%) and non-urban (45.3%) areas. They consisted of 4 age groups: 20s (15.1%), 30s (55.3%), 40s (23.6%), and 50s (6.0%). Male teachers comprised 61% of the sample.

Research instrument and data analysis

A pilot study was conducted to obtain the content validity of the instrument. The process of pre-testing the instrument was done in a neighboring Sub-County outside the area of study but with similar conditions. The respondents were purposively selected from experienced teachers who were asked to comment on the relevance of the content, clarity of the questions, and the time taken to complete the questionnaire. Some items were modified or deleted to accommodate the feedback, which led to the revised questionnaire of 17 items. Frequencies and percentages of the 17 survey items were presented to answer the descriptive part of the three research questions: Items F1 to F6 for RQ1; C1 to C5 for RQ2; and P1 to P6 for RQ3. With regards to the inferential part of the research questions of RQ2 and RQ3, Cronbach’s alphas of the subscales were calculated before proceeding further. The Cronbach’s alpha of all the 17 items was 0.754, but some of the items were removed to increase the internal consistency of the subscales to answer inferential research questions. Specifically, items C1, C2, C4, and C5 had the Cronbach’s alpha of 0.70, and the average of the four items served as the dependent variable of RQ2, teacher capacity for ICT integration. Likewise, the average of P1 and P3 to measure teacher perception on ICT usefulness served as the dependent variable of RQ3, the Cronbach’s alpha of which was 0.66. According to Nunnully ( 1978 ), Cronbach’s alpha at or above 0.70 is acceptable as a test for the internal consistency of an instrument. The subscale internal consistency of teacher perception on ICT usefulness was slightly lower but close to the nominal value of 0.70.

For inferential statistics, two-way ANOVAs were initially conducted with gender and age as independent variables for each of the dependent variables. However, Levene’s tests indicated violations of the equal variance assumption. We instead employed the Welch test, a robust statistic used in violations of the equal variance assumption (Welch, 1947 ). When the Welch test was statistically significant, Games-Howell post hoc tests were conducted for pairwise comparison groups. For the 4 age groups, there were a total of 6 (= 4 combination 2) comparisons per dependent variable.

Availability of ICT facilities

The first research question (RQ1) was to investigate the ICT infrastructure availability in public primary schools for the effective implementation of digital learning. The results on the availability of ICT devices are summarized in Table 1 . Most of the schools (87.7%) lacked internet connectivity (F1). Approximately 70% of the teachers also answered that their schools did not have projectors as a part of the shared devices essential for the integration of technology in schools (F2). Further, teachers indicated that their schools lacked the customization required for the introduction of digital devices. Specifically, 80% of them answered that their classrooms and computer laboratories did not have sockets and power extension cables (F6) and 73.5% of them also said that they did not have access to the laptops provided by the government (F4). Despite the challenges faced by teachers in accessing devices, 55.8% of the teachers reported that learners had relatively high access to tablet PCs (F5) and 82.9% of them reported reliable power supply (F3).

The second research question (RQ2) investigated teachers’ ability to use technology in the performance of their duties (Table 2 ). Most of the teachers in public primary schools had basic computer skills. The high percentage of teachers with basic computer skills was corroborated by the finding that 77.7% of the respondents had basic computer training as part of their teacher training course. Although many teachers received technology training as part of their pre-service course, we found that there was a challenge in the follow-up in-service training. When asked whether they attended in-service training on technology integration, 66.4% of the teachers disagreed and strongly disagreed; this group of teachers had not participated in any professional development courses to equip them with any relevant pedagogical skills for the application of technology in their lessons. Relatedly, 44.7% of the respondents did not use computers to prepare their instructional materials in preparation for teaching, and 58.4% of the teachers could not plan and integrate technology into their lessons.

Teacher perceptions on usefulness

Despite the challenges faced by teachers in terms of the availability of facilities and inadequate training, our study demonstrated that teachers had a high perception of technology use (Table 3 ). The results show that almost all the teachers (98.9%) had the belief that technology would make them more organized and enable student-centered learning to take place in their schools. Further, there was a high belief that the integration of technology would enhance collaboration among learners as shown by 67.5% of the teachers who responded in the affirmative (RQ3). Teachers also had a high attitude towards the usefulness of technology to them as 97.7% of the respondents felt that the integration of technology would make the teachers more organized in their duties. However, the study found that 52.7% of the teachers perceived ICT to be time-consuming and would need more time allocation in the school timetable for successful integration. The findings also suggest that teachers were worried about the learners’ access to the internet as perceived by 60.1% of the teachers who considered it unsafe.

Inferential statistics on the teacher capacity and perceived usefulness

The effect of age.

Age had a statistically significant effect on the perception of usefulness (RQ3, p  = 0.000), but had no statistical significance on teacher capacity (RQ2, p  = 0.059) (Table 4 ). The Games-Howell post hoc tests indicated that teachers in their 40 s (M = 3.40, SD = 0.34, n  = 83) had a higher perception of usefulness than those in their 30 s (M = 3.15, SD = 0.36, n  = 194). Other groups were not statistically different in terms of the perception of usefulness or teacher capacity.

The effect of gender

Both teacher capacity (RQ2) and perceived usefulness (RQ3) were not statistically different by gender (Table 5 ). Male teachers and female teachers did now show a difference in terms of teacher capacity and perceived usefulness.

Following the importance attached to technology in most parts of the world in almost all sectors, developing countries also have had to make the necessary investments and changes to cope with the 21st Century developments. As a result, education systems have been changed and curricula adjusted to have technology integration in schools. Our study sought to establish the preparedness of Kenyan primary schools for the rollout of mandatory technology use in all subjects of the new curriculum. On infrastructure development, our findings show that shared devices (i.e., projectors, sockets, and extension) cables were not available in most public primary schools. Although access to a computer or laptop by teachers is key in the integration of technology in education (Liang et al., 2005 ), teachers in most primary schools did not have access to these devices. The findings were consistent with other studies that pointed at the lack of devices for teachers as a threat to technology integration in Kenyan schools (Langat, 2015 ; Tonui et al., 2016 ; Mingaine, 2013a , 2013b ). This reveals a challenge that has existed over the years despite the significance attached to ICT availability (Langat, 2015 ; Liang et al., 2005 ) a situation that calls on stakeholders to prioritize infrastructure installation (Mingaine, 2013a ).

On the other hand, learners had relatively high access to technology devices such as tablet PCs. The power supply in schools also appears reliable, which could be attributed to the government’s commitment and investment towards digital learning in public primary schools in the country (Muinde & Mbataru, 2019 ; Piper et al., 2015 ). Since not all schools had a one-to-one ratio in terms of technology devices like tablet PCs, Heinrich et al. ( 2020 ) suggest that the teachers in such settings could change their approach by encouraging peer collaborative learning as learners share the available devices. This argument supports the social constructivist approach by Vygotsky that emphasizes collaboration as opposed to individual learning (Waweru, 2018 ). As Sang et al. ( 2009 ) explain, teachers in areas without adequate ICT devices need to apply teaching methods that create an environment of cooperation and democracy to enable content sharing among learners. Nonetheless, for this to happen a teacher needs to be equipped with the requisite technology integration skills to be able to assess the learners' use of technology and their use in instruction.

For this reason, we sought to investigate the teachers’ capacity for technology integration in primary schools. The findings pointed to an increase in computer literacy among primary school teachers which has been highlighted as a key determinant in the successful integration of technology in various studies (Hwang et al., 2010 ; UNESCO, 2012 ). The results were consistent with previous research which attributed the increase in the number of computer-literate teachers with the introduction of computer courses in the Kenyan teacher training colleges (Omito et al., 2019 ; Muinde & Mbataru, 2019 ). However, although computer literacy among teachers is important, it does not guarantee that teachers would use technology in their lessons (Mwangi & Khatete, 2017 ; Wambiri & Ndani, 2016 ) because of gaps in the pedagogical application in actual teaching.

Relatedly, we found that most teachers did not integrate ICT in their lessons and had not attended in-service training after the start of the implementation of the new curriculum. This corroborates other studies which concluded that computer literacy training was not enough to guarantee the integration of technology and that teachers needed a deeper understanding of the pedagogical use of ICT (Omito et al., 2019 ; Ngeno et al., 2020 ; Sharples & Moldeus, 2014 ). Further, we found that younger teachers had better technology integration skills compared to older teachers consistent with previous studies which showed that age correlates negatively with skill level in the use of technology (Harrison & Rainer, 1992 cited by Wambiri & Ndani, 2016 ). However, as noted by Bebell et al. ( 2004 ) teachers’ age and years of work may not be conclusive in the measurement of teachers’ technology use. Therefore, a study designed to include a variety of technology uses in schools would give a more detailed account of how teachers interact with technology daily.

