5.7–18.4 years, and longitudinal=223 aged
8.4–21.3 years). Japan
The methodological quality of the one randomized trial was based on the Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (Consort) strategy, which contains a checklist with 25 items, divided into: title and abstract (one item with two sub-items); introduction (one item with two sub-items); methods (five items) and a topic with information about randomization (five items); results (seven items); discussion (three items); and other information, such as registration, protocols and funding (three items). 9 , 10 Each item, if met, equals 1 point, and they were all added up according to the analysis of the papers. The score of methodological quality of this randomized trial is shown in Table 1 .
In order to synthesize the description of characteristics as main results and descriptive approach, the following information was extracted from each selected article: name of the main author, year of publication, country where the study was performed, design, sample size, type of technology evaluated, statistical variables, main results, and limitations.
Searches on PubMed and VHL using the descriptors “internet”, “child” and “growth and development” retrieved 550 articles. After applying inclusion criteria, 221 studies were selected and, after reading the titles and abstracts, 125 were excluded. 92 articles were read in full and, per the inclusion criteria and a detailed analysis, four studies were selected. Four other articles were included after an additional search in the reference list of primarily selected articles; the studies should have the same inclusion criteria defined in the methodology. Thus, eight articles made up the sample. The flowchart is shown in Figure 1 .
Most studies were epidemiological. Almost all of them were observational (n=7), and only one was an intervention study. The observational studies included were longitudinal and/or cross-sectional (n=5), case-control (n=1) and cohort studies (n=1). Only one experimental study was included, a randomized controlled trial (n=1), as shown in Table 1 .
Their methodological quality was based on their scores ( Table 1 ). Most studies were observational (n=7) and, therefore, were evaluated according to the Strobe criteria 7 . The score ranged from 17 to 22, and most articles reached 20 points (n=4), which is good methodological quality. The quality of the randomized trial with 18 points—according to the Consort 2010 criterion, which has a maximum score of 25—was also considered good. 9
The main results about the implications of technology in childhood are detailed in Tables 2 and and3 3 .
Authors (year) | Media type | Main results |
---|---|---|
Takeuchi et al. (2018) | Internet | Higher frequency of internet use was associated with decreased verbal intelligence and smaller increases in brain volume after a few years. The areas of the brain affected are related to language processing, attention, memory, and executive, emotional and reward functions. |
Slater et al. (2017) | Games (Internet) | Internet games that focus on appearance can be harmful to girls’ body self-image. |
Folkvord et al. (2017) | Games ( ) | Advertising games (advergames) encourage the consumption of unhealthy foods. |
Slater et al. (2016) | Television | Children are able to absorb or internalize social messages about sexualization, illustrated in the study as the desire for sexualized clothing. Internalizations had a negative impact on their body self-image. |
Takeuchi et al. (2016) | Games ( ) | Playing video games for long periods can cause direct or indirect interruption in neural systems’ development, which can be related to an unfavorable neurocognitive development, especially verbal intelligence. |
Takeuchi et al. (2015) | Television | Watching television affects the regional volume of the brain associated with verbal language. TV watching time was negatively correlated with verbal intelligence quotient. It can indirectly affect sensorimotor areas. |
Authors (year) | Media type | Main results |
---|---|---|
McNeill et al. (2019) | Television, Games, Apps | Use of electronic applications for less than 30 minutes a day and limited media viewing could be associated with cognitive and psychosocial development of preschool-age children. |
Yu and Park (2017) | Internet | Use of internet to socialize, exchange ideas and talk about concerns. An opportunity to socialize and make friends. |
After reading and analysis, the articles were classified and distributed into two categories according to their approach: negative aspects (n=6) and positive aspects (n=2). The review results are reported below.
Six of the studies linked technologies to negative aspects. The papers highlitghed intellectual complications, 3 , 11 , 12 body image dissatisfaction 13 , 14 and encouragement of unhealthy food consumption. 15 Table 2 shows the main information.