Despite the skill gap that exists among teachers in technology integration, our study shows that generally, teachers had a high perception. Similarly, Wambiri and Ndani ( 2016 ) concluded that teachers in Kenyan primary schools had high attitudes towards the use of various technologies indicating that with the requisite support the use of ICT in schools would be achieved. This is also supported by the finding that teachers had the high belief that ICT use would not only benefit them in the organization of instruction but also their learners. The perception of the usefulness of technology to learners by teachers is important because it helps the teacher to invoke the innovativeness and creativity of the learner (Kalpana, 2014 ; KICD, 2017 ; Wang, 2008 ; Waweru, 2018 ). The perception of technology as time-consuming, however, can be attributed to inadequate training on the pedagogical use of ICT as found in previous studies (Sharples & Moldeus, 2014 ). This means that due to inadequate preparation, such teachers would need the help of computer technicians for successful integration. According to Heinrich et al. ( 2020 ), the teachers’ beliefs about time and the effort needed for technology integration generally affect their perception of the ease of use and perceived usefulness to their learners. The perception of learner safety while using the internet could be attributed to inadequate teacher preparation for the safe use to both learners and teachers.

We also analyzed the effect of age and gender on the perception of usefulness and age. Teachers in their 40 s found ICT more useful than their counterparts in the 30 s. This finding was different from previous research that found the perception to be higher among younger teachers (Wambiri & Ndani, 2016 ). This difference could have been occasioned by sample composition in our study since the number of teachers in the 30 s was two times more than those in the 40 s. However, Bebell et al. ( 2004 ) warn that it is not obvious that younger teachers would have a higher perception of technology. A test of how teachers of different ages perceive the usefulness of specific technologies in the performance of their duties would lead to a more detailed analysis. Additionally, our analysis on the effect of gender on the perceived usefulness of technology among teachers did not show any statistical difference. This was consistent with Buliva ( 2018 ) who found no significant difference in the perception of technology use among teachers by gender. It, therefore, suggests that exemplary performance in the integration of technology should be expected from all teachers. The results also indicate that policymakers should formulate ways to equip male and female teachers with technology integration skills since they all have high perceptions and significant skill gaps. However, Venkatesh et al. ( 2003 ) noted that based on socialization, men would perceive certain technology as more useful if it allowed them to accomplish a task faster.

Limitations and areas of future research

The sampling schemes can be improved in subsequent research. The online survey combined with convenience sampling was an unavoidable choice at the time of data collection; the Global COVID-19 pandemic led to the closure of schools in Kenya, which may have caused sampling bias and limit the generalizability of the findings. Particularly, only 6% of the respondents were in the age bracket of 50 s, while there were 29% of them in the population. Male teachers were also oversampled in our study. While we had 61% male and 39% female teachers, the proportion in the population was 3:7. We should be cautious in interpreting the findings relating to this class of respondents. Follow-up studies are also recommended to take additional steps to increase validity of the instrument such as obtaining content validity ratio (CVR).

Further, our use of the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) as the theoretical base of the study could have left out other constructs that would give further understanding of acceptance of ICT. We, therefore, recommend the use of other models such as the United Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) in further studies to include other constructs such as social influence and facilitating conditions which would improve the prediction of the intention to use technology.

A replication of this study using a mixed-methods approach would give an in-depth understanding of the issues affecting the implementation of ICT integration in Kenya and other developing countries. More research is needed on the perceptions of technology use among teachers in their 30 s and 40 s as well as the effect of gender on the capacity and perception of teachers. A study on how teachers are using technology for the formative assessment of learners in various subjects would also contribute to accumulating knowledge on the progress of ICT integration in all areas of the curriculum. It would be important to study head teachers’ use of technology in the supervision of curriculum implementation. Future research may also focus on the perception of male and female teachers on the usefulness and ease of use of a specific technology in accomplishing various tasks. Finally, it would be important to do a comparative study between the East African countries since they are in the process of implementing the harmonized curriculum structures and framework for primary education.

Conclusions

The findings from this study suggest that the ICT facilities were inadequate including laptops for teachers, projectors, tablets PC devices for pupils, as well as other enabling installations. There is a need to provide computers to teachers so that they can easily access materials and prepare for technology integration. This will help to familiarize the teachers with computer hardware and software hence reducing the need for computer technicians in schools.

Secondly, we noted that although most of the teachers had basic computer literacy there was a challenge in technology integration due to inadequate pedagogical knowledge on integration. Teachers implementing the new curriculum should be involved in frequent PD programs and training that goes beyond basic computer literacy to technology integration in various subjects. In circumstances where the shortage of devices is inevitable, teachers should be trained on how to encourage collaboration among learners through the sharing of the technology devices and working on tasks as a team.

The results further indicated that teachers have a high attitude towards the use of ICT regardless of gender and the numerous challenges that they face. To encourage the younger teachers to use technology and to train their older colleagues on integration in teaching, the government should consider giving incentives. A reward such as official recognition or sponsorship for further ICT in education training could act as a good motivator to younger teachers.

Availability of data materials

All the data sets are available on request.All the data sets are available on request.

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Its many benefits notwithstanding, ICT has also created problems and challenges for organizations, individuals and society. The digitization of data, the expanding use of the high-speed internet and the growing global network together have created new opportunities for crime. Increasingly, bad actors leverage these opportunities to hatch new schemes to gain unauthorized access to enterprise or government systems. They do so to steal money, intellectual property or private information. Many cybercrimes are also aimed at disrupting systems that control critical infrastructure and, ultimately, creating widespread chaos and panic.

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ICT, the digital age and digital divide

ICT has changed drastically how people work, communicate, learn and live. It continues to revolutionize all parts of the human experience as first computers and now robots do many tasks humans once handled.

ICT's importance to economic development and business growth has been so monumental that it's often credited with ushering in the Fourth Industrial Revolution . ICT also underpins broad shifts in society, as individuals en masse are moving from personal, face-to-face interactions to ones in the digital space. This new era is frequently termed the digital age .

For all its revolutionary aspects, ICT capabilities aren't evenly distributed, with richer countries and richer individuals getting to enjoy more access to ICT technologies. These entities are better able to seize the advantages offered by and the opportunities powered by ICT. This discrepancy in access to ICT has created what is now known as the digital divide .

Numerous governmental authorities and non-government organizations advocate policies and programs that aim to bridge the digital divide by providing greater access to ICT among those individuals and populations struggling to afford it.

Explore how IT leaders drive evolution of digital transformation , and explore digital transformation benefits for business . See how satellite connectivity can combat the digital divide and how we can futureproof our economy by closing our growing digital divide .

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Impacts of digital technologies on education and factors influencing schools' digital capacity and transformation: A literature review

Stella timotheou.

1 CYENS Center of Excellence & Cyprus University of Technology (Cyprus Interaction Lab), Cyprus, CYENS Center of Excellence & Cyprus University of Technology, Nicosia-Limassol, Cyprus

Ourania Miliou

Yiannis dimitriadis.

2 Universidad de Valladolid (UVA), Spain, Valladolid, Spain

Sara Villagrá Sobrino

Nikoleta giannoutsou, romina cachia.

3 JRC - Joint Research Centre of the European Commission, Seville, Spain

Alejandra Martínez Monés

Andri ioannou, associated data.

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Digital technologies have brought changes to the nature and scope of education and led education systems worldwide to adopt strategies and policies for ICT integration. The latter brought about issues regarding the quality of teaching and learning with ICTs, especially concerning the understanding, adaptation, and design of the education systems in accordance with current technological trends. These issues were emphasized during the recent COVID-19 pandemic that accelerated the use of digital technologies in education, generating questions regarding digitalization in schools. Specifically, many schools demonstrated a lack of experience and low digital capacity, which resulted in widening gaps, inequalities, and learning losses. Such results have engendered the need for schools to learn and build upon the experience to enhance their digital capacity and preparedness, increase their digitalization levels, and achieve a successful digital transformation. Given that the integration of digital technologies is a complex and continuous process that impacts different actors within the school ecosystem, there is a need to show how these impacts are interconnected and identify the factors that can encourage an effective and efficient change in the school environments. For this purpose, we conducted a non-systematic literature review. The results of the literature review were organized thematically based on the evidence presented about the impact of digital technology on education and the factors that affect the schools’ digital capacity and digital transformation. The findings suggest that ICT integration in schools impacts more than just students’ performance; it affects several other school-related aspects and stakeholders, too. Furthermore, various factors affect the impact of digital technologies on education. These factors are interconnected and play a vital role in the digital transformation process. The study results shed light on how ICTs can positively contribute to the digital transformation of schools and which factors should be considered for schools to achieve effective and efficient change.

Introduction

Digital technologies have brought changes to the nature and scope of education. Versatile and disruptive technological innovations, such as smart devices, the Internet of Things (IoT), artificial intelligence (AI), augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR), blockchain, and software applications have opened up new opportunities for advancing teaching and learning (Gaol & Prasolova-Førland, 2021 ; OECD, 2021 ). Hence, in recent years, education systems worldwide have increased their investment in the integration of information and communication technology (ICT) (Fernández-Gutiérrez et al., 2020 ; Lawrence & Tar, 2018 ) and prioritized their educational agendas to adapt strategies or policies around ICT integration (European Commission, 2019 ). The latter brought about issues regarding the quality of teaching and learning with ICTs (Bates, 2015 ), especially concerning the understanding, adaptation, and design of education systems in accordance with current technological trends (Balyer & Öz, 2018 ). Studies have shown that despite the investment made in the integration of technology in schools, the results have not been promising, and the intended outcomes have not yet been achieved (Delgado et al., 2015 ; Lawrence & Tar, 2018 ). These issues were exacerbated during the COVID-19 pandemic, which forced teaching across education levels to move online (Daniel, 2020 ). Online teaching accelerated the use of digital technologies generating questions regarding the process, the nature, the extent, and the effectiveness of digitalization in schools (Cachia et al., 2021 ; König et al., 2020 ). Specifically, many schools demonstrated a lack of experience and low digital capacity, which resulted in widening gaps, inequalities, and learning losses (Blaskó et al., 2021 ; Di Pietro et al, 2020 ). Such results have engendered the need for schools to learn and build upon the experience in order to enhance their digital capacity (European Commission, 2020 ) and increase their digitalization levels (Costa et al., 2021 ). Digitalization offers possibilities for fundamental improvement in schools (OECD, 2021 ; Rott & Marouane, 2018 ) and touches many aspects of a school’s development (Delcker & Ifenthaler, 2021 ) . However, it is a complex process that requires large-scale transformative changes beyond the technical aspects of technology and infrastructure (Pettersson, 2021 ). Namely, digitalization refers to “ a series of deep and coordinated culture, workforce, and technology shifts and operating models ” (Brooks & McCormack, 2020 , p. 3) that brings cultural, organizational, and operational change through the integration of digital technologies (JISC, 2020 ). A successful digital transformation requires that schools increase their digital capacity levels, establishing the necessary “ culture, policies, infrastructure as well as digital competence of students and staff to support the effective integration of technology in teaching and learning practices ” (Costa et al, 2021 , p.163).

Given that the integration of digital technologies is a complex and continuous process that impacts different actors within the school ecosystem (Eng, 2005 ), there is a need to show how the different elements of the impact are interconnected and to identify the factors that can encourage an effective and efficient change in the school environment. To address the issues outlined above, we formulated the following research questions:

a) What is the impact of digital technologies on education?

b) Which factors might affect a school’s digital capacity and transformation?

In the present investigation, we conducted a non-systematic literature review of publications pertaining to the impact of digital technologies on education and the factors that affect a school’s digital capacity and transformation. The results of the literature review were organized thematically based on the evidence presented about the impact of digital technology on education and the factors which affect the schools’ digital capacity and digital transformation.

Methodology

The non-systematic literature review presented herein covers the main theories and research published over the past 17 years on the topic. It is based on meta-analyses and review papers found in scholarly, peer-reviewed content databases and other key studies and reports related to the concepts studied (e.g., digitalization, digital capacity) from professional and international bodies (e.g., the OECD). We searched the Scopus database, which indexes various online journals in the education sector with an international scope, to collect peer-reviewed academic papers. Furthermore, we used an all-inclusive Google Scholar search to include relevant key terms or to include studies found in the reference list of the peer-reviewed papers, and other key studies and reports related to the concepts studied by professional and international bodies. Lastly, we gathered sources from the Publications Office of the European Union ( https://op.europa.eu/en/home ); namely, documents that refer to policies related to digital transformation in education.

Regarding search terms, we first searched resources on the impact of digital technologies on education by performing the following search queries: “impact” OR “effects” AND “digital technologies” AND “education”, “impact” OR “effects” AND “ICT” AND “education”. We further refined our results by adding the terms “meta-analysis” and “review” or by adjusting the search options based on the features of each database to avoid collecting individual studies that would provide limited contributions to a particular domain. We relied on meta-analyses and review studies as these consider the findings of multiple studies to offer a more comprehensive view of the research in a given area (Schuele & Justice, 2006 ). Specifically, meta-analysis studies provided quantitative evidence based on statistically verifiable results regarding the impact of educational interventions that integrate digital technologies in school classrooms (Higgins et al., 2012 ; Tolani-Brown et al., 2011 ).

However, quantitative data does not offer explanations for the challenges or difficulties experienced during ICT integration in learning and teaching (Tolani-Brown et al., 2011 ). To fill this gap, we analyzed literature reviews and gathered in-depth qualitative evidence of the benefits and implications of technology integration in schools. In the analysis presented herein, we also included policy documents and reports from professional and international bodies and governmental reports, which offered useful explanations of the key concepts of this study and provided recent evidence on digital capacity and transformation in education along with policy recommendations. The inclusion and exclusion criteria that were considered in this study are presented in Table ​ Table1 1 .

Inclusion and exclusion criteria for the selection of resources on the impact of digital technologies on education

To ensure a reliable extraction of information from each study and assist the research synthesis we selected the study characteristics of interest (impact) and constructed coding forms. First, an overview of the synthesis was provided by the principal investigator who described the processes of coding, data entry, and data management. The coders followed the same set of instructions but worked independently. To ensure a common understanding of the process between coders, a sample of ten studies was tested. The results were compared, and the discrepancies were identified and resolved. Additionally, to ensure an efficient coding process, all coders participated in group meetings to discuss additions, deletions, and modifications (Stock, 1994 ). Due to the methodological diversity of the studied documents we began to synthesize the literature review findings based on similar study designs. Specifically, most of the meta-analysis studies were grouped in one category due to the quantitative nature of the measured impact. These studies tended to refer to student achievement (Hattie et al., 2014 ). Then, we organized the themes of the qualitative studies in several impact categories. Lastly, we synthesized both review and meta-analysis data across the categories. In order to establish a collective understanding of the concept of impact, we referred to a previous impact study by Balanskat ( 2009 ) which investigated the impact of technology in primary schools. In this context, the impact had a more specific ICT-related meaning and was described as “ a significant influence or effect of ICT on the measured or perceived quality of (parts of) education ” (Balanskat, 2009 , p. 9). In the study presented herein, the main impacts are in relation to learning and learners, teaching, and teachers, as well as other key stakeholders who are directly or indirectly connected to the school unit.

The study’s results identified multiple dimensions of the impact of digital technologies on students’ knowledge, skills, and attitudes; on equality, inclusion, and social integration; on teachers’ professional and teaching practices; and on other school-related aspects and stakeholders. The data analysis indicated various factors that might affect the schools’ digital capacity and transformation, such as digital competencies, the teachers’ personal characteristics and professional development, as well as the school’s leadership and management, administration, infrastructure, etc. The impacts and factors found in the literature review are presented below.

Impacts of digital technologies on students’ knowledge, skills, attitudes, and emotions

The impact of ICT use on students’ knowledge, skills, and attitudes has been investigated early in the literature. Eng ( 2005 ) found a small positive effect between ICT use and students' learning. Specifically, the author reported that access to computer-assisted instruction (CAI) programs in simulation or tutorial modes—used to supplement rather than substitute instruction – could enhance student learning. The author reported studies showing that teachers acknowledged the benefits of ICT on pupils with special educational needs; however, the impact of ICT on students' attainment was unclear. Balanskat et al. ( 2006 ) found a statistically significant positive association between ICT use and higher student achievement in primary and secondary education. The authors also reported improvements in the performance of low-achieving pupils. The use of ICT resulted in further positive gains for students, namely increased attention, engagement, motivation, communication and process skills, teamwork, and gains related to their behaviour towards learning. Evidence from qualitative studies showed that teachers, students, and parents recognized the positive impact of ICT on students' learning regardless of their competence level (strong/weak students). Punie et al. ( 2006 ) documented studies that showed positive results of ICT-based learning for supporting low-achieving pupils and young people with complex lives outside the education system. Liao et al. ( 2007 ) reported moderate positive effects of computer application instruction (CAI, computer simulations, and web-based learning) over traditional instruction on primary school student's achievement. Similarly, Tamim et al. ( 2011 ) reported small to moderate positive effects between the use of computer technology (CAI, ICT, simulations, computer-based instruction, digital and hypermedia) and student achievement in formal face-to-face classrooms compared to classrooms that did not use technology. Jewitt et al., ( 2011 ) found that the use of learning platforms (LPs) (virtual learning environments, management information systems, communication technologies, and information- and resource-sharing technologies) in schools allowed primary and secondary students to access a wider variety of quality learning resources, engage in independent and personalized learning, and conduct self- and peer-review; LPs also provide opportunities for teacher assessment and feedback. Similar findings were reported by Fu ( 2013 ), who documented a list of benefits and opportunities of ICT use. According to the author, the use of ICTs helps students access digital information and course content effectively and efficiently, supports student-centered and self-directed learning, as well as the development of a creative learning environment where more opportunities for critical thinking skills are offered, and promotes collaborative learning in a distance-learning environment. Higgins et al. ( 2012 ) found consistent but small positive associations between the use of technology and learning outcomes of school-age learners (5–18-year-olds) in studies linking the provision and use of technology with attainment. Additionally, Chauhan ( 2017 ) reported a medium positive effect of technology on the learning effectiveness of primary school students compared to students who followed traditional learning instruction.

The rise of mobile technologies and hardware devices instigated investigations into their impact on teaching and learning. Sung et al. ( 2016 ) reported a moderate effect on students' performance from the use of mobile devices in the classroom compared to the use of desktop computers or the non-use of mobile devices. Schmid et al. ( 2014 ) reported medium–low to low positive effects of technology integration (e.g., CAI, ICTs) in the classroom on students' achievement and attitude compared to not using technology or using technology to varying degrees. Tamim et al. ( 2015 ) found a low statistically significant effect of the use of tablets and other smart devices in educational contexts on students' achievement outcomes. The authors suggested that tablets offered additional advantages to students; namely, they reported improvements in students’ notetaking, organizational and communication skills, and creativity. Zheng et al. ( 2016 ) reported a small positive effect of one-to-one laptop programs on students’ academic achievement across subject areas. Additional reported benefits included student-centered, individualized, and project-based learning enhanced learner engagement and enthusiasm. Additionally, the authors found that students using one-to-one laptop programs tended to use technology more frequently than in non-laptop classrooms, and as a result, they developed a range of skills (e.g., information skills, media skills, technology skills, organizational skills). Haßler et al. ( 2016 ) found that most interventions that included the use of tablets across the curriculum reported positive learning outcomes. However, from 23 studies, five reported no differences, and two reported a negative effect on students' learning outcomes. Similar results were indicated by Kalati and Kim ( 2022 ) who investigated the effect of touchscreen technologies on young students’ learning. Specifically, from 53 studies, 34 advocated positive effects of touchscreen devices on children’s learning, 17 obtained mixed findings and two studies reported negative effects.

More recently, approaches that refer to the impact of gamification with the use of digital technologies on teaching and learning were also explored. A review by Pan et al. ( 2022 ) that examined the role of learning games in fostering mathematics education in K-12 settings, reported that gameplay improved students’ performance. Integration of digital games in teaching was also found as a promising pedagogical practice in STEM education that could lead to increased learning gains (Martinez et al., 2022 ; Wang et al., 2022 ). However, although Talan et al. ( 2020 ) reported a medium effect of the use of educational games (both digital and non-digital) on academic achievement, the effect of non-digital games was higher.

Over the last two years, the effects of more advanced technologies on teaching and learning were also investigated. Garzón and Acevedo ( 2019 ) found that AR applications had a medium effect on students' learning outcomes compared to traditional lectures. Similarly, Garzón et al. ( 2020 ) showed that AR had a medium impact on students' learning gains. VR applications integrated into various subjects were also found to have a moderate effect on students’ learning compared to control conditions (traditional classes, e.g., lectures, textbooks, and multimedia use, e.g., images, videos, animation, CAI) (Chen et al., 2022b ). Villena-Taranilla et al. ( 2022 ) noted the moderate effect of VR technologies on students’ learning when these were applied in STEM disciplines. In the same meta-analysis, Villena-Taranilla et al. ( 2022 ) highlighted the role of immersive VR, since its effect on students’ learning was greater (at a high level) across educational levels (K-6) compared to semi-immersive and non-immersive integrations. In another meta-analysis study, the effect size of the immersive VR was small and significantly differentiated across educational levels (Coban et al., 2022 ). The impact of AI on education was investigated by Su and Yang ( 2022 ) and Su et al. ( 2022 ), who showed that this technology significantly improved students’ understanding of AI computer science and machine learning concepts.

It is worth noting that the vast majority of studies referred to learning gains in specific subjects. Specifically, several studies examined the impact of digital technologies on students’ literacy skills and reported positive effects on language learning (Balanskat et al., 2006 ; Grgurović et al., 2013 ; Friedel et al., 2013 ; Zheng et al., 2016 ; Chen et al., 2022b ; Savva et al., 2022 ). Also, several studies documented positive effects on specific language learning areas, namely foreign language learning (Kao, 2014 ), writing (Higgins et al., 2012 ; Wen & Walters, 2022 ; Zheng et al., 2016 ), as well as reading and comprehension (Cheung & Slavin, 2011 ; Liao et al., 2007 ; Schwabe et al., 2022 ). ICTs were also found to have a positive impact on students' performance in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) disciplines (Arztmann et al., 2022 ; Bado, 2022 ; Villena-Taranilla et al., 2022 ; Wang et al., 2022 ). Specifically, a number of studies reported positive impacts on students’ achievement in mathematics (Balanskat et al., 2006 ; Hillmayr et al., 2020 ; Li & Ma, 2010 ; Pan et al., 2022 ; Ran et al., 2022 ; Verschaffel et al., 2019 ; Zheng et al., 2016 ). Furthermore, studies documented positive effects of ICTs on science learning (Balanskat et al., 2006 ; Liao et al., 2007 ; Zheng et al., 2016 ; Hillmayr et al., 2020 ; Kalemkuş & Kalemkuş, 2022 ; Lei et al., 2022a ). Çelik ( 2022 ) also noted that computer simulations can help students understand learning concepts related to science. Furthermore, some studies documented that the use of ICTs had a positive impact on students’ achievement in other subjects, such as geography, history, music, and arts (Chauhan, 2017 ; Condie & Munro, 2007 ), and design and technology (Balanskat et al., 2006 ).

More specific positive learning gains were reported in a number of skills, e.g., problem-solving skills and pattern exploration skills (Higgins et al., 2012 ), metacognitive learning outcomes (Verschaffel et al., 2019 ), literacy skills, computational thinking skills, emotion control skills, and collaborative inquiry skills (Lu et al., 2022 ; Su & Yang, 2022 ; Su et al., 2022 ). Additionally, several investigations have reported benefits from the use of ICT on students’ creativity (Fielding & Murcia, 2022 ; Liu et al., 2022 ; Quah & Ng, 2022 ). Lastly, digital technologies were also found to be beneficial for enhancing students’ lifelong learning skills (Haleem et al., 2022 ).

Apart from gaining knowledge and skills, studies also reported improvement in motivation and interest in mathematics (Higgins et. al., 2019 ; Fadda et al., 2022 ) and increased positive achievement emotions towards several subjects during interventions using educational games (Lei et al., 2022a ). Chen et al. ( 2022a ) also reported a small but positive effect of digital health approaches in bullying and cyberbullying interventions with K-12 students, demonstrating that technology-based approaches can help reduce bullying and related consequences by providing emotional support, empowerment, and change of attitude. In their meta-review study, Su et al. ( 2022 ) also documented that AI technologies effectively strengthened students’ attitudes towards learning. In another meta-analysis, Arztmann et al. ( 2022 ) reported positive effects of digital games on motivation and behaviour towards STEM subjects.

Impacts of digital technologies on equality, inclusion and social integration

Although most of the reviewed studies focused on the impact of ICTs on students’ knowledge, skills, and attitudes, reports were also made on other aspects in the school context, such as equality, inclusion, and social integration. Condie and Munro ( 2007 ) documented research interventions investigating how ICT can support pupils with additional or special educational needs. While those interventions were relatively small scale and mostly based on qualitative data, their findings indicated that the use of ICTs enabled the development of communication, participation, and self-esteem. A recent meta-analysis (Baragash et al., 2022 ) with 119 participants with different disabilities, reported a significant overall effect size of AR on their functional skills acquisition. Koh’s meta-analysis ( 2022 ) also revealed that students with intellectual and developmental disabilities improved their competence and performance when they used digital games in the lessons.

Istenic Starcic and Bagon ( 2014 ) found that the role of ICT in inclusion and the design of pedagogical and technological interventions was not sufficiently explored in educational interventions with people with special needs; however, some benefits of ICT use were found in students’ social integration. The issue of gender and technology use was mentioned in a small number of studies. Zheng et al. ( 2016 ) reported a statistically significant positive interaction between one-to-one laptop programs and gender. Specifically, the results showed that girls and boys alike benefitted from the laptop program, but the effect on girls’ achievement was smaller than that on boys’. Along the same lines, Arztmann et al. ( 2022 ) reported no difference in the impact of game-based learning between boys and girls, arguing that boys and girls equally benefited from game-based interventions in STEM domains. However, results from a systematic review by Cussó-Calabuig et al. ( 2018 ) found limited and low-quality evidence on the effects of intensive use of computers on gender differences in computer anxiety, self-efficacy, and self-confidence. Based on their view, intensive use of computers can reduce gender differences in some areas and not in others, depending on contextual and implementation factors.

Impacts of digital technologies on teachers’ professional and teaching practices

Various research studies have explored the impact of ICT on teachers’ instructional practices and student assessment. Friedel et al. ( 2013 ) found that the use of mobile devices by students enabled teachers to successfully deliver content (e.g., mobile serious games), provide scaffolding, and facilitate synchronous collaborative learning. The integration of digital games in teaching and learning activities also gave teachers the opportunity to study and apply various pedagogical practices (Bado, 2022 ). Specifically, Bado ( 2022 ) found that teachers who implemented instructional activities in three stages (pre-game, game, and post-game) maximized students’ learning outcomes and engagement. For instance, during the pre-game stage, teachers focused on lectures and gameplay training, at the game stage teachers provided scaffolding on content, addressed technical issues, and managed the classroom activities. During the post-game stage, teachers organized activities for debriefing to ensure that the gameplay had indeed enhanced students’ learning outcomes.

Furthermore, ICT can increase efficiency in lesson planning and preparation by offering possibilities for a more collaborative approach among teachers. The sharing of curriculum plans and the analysis of students’ data led to clearer target settings and improvements in reporting to parents (Balanskat et al., 2006 ).

Additionally, the use and application of digital technologies in teaching and learning were found to enhance teachers’ digital competence. Balanskat et al. ( 2006 ) documented studies that revealed that the use of digital technologies in education had a positive effect on teachers’ basic ICT skills. The greatest impact was found on teachers with enough experience in integrating ICTs in their teaching and/or who had recently participated in development courses for the pedagogical use of technologies in teaching. Punie et al. ( 2006 ) reported that the provision of fully equipped multimedia portable computers and the development of online teacher communities had positive impacts on teachers’ confidence and competence in the use of ICTs.

Moreover, online assessment via ICTs benefits instruction. In particular, online assessments support the digitalization of students’ work and related logistics, allow teachers to gather immediate feedback and readjust to new objectives, and support the improvement of the technical quality of tests by providing more accurate results. Additionally, the capabilities of ICTs (e.g., interactive media, simulations) create new potential methods of testing specific skills, such as problem-solving and problem-processing skills, meta-cognitive skills, creativity and communication skills, and the ability to work productively in groups (Punie et al., 2006 ).

Impacts of digital technologies on other school-related aspects and stakeholders

There is evidence that the effective use of ICTs and the data transmission offered by broadband connections help improve administration (Balanskat et al., 2006 ). Specifically, ICTs have been found to provide better management systems to schools that have data gathering procedures in place. Condie and Munro ( 2007 ) reported impacts from the use of ICTs in schools in the following areas: attendance monitoring, assessment records, reporting to parents, financial management, creation of repositories for learning resources, and sharing of information amongst staff. Such data can be used strategically for self-evaluation and monitoring purposes which in turn can result in school improvements. Additionally, they reported that online access to other people with similar roles helped to reduce headteachers’ isolation by offering them opportunities to share insights into the use of ICT in learning and teaching and how it could be used to support school improvement. Furthermore, ICTs provided more efficient and successful examination management procedures, namely less time-consuming reporting processes compared to paper-based examinations and smooth communications between schools and examination authorities through electronic data exchange (Punie et al., 2006 ).

Zheng et al. ( 2016 ) reported that the use of ICTs improved home-school relationships. Additionally, Escueta et al. ( 2017 ) reported several ICT programs that had improved the flow of information from the school to parents. Particularly, they documented that the use of ICTs (learning management systems, emails, dedicated websites, mobile phones) allowed for personalized and customized information exchange between schools and parents, such as attendance records, upcoming class assignments, school events, and students’ grades, which generated positive results on students’ learning outcomes and attainment. Such information exchange between schools and families prompted parents to encourage their children to put more effort into their schoolwork.

The above findings suggest that the impact of ICT integration in schools goes beyond students’ performance in school subjects. Specifically, it affects a number of school-related aspects, such as equality and social integration, professional and teaching practices, and diverse stakeholders. In Table ​ Table2, 2 , we summarize the different impacts of digital technologies on school stakeholders based on the literature review, while in Table ​ Table3 3 we organized the tools/platforms and practices/policies addressed in the meta-analyses, literature reviews, EU reports, and international bodies included in the manuscript.

The impact of digital technologies on schools’ stakeholders based on the literature review

Tools/platforms and practices/policies addressed in the meta-analyses, literature reviews, EU reports, and international bodies included in the manuscript

Additionally, based on the results of the literature review, there are many types of digital technologies with different affordances (see, for example, studies on VR vs Immersive VR), which evolve over time (e.g. starting from CAIs in 2005 to Augmented and Virtual reality 2020). Furthermore, these technologies are linked to different pedagogies and policy initiatives, which are critical factors in the study of impact. Table ​ Table3 3 summarizes the different tools and practices that have been used to examine the impact of digital technologies on education since 2005 based on the review results.

Factors that affect the integration of digital technologies

Although the analysis of the literature review demonstrated different impacts of the use of digital technology on education, several authors highlighted the importance of various factors, besides the technology itself, that affect this impact. For example, Liao et al. ( 2007 ) suggested that future studies should carefully investigate which factors contribute to positive outcomes by clarifying the exact relationship between computer applications and learning. Additionally, Haßler et al., ( 2016 ) suggested that the neutral findings regarding the impact of tablets on students learning outcomes in some of the studies included in their review should encourage educators, school leaders, and school officials to further investigate the potential of such devices in teaching and learning. Several other researchers suggested that a number of variables play a significant role in the impact of ICTs on students’ learning that could be attributed to the school context, teaching practices and professional development, the curriculum, and learners’ characteristics (Underwood, 2009 ; Tamim et al., 2011 ; Higgins et al., 2012 ; Archer et al., 2014 ; Sung et al., 2016 ; Haßler et al., 2016 ; Chauhan, 2017 ; Lee et al., 2020 ; Tang et al., 2022 ).

Digital competencies

One of the most common challenges reported in studies that utilized digital tools in the classroom was the lack of students’ skills on how to use them. Fu ( 2013 ) found that students’ lack of technical skills is a barrier to the effective use of ICT in the classroom. Tamim et al. ( 2015 ) reported that students faced challenges when using tablets and smart mobile devices, associated with the technical issues or expertise needed for their use and the distracting nature of the devices and highlighted the need for teachers’ professional development. Higgins et al. ( 2012 ) reported that skills training about the use of digital technologies is essential for learners to fully exploit the benefits of instruction.

Delgado et al. ( 2015 ), meanwhile, reported studies that showed a strong positive association between teachers’ computer skills and students’ use of computers. Teachers’ lack of ICT skills and familiarization with technologies can become a constraint to the effective use of technology in the classroom (Balanskat et al., 2006 ; Delgado et al., 2015 ).

It is worth noting that the way teachers are introduced to ICTs affects the impact of digital technologies on education. Previous studies have shown that teachers may avoid using digital technologies due to limited digital skills (Balanskat, 2006 ), or they prefer applying “safe” technologies, namely technologies that their own teachers used and with which they are familiar (Condie & Munro, 2007 ). In this regard, the provision of digital skills training and exposure to new digital tools might encourage teachers to apply various technologies in their lessons (Condie & Munro, 2007 ). Apart from digital competence, technical support in the school setting has also been shown to affect teachers’ use of technology in their classrooms (Delgado et al., 2015 ). Ferrari et al. ( 2011 ) found that while teachers’ use of ICT is high, 75% stated that they needed more institutional support and a shift in the mindset of educational actors to achieve more innovative teaching practices. The provision of support can reduce time and effort as well as cognitive constraints, which could cause limited ICT integration in the school lessons by teachers (Escueta et al., 2017 ).

Teachers’ personal characteristics, training approaches, and professional development

Teachers’ personal characteristics and professional development affect the impact of digital technologies on education. Specifically, Cheok and Wong ( 2015 ) found that teachers’ personal characteristics (e.g., anxiety, self-efficacy) are associated with their satisfaction and engagement with technology. Bingimlas ( 2009 ) reported that lack of confidence, resistance to change, and negative attitudes in using new technologies in teaching are significant determinants of teachers’ levels of engagement in ICT. The same author reported that the provision of technical support, motivation support (e.g., awards, sufficient time for planning), and training on how technologies can benefit teaching and learning can eliminate the above barriers to ICT integration. Archer et al. ( 2014 ) found that comfort levels in using technology are an important predictor of technology integration and argued that it is essential to provide teachers with appropriate training and ongoing support until they are comfortable with using ICTs in the classroom. Hillmayr et al. ( 2020 ) documented that training teachers on ICT had an important effecton students’ learning.

According to Balanskat et al. ( 2006 ), the impact of ICTs on students’ learning is highly dependent on the teachers’ capacity to efficiently exploit their application for pedagogical purposes. Results obtained from the Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) (OECD, 2021 ) revealed that although schools are open to innovative practices and have the capacity to adopt them, only 39% of teachers in the European Union reported that they are well or very well prepared to use digital technologies for teaching. Li and Ma ( 2010 ) and Hardman ( 2019 ) showed that the positive effect of technology on students’ achievement depends on the pedagogical practices used by teachers. Schmid et al. ( 2014 ) reported that learning was best supported when students were engaged in active, meaningful activities with the use of technological tools that provided cognitive support. Tamim et al. ( 2015 ) compared two different pedagogical uses of tablets and found a significant moderate effect when the devices were used in a student-centered context and approach rather than within teacher-led environments. Similarly, Garzón and Acevedo ( 2019 ) and Garzón et al. ( 2020 ) reported that the positive results from the integration of AR applications could be attributed to the existence of different variables which could influence AR interventions (e.g., pedagogical approach, learning environment, and duration of the intervention). Additionally, Garzón et al. ( 2020 ) suggested that the pedagogical resources that teachers used to complement their lectures and the pedagogical approaches they applied were crucial to the effective integration of AR on students’ learning gains. Garzón and Acevedo ( 2019 ) also emphasized that the success of a technology-enhanced intervention is based on both the technology per se and its characteristics and on the pedagogical strategies teachers choose to implement. For instance, their results indicated that the collaborative learning approach had the highest impact on students’ learning gains among other approaches (e.g., inquiry-based learning, situated learning, or project-based learning). Ran et al. ( 2022 ) also found that the use of technology to design collaborative and communicative environments showed the largest moderator effects among the other approaches.

Hattie ( 2008 ) reported that the effective use of computers is associated with training teachers in using computers as a teaching and learning tool. Zheng et al. ( 2016 ) noted that in addition to the strategies teachers adopt in teaching, ongoing professional development is also vital in ensuring the success of technology implementation programs. Sung et al. ( 2016 ) found that research on the use of mobile devices to support learning tends to report that the insufficient preparation of teachers is a major obstacle in implementing effective mobile learning programs in schools. Friedel et al. ( 2013 ) found that providing training and support to teachers increased the positive impact of the interventions on students’ learning gains. Trucano ( 2005 ) argued that positive impacts occur when digital technologies are used to enhance teachers’ existing pedagogical philosophies. Higgins et al. ( 2012 ) found that the types of technologies used and how they are used could also affect students’ learning. The authors suggested that training and professional development of teachers that focuses on the effective pedagogical use of technology to support teaching and learning is an important component of successful instructional approaches (Higgins et al., 2012 ). Archer et al. ( 2014 ) found that studies that reported ICT interventions during which teachers received training and support had moderate positive effects on students’ learning outcomes, which were significantly higher than studies where little or no detail about training and support was mentioned. Fu ( 2013 ) reported that the lack of teachers’ knowledge and skills on the technical and instructional aspects of ICT use in the classroom, in-service training, pedagogy support, technical and financial support, as well as the lack of teachers’ motivation and encouragement to integrate ICT on their teaching were significant barriers to the integration of ICT in education.

School leadership and management

Management and leadership are important cornerstones in the digital transformation process (Pihir et al., 2018 ). Zheng et al. ( 2016 ) documented leadership among the factors positively affecting the successful implementation of technology integration in schools. Strong leadership, strategic planning, and systematic integration of digital technologies are prerequisites for the digital transformation of education systems (Ređep, 2021 ). Management and leadership play a significant role in formulating policies that are translated into practice and ensure that developments in ICT become embedded into the life of the school and in the experiences of staff and pupils (Condie & Munro, 2007 ). Policy support and leadership must include the provision of an overall vision for the use of digital technologies in education, guidance for students and parents, logistical support, as well as teacher training (Conrads et al., 2017 ). Unless there is a commitment throughout the school, with accountability for progress at key points, it is unlikely for ICT integration to be sustained or become part of the culture (Condie & Munro, 2007 ). To achieve this, principals need to adopt and promote a whole-institution strategy and build a strong mutual support system that enables the school’s technological maturity (European Commission, 2019 ). In this context, school culture plays an essential role in shaping the mindsets and beliefs of school actors towards successful technology integration. Condie and Munro ( 2007 ) emphasized the importance of the principal’s enthusiasm and work as a source of inspiration for the school staff and the students to cultivate a culture of innovation and establish sustainable digital change. Specifically, school leaders need to create conditions in which the school staff is empowered to experiment and take risks with technology (Elkordy & Lovinelli, 2020 ).

In order for leaders to achieve the above, it is important to develop capacities for learning and leading, advocating professional learning, and creating support systems and structures (European Commission, 2019 ). Digital technology integration in education systems can be challenging and leadership needs guidance to achieve it. Such guidance can be introduced through the adoption of new methods and techniques in strategic planning for the integration of digital technologies (Ređep, 2021 ). Even though the role of leaders is vital, the relevant training offered to them has so far been inadequate. Specifically, only a third of the education systems in Europe have put in place national strategies that explicitly refer to the training of school principals (European Commission, 2019 , p. 16).

Connectivity, infrastructure, and government and other support

The effective integration of digital technologies across levels of education presupposes the development of infrastructure, the provision of digital content, and the selection of proper resources (Voogt et al., 2013 ). Particularly, a high-quality broadband connection in the school increases the quality and quantity of educational activities. There is evidence that ICT increases and formalizes cooperative planning between teachers and cooperation with managers, which in turn has a positive impact on teaching practices (Balanskat et al., 2006 ). Additionally, ICT resources, including software and hardware, increase the likelihood of teachers integrating technology into the curriculum to enhance their teaching practices (Delgado et al., 2015 ). For example, Zheng et al. ( 2016 ) found that the use of one-on-one laptop programs resulted in positive changes in teaching and learning, which would not have been accomplished without the infrastructure and technical support provided to teachers. Delgado et al. ( 2015 ) reported that limited access to technology (insufficient computers, peripherals, and software) and lack of technical support are important barriers to ICT integration. Access to infrastructure refers not only to the availability of technology in a school but also to the provision of a proper amount and the right types of technology in locations where teachers and students can use them. Effective technical support is a central element of the whole-school strategy for ICT (Underwood, 2009 ). Bingimlas ( 2009 ) reported that lack of technical support in the classroom and whole-school resources (e.g., failing to connect to the Internet, printers not printing, malfunctioning computers, and working on old computers) are significant barriers that discourage the use of ICT by teachers. Moreover, poor quality and inadequate hardware maintenance, and unsuitable educational software may discourage teachers from using ICTs (Balanskat et al., 2006 ; Bingimlas, 2009 ).

Government support can also impact the integration of ICTs in teaching. Specifically, Balanskat et al. ( 2006 ) reported that government interventions and training programs increased teachers’ enthusiasm and positive attitudes towards ICT and led to the routine use of embedded ICT.

Lastly, another important factor affecting digital transformation is the development and quality assurance of digital learning resources. Such resources can be support textbooks and related materials or resources that focus on specific subjects or parts of the curriculum. Policies on the provision of digital learning resources are essential for schools and can be achieved through various actions. For example, some countries are financing web portals that become repositories, enabling teachers to share resources or create their own. Additionally, they may offer e-learning opportunities or other services linked to digital education. In other cases, specific agencies of projects have also been set up to develop digital resources (Eurydice, 2019 ).

Administration and digital data management

The digital transformation of schools involves organizational improvements at the level of internal workflows, communication between the different stakeholders, and potential for collaboration. Vuorikari et al. ( 2020 ) presented evidence that digital technologies supported the automation of administrative practices in schools and reduced the administration’s workload. There is evidence that digital data affects the production of knowledge about schools and has the power to transform how schooling takes place. Specifically, Sellar ( 2015 ) reported that data infrastructure in education is developing due to the demand for “ information about student outcomes, teacher quality, school performance, and adult skills, associated with policy efforts to increase human capital and productivity practices ” (p. 771). In this regard, practices, such as datafication which refers to the “ translation of information about all kinds of things and processes into quantified formats” have become essential for decision-making based on accountability reports about the school’s quality. The data could be turned into deep insights about education or training incorporating ICTs. For example, measuring students’ online engagement with the learning material and drawing meaningful conclusions can allow teachers to improve their educational interventions (Vuorikari et al., 2020 ).

Students’ socioeconomic background and family support

Research show that the active engagement of parents in the school and their support for the school’s work can make a difference to their children’s attitudes towards learning and, as a result, their achievement (Hattie, 2008 ). In recent years, digital technologies have been used for more effective communication between school and family (Escueta et al., 2017 ). The European Commission ( 2020 ) presented data from a Eurostat survey regarding the use of computers by students during the pandemic. The data showed that younger pupils needed additional support and guidance from parents and the challenges were greater for families in which parents had lower levels of education and little to no digital skills.

In this regard, the socio-economic background of the learners and their socio-cultural environment also affect educational achievements (Punie et al., 2006 ). Trucano documented that the use of computers at home positively influenced students’ confidence and resulted in more frequent use at school, compared to students who had no home access (Trucano, 2005 ). In this sense, the socio-economic background affects the access to computers at home (OECD, 2015 ) which in turn influences the experience of ICT, an important factor for school achievement (Punie et al., 2006 ; Underwood, 2009 ). Furthermore, parents from different socio-economic backgrounds may have different abilities and availability to support their children in their learning process (Di Pietro et al., 2020 ).

Schools’ socioeconomic context and emergency situations

The socio-economic context of the school is closely related to a school’s digital transformation. For example, schools in disadvantaged, rural, or deprived areas are likely to lack the digital capacity and infrastructure required to adapt to the use of digital technologies during emergency periods, such as the COVID-19 pandemic (Di Pietro et al., 2020 ). Data collected from school principals confirmed that in several countries, there is a rural/urban divide in connectivity (OECD, 2015 ).

Emergency periods also affect the digitalization of schools. The COVID-19 pandemic led to the closure of schools and forced them to seek appropriate and connective ways to keep working on the curriculum (Di Pietro et al., 2020 ). The sudden large-scale shift to distance and online teaching and learning also presented challenges around quality and equity in education, such as the risk of increased inequalities in learning, digital, and social, as well as teachers facing difficulties coping with this demanding situation (European Commission, 2020 ).

Looking at the findings of the above studies, we can conclude that the impact of digital technologies on education is influenced by various actors and touches many aspects of the school ecosystem. Figure  1 summarizes the factors affecting the digital technologies’ impact on school stakeholders based on the findings from the literature review.

Factors that affect the impact of ICTs on education

The findings revealed that the use of digital technologies in education affects a variety of actors within a school’s ecosystem. First, we observed that as technologies evolve, so does the interest of the research community to apply them to school settings. Figure  2 summarizes the trends identified in current research around the impact of digital technologies on schools’ digital capacity and transformation as found in the present study. Starting as early as 2005, when computers, simulations, and interactive boards were the most commonly applied tools in school interventions (e.g., Eng, 2005 ; Liao et al., 2007 ; Moran et al., 2008 ; Tamim et al., 2011 ), moving towards the use of learning platforms (Jewitt et al., 2011 ), then to the use of mobile devices and digital games (e.g., Tamim et al., 2015 ; Sung et al., 2016 ; Talan et al., 2020 ), as well as e-books (e.g., Savva et al., 2022 ), to the more recent advanced technologies, such as AR and VR applications (e.g., Garzón & Acevedo, 2019 ; Garzón et al., 2020 ; Kalemkuş & Kalemkuş, 2022 ), or robotics and AI (e.g., Su & Yang, 2022 ; Su et al., 2022 ). As this evolution shows, digital technologies are a concept in flux with different affordances and characteristics. Additionally, from an instructional perspective, there has been a growing interest in different modes and models of content delivery such as online, blended, and hybrid modes (e.g., Cheok & Wong, 2015 ; Kazu & Yalçin, 2022 ; Ulum, 2022 ). This is an indication that the value of technologies to support teaching and learning as well as other school-related practices is increasingly recognized by the research and school community. The impact results from the literature review indicate that ICT integration on students’ learning outcomes has effects that are small (Coban et al., 2022 ; Eng, 2005 ; Higgins et al., 2012 ; Schmid et al., 2014 ; Tamim et al., 2015 ; Zheng et al., 2016 ) to moderate (Garzón & Acevedo, 2019 ; Garzón et al., 2020 ; Liao et al., 2007 ; Sung et al., 2016 ; Talan et al., 2020 ; Wen & Walters, 2022 ). That said, a number of recent studies have reported high effect sizes (e.g., Kazu & Yalçin, 2022 ).

Current work and trends in the study of the impact of digital technologies on schools’ digital capacity

Based on these findings, several authors have suggested that the impact of technology on education depends on several variables and not on the technology per se (Tamim et al., 2011 ; Higgins et al., 2012 ; Archer et al., 2014 ; Sung et al., 2016 ; Haßler et al., 2016 ; Chauhan, 2017 ; Lee et al., 2020 ; Lei et al., 2022a ). While the impact of ICTs on student achievement has been thoroughly investigated by researchers, other aspects related to school life that are also affected by ICTs, such as equality, inclusion, and social integration have received less attention. Further analysis of the literature review has revealed a greater investment in ICT interventions to support learning and teaching in the core subjects of literacy and STEM disciplines, especially mathematics, and science. These were the most common subjects studied in the reviewed papers often drawing on national testing results, while studies that investigated other subject areas, such as social studies, were limited (Chauhan, 2017 ; Condie & Munro, 2007 ). As such, research is still lacking impact studies that focus on the effects of ICTs on a range of curriculum subjects.

The qualitative research provided additional information about the impact of digital technologies on education, documenting positive effects and giving more details about implications, recommendations, and future research directions. Specifically, the findings regarding the role of ICTs in supporting learning highlight the importance of teachers’ instructional practice and the learning context in the use of technologies and consequently their impact on instruction (Çelik, 2022 ; Schmid et al., 2014 ; Tamim et al., 2015 ). The review also provided useful insights regarding the various factors that affect the impact of digital technologies on education. These factors are interconnected and play a vital role in the transformation process. Specifically, these factors include a) digital competencies; b) teachers’ personal characteristics and professional development; c) school leadership and management; d) connectivity, infrastructure, and government support; e) administration and data management practices; f) students’ socio-economic background and family support and g) the socioeconomic context of the school and emergency situations. It is worth noting that we observed factors that affect the integration of ICTs in education but may also be affected by it. For example, the frequent use of ICTs and the use of laptops by students for instructional purposes positively affect the development of digital competencies (Zheng et al., 2016 ) and at the same time, the digital competencies affect the use of ICTs (Fu, 2013 ; Higgins et al., 2012 ). As a result, the impact of digital technologies should be explored more as an enabler of desirable and new practices and not merely as a catalyst that improves the output of the education process i.e. namely student attainment.

Conclusions

Digital technologies offer immense potential for fundamental improvement in schools. However, investment in ICT infrastructure and professional development to improve school education are yet to provide fruitful results. Digital transformation is a complex process that requires large-scale transformative changes that presuppose digital capacity and preparedness. To achieve such changes, all actors within the school’s ecosystem need to share a common vision regarding the integration of ICTs in education and work towards achieving this goal. Our literature review, which synthesized quantitative and qualitative data from a list of meta-analyses and review studies, provided useful insights into the impact of ICTs on different school stakeholders and showed that the impact of digital technologies touches upon many different aspects of school life, which are often overlooked when the focus is on student achievement as the final output of education. Furthermore, the concept of digital technologies is a concept in flux as technologies are not only different among them calling for different uses in the educational practice but they also change through time. Additionally, we opened a forum for discussion regarding the factors that affect a school’s digital capacity and transformation. We hope that our study will inform policy, practice, and research and result in a paradigm shift towards more holistic approaches in impact and assessment studies.

Study limitations and future directions

We presented a review of the study of digital technologies' impact on education and factors influencing schools’ digital capacity and transformation. The study results were based on a non-systematic literature review grounded on the acquisition of documentation in specific databases. Future studies should investigate more databases to corroborate and enhance our results. Moreover, search queries could be enhanced with key terms that could provide additional insights about the integration of ICTs in education, such as “policies and strategies for ICT integration in education”. Also, the study drew information from meta-analyses and literature reviews to acquire evidence about the effects of ICT integration in schools. Such evidence was mostly based on the general conclusions of the studies. It is worth mentioning that, we located individual studies which showed different, such as negative or neutral results. Thus, further insights are needed about the impact of ICTs on education and the factors influencing the impact. Furthermore, the nature of the studies included in meta-analyses and reviews is different as they are based on different research methodologies and data gathering processes. For instance, in a meta-analysis, the impact among the studies investigated is measured in a particular way, depending on policy or research targets (e.g., results from national examinations, pre-/post-tests). Meanwhile, in literature reviews, qualitative studies offer additional insights and detail based on self-reports and research opinions on several different aspects and stakeholders who could affect and be affected by ICT integration. As a result, it was challenging to draw causal relationships between so many interrelating variables.

Despite the challenges mentioned above, this study envisaged examining school units as ecosystems that consist of several actors by bringing together several variables from different research epistemologies to provide an understanding of the integration of ICTs. However, the use of other tools and methodologies and models for evaluation of the impact of digital technologies on education could give more detailed data and more accurate results. For instance, self-reflection tools, like SELFIE—developed on the DigCompOrg framework- (Kampylis et al., 2015 ; Bocconi & Lightfoot, 2021 ) can help capture a school’s digital capacity and better assess the impact of ICTs on education. Furthermore, the development of a theory of change could be a good approach for documenting the impact of digital technologies on education. Specifically, theories of change are models used for the evaluation of interventions and their impact; they are developed to describe how interventions will work and give the desired outcomes (Mayne, 2015 ). Theory of change as a methodological approach has also been used by researchers to develop models for evaluation in the field of education (e.g., Aromatario et al., 2019 ; Chapman & Sammons, 2013 ; De Silva et al., 2014 ).

We also propose that future studies aim at similar investigations by applying more holistic approaches for impact assessment that can provide in-depth data about the impact of digital technologies on education. For instance, future studies could focus on different research questions about the technologies that are used during the interventions or the way the implementation takes place (e.g., What methodologies are used for documenting impact? How are experimental studies implemented? How can teachers be taken into account and trained on the technology and its functions? What are the elements of an appropriate and successful implementation? How is the whole intervention designed? On which learning theories is the technology implementation based?).

Future research could also focus on assessing the impact of digital technologies on various other subjects since there is a scarcity of research related to particular subjects, such as geography, history, arts, music, and design and technology. More research should also be done about the impact of ICTs on skills, emotions, and attitudes, and on equality, inclusion, social interaction, and special needs education. There is also a need for more research about the impact of ICTs on administration, management, digitalization, and home-school relationships. Additionally, although new forms of teaching and learning with the use of ICTs (e.g., blended, hybrid, and online learning) have initiated several investigations in mainstream classrooms, only a few studies have measured their impact on students’ learning. Additionally, our review did not document any study about the impact of flipped classrooms on K-12 education. Regarding teaching and learning approaches, it is worth noting that studies referred to STEM or STEAM did not investigate the impact of STEM/STEAM as an interdisciplinary approach to learning but only investigated the impact of ICTs on learning in each domain as a separate subject (science, technology, engineering, arts, mathematics). Hence, we propose future research to also investigate the impact of the STEM/STEAM approach on education. The impact of emerging technologies on education, such as AR, VR, robotics, and AI has also been investigated recently, but more work needs to be done.

Finally, we propose that future studies could focus on the way in which specific factors, e.g., infrastructure and government support, school leadership and management, students’ and teachers’ digital competencies, approaches teachers utilize in the teaching and learning (e.g., blended, online and hybrid learning, flipped classrooms, STEM/STEAM approach, project-based learning, inquiry-based learning), affect the impact of digital technologies on education. We hope that future studies will give detailed insights into the concept of schools’ digital transformation through further investigation of impacts and factors which influence digital capacity and transformation based on the results and the recommendations of the present study.

Acknowledgements

This project has received funding under Grant Agreement No Ref Ares (2021) 339036 7483039 as well as funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Program under Grant Agreement No 739578 and the Government of the Republic of Cyprus through the Deputy Ministry of Research, Innovation and Digital Policy. The UVa co-authors would like also to acknowledge funding from the European Regional Development Fund and the National Research Agency of the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation, under project grant PID2020-112584RB-C32.

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Concentrations

Technology and international security concentration (tisc).

With significant expertise in all regions of the world, the University of Washington is an ideal training ground to advance understanding of emerging threats and opportunities at the nexus of technology and international security. Through coursework , the Technology and International Security Concentration educate s and train s s tudents to engage with security issues in historical , cultural, and political contexts. The concentration is aimed at undergraduate and graduate students from all departments at the University of Washington . Its goal is to prepare them to analyze and propose policy solutions for a wide range of topics of concern to scholars and practitioners.   

Please contact [email protected]  if you have any questions.

Concentration Requirements

Students interested in pursuing the concentration must complete at least 15 credits as indicated below.  

• A minimum of 10 credits of JSIS Policy-Focused coursework
• A minimum of 5 credits of JSIS Area-Focused coursework  

Sub-Field of Expertise

Students participating in TISC are encouraged to propose a sub-field of expertise of which they will develop deeper policy and technical knowledge. A sub-field of expertise can be anything related to technology and international security and we encourage students to think creatively about potential topics.

To add a sub-field of expertise to TISC, students will take coursework from external departments directly relevant to their chosen topic.

Email [email protected] to discuss potential topics for a Sub-Field of Expertise.

How to Apply

Step 1: Students must declare their intention to complete the TISC concentration by filling out the planning form  and submitting it to [email protected] . All forms must be approved by academic advisors at the undergraduate level and faculty advisors or committee chairs at the graduate level.

Step 2: The Steering Committee will review and approve all planning forms during the second week of each academic quarter. We will then confirm with students that their form has been approved. Students should then start completing the requirements.

Step 3: Once the student has completed all requirements, the student should complete the checklist for completion  and submit it to [email protected] along with a copy of their unofficial transcripts. The Committee will review the checklist and unofficial transcript before granting the QUAL concentration.

*Some exceptions for extraordinary circumstances can be made to the requirements on a case-by-case basis.

The course list below is inexhaustive and many courses change year to year. Classes are often offered that are relevant to the focus of TISC which are not listed below. If you see a course listed for an upcoming (or previous) quarter that you believe should qualify for the TISC concentration, you can request to have the course approved to count towards the TISC requirements. Send an email to [email protected] and include the course name, instructor, description and syllabus.

Policy-Focused Courses

Policy-focused courses focus on the policy of specific fields of study.

Minimum 10 credits total from JSIS Policy-focused courses.

• JSIS 100 Media and Information Technology in Global Conflict
• JSIS B 355/555 Cybersecurity and International Studies
• JSIS B 370 Privacy
• JSIS B 357 The Geopolitics of Energy
• JSIS B 444/544-AA490/590-ESS488A/585-LAW544A/544 B Space Law and Policy
• JSIS B 429/529 Nuclear Nonproliferation and International Safeguards
• JSIS 478/INFO 498 Global Disinformation
• JSIS B 480/581 Fundamentals of Global Cybersecurity
• JSIS B 449 The Political Economy of Digital Technologies

Area-Focused Courses

Area-focused courses place policy in historical and geographical context and must focus on a specific region or country.

Minimum 5 credits total from JSIS Area-focused courses. 

• JSIS A 478 Japanese Business and Technology  
• JSIS A 472 Science, Technology, and Innovation Policies in East Asia  
• JSIS A 468/568 Russia in the International Security System  

Special Topics and Task Force

Special Topics: Many departments offer courses under the title “Special Topics” each quarter. These change every quarter and are frequently on topics relevant to technology and international security. If you find a special topics course offered by any department that you think may satisfy the Policy, Area or Sub-field requirements.

JSIS 495 TASKFORCE: The Jackson School Task Force is a capstone experience for international studies undergraduates that asks them to research and create a policy document based on a current events. Any course focused on technology and international security may count towards the relevant TISC requirement. 

External Courses

External courses can count towards a sub-field of expertise. The below courses are just some examples of potential courses students may take.

• AA 101 Air and Space Vehicles
• HSTAA 345 History of the Digital Age
• PHIL 417/ENVIR 417 Advanced Topics in Environmental Philosophy (Ethics, Science and Geoengineering)  
• LAW E 554 Technology Law And Public Policy Clinic  
• LAW B 599 Teaching Technology Policy and Ethics  
• PUBPOL 586 Technology Law & Policy  
• PUBPOL 599 Machines, Markets & Organizations: The Artificial Intelligence Ecosystem  
• PUBPOL 599 Artificial Intelligence and Governance  

Different Theoretical Approaches to the Use of ICT in Science Education

• First Online: 22 May 2019

Cite this chapter

• Geraldo W. Rocha Fernandes 4 ,
• António M. Rodrigues 5 &
• Carlos Alberto Rosa Ferreira 6  

Part of the book series: SpringerBriefs in Education ((BRIEFSEDUCAT))

1089 Accesses

Some authors have investigated the effectiveness of educational technologies for supporting the teaching and learning of science. To deepen the discussion, this chapter presents an analysis of the main theoretical approaches that support research on science education mediated by Information and Communication Technologies (ICT). Different studies were used to reflect on four aspects: (1) approaches to teaching and learning through the use of ICT (reflecting trends in a “theory of technological education” or “cognitive tools”); (2) cognitivist approaches (with emphasis on “social constructivism and sociocultural theory”, “constructivist approaches” and “the effects of collaborative work” allowed by the use of ICT); (3) approaches based on inquiry, research, projects and case studies (with a tendency towards renewal of the science curriculum); and (4) approaches that emphasise conceptual knowledge (investigating “conceptual understanding” and “conceptual change” facilitated by the use of ICT). The main contribution of this chapter is in the understanding that the use of ICT in science education is not an isolated action without a theoretical basis. The use of ICT is still planned and supported by traditional theoretical trends in teaching, learning, knowledge and curriculum design.

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Rocha Fernandes, G.W., Rodrigues, A.M., Rosa Ferreira, C.A. (2019). Different Theoretical Approaches to the Use of ICT in Science Education. In: Using ICT in Inquiry-Based Science Education. SpringerBriefs in Education. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-17895-6_2

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[News] Loongson Zhongke Technology Claims Next-Generation Processor Performance “World Leading,” Set to Debut in 2H25

At its 2024 semi-annual results briefing, Loongson Zhongke Technology announced that the 3B6600 processor is expected to begin sampling in the first half of next year and be officially released in the second half.

Per a report from IThome , Chairman and General Manager Hu Weiwu emphasized that this iteration involves significant structural changes, with anticipated single-core performance ranking among the “world-leading” levels.

Hu previously revealed that the 3B6600, an eight-core desktop CPU currently in development, utilizes a mature process and is expected to achieve mid-to-high-end performance levels comparable to Intel’s 12th to 13th generation Core-i CPUs.

Regarding product cycles, he mentioned that Loongson aims to release at least one server or PC chip each year.

Per Loongson’s previous roadmap, the next-generation 3B6600 processor will feature eight LA864 cores with a clock frequency of 3.0 GHz and include the LG200 integrated graphics card.

Additionally, a faster 3B7000 variant, currently in development, is expected to reach a frequency of up to 3.5 GHz and offer a comprehensive range of I/O interfaces, including PCIe4, SATA3, USB3, GMAC, and HDMI.

Last year, Loongson introduced the desktop CPU Loongson 3A6000, which officially matched the performance of Intel’s 10th-generation Core i4 processor released in 2020.

This year, Loongson successfully developed the 16-core and 32-core versions of the Loongson 3C6000 and 3D6000 server CPUs, which are officially claimed to perform at levels comparable to Intel’s Xeon 4314 and 6338.

As per another report from the global media outlet tom’s Hardware , the rumored new 7nm process may have achieved faster clock frequencies, increased core counts, and other improvements. However, it is still awaiting the release of the latest products.

• [News] Rising Chinese GPU Contender Emerges? Achieving Local GPU Production in Three Years, Claims “Outperforming AMD”

(Photo credit: Loongson Zhongke Technology )

Please note that this article cites information from IThome   and tom’s Hardware .

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