Excessive internet use is transversally associated with lower cognitive functioning and reduced volume of several areas of the brain. In longitudinal analyses, a higher frequency of internet use was associated with a decrease in verbal intelligence and a smaller increase in the regional volume of gray/white matter in several brain areas after a few years. These areas relate to language processing, attention and executive functions, emotion and reward. 3
In a study conducted with 80 British girls aged 8 and 9 years, appearance-focused games led participants to have a greater dissatisfaction with their appearance compared to control girls, who were not exposed to such games. Therefore, internet games that address appearance can be harmful to girls’ body self-image. 13
It’s not just appearance-focused games that have a negative impact on body image. TV shows, depending on the approach, can also impact negatively psychological development. In a study with Australian girls, some TV shows aimed for the age group of 6-9 years focused on sexualization were absorbed or internalized as social messages by children. The authors stated that the exposure made these girls whish to wear sexualized clothes and create negative relationship with their body image. 14
Furthermore, a study with 562 Dutch and Spanish children reported that, among Dutch children, games with advertisements (advergames) for high-calorie foods stimulated the consumption of unhealthy foods, while those who played other games with advertisements other that food-related, were less inclined to this eating habit. 15 Thus, depending on what the child is exposed to, some influences may not be beneficial.
Video games were associated with increased mean diffusivity in cortical and subcortical areas. That is, prolonged video game use was associated with negative consequences, as it can directly or indirectly interrupt the development of neural systems and cause unfavorable neurocognitive development, especially when it comes to verbal intelligence. 11
Another study on children’s exposure to television, identified a negative effect on the gray matter of the frontal area of the brain with consequences for verbal language. No changes were identified in sensorimotor areas as related to TV watching time; the effect may not be direct, since watching this media is often associated with less physical activity, which, in turn, causes changes in the volume of gray matter in sensorimotor areas. 12
Only two studies brought the positive aspects of technology use, related to cognitive and psychosocial development 16 and forms of interpersonal relationships. 17 Main information is shown in Table 3 .
Associations of electronic media use with psychosocial development and the executive function among 3- and 5-year-olds, particularly related to total screen time, TV shows viewing, and application use were assessed by the authors, who concluded that cognitive and psychosocial development in children 12 months later was positive when exposure to these media lasted less than 30 minutes a day. 16
In a study conducted with 2,840 students in South Korea, children with depressed mood were more likely to use the internet to socialize, exchange ideas and talk about their concerns as a way to meet their friendship needs. The Internet can be beneficial for children, who can take advantage of online opportunities for socialization and friendships based on common interests. 17
The studies analyzed, in general, show that children currently spend a significant amount of time on the Internet or other means of information, and consider that this exposure can have positive and negative impacts on children’s cognitive development and learning skills.
As for the negative impacts of this habit in childhood, the higher frequency of internet use is associated with a significant decrease in verbal intelligence, mainly related to language skills and concentration/attention abilities. One study reported frequent internet use by children as related to decreased memory performance. 18
Another issue that must be taken into account is the number of games emerging all the time with new elements of fun and entertainment to attract children. An alert should be raised, however, about destructive websites such as the Blue Whale Challenge, which target vulnerable children and young people, threaten their physical integrity and are completely unethical, leading to the gradual destruction of society. 19
On the other hand, researchers have identified, among the most frequent purposes in allowing children access technology declared by parents, the promotion of problem-solving skills (56.7%), learning of basic mathematics (53.8%), developing hand-eye coordination (46.2%), introduction to reading (51%), language (47.1%) and science (26%), as well as entertainment (56.7%). 20
Based on the studies selected, we point out an unexpected result for parents: the problematic use of electronic devices at an early age can have children show low levels of openness to experiences, increasing the level of emotional instability, impulsive or other behaviors related to attention. Then, we must reinforce that exposure to media must be carefully pondered by parents and guardians as to avoid media dependence and misuse.
Problematic internet use (PIU) is associated with less openness and agreeableness, as children with higher levels of PIU end up with a deficit in social skills and difficulties in establishing interpersonal relationships, which can lead to being less open and visible, or less friendly externally. It was also found that these children tend to experience negative emotions and use the internet as a means of feeling better about their everyday problems or unpleasant feelings. Relationships were also between problematic video game use and behavior problems, specifically related to thoughts, attention, and aggressive behavior. 21
In order to bypass the negative effects of inappropriate use of the internet, one cannot ignore, on the one hand, the positive side of these technologies. Technology is extensively available and it is almost impossible to remove it from children’s daily lives. 22 But the negative effects mentioned during the discussion deserve the same attention, as the authors place parental control and moderation as key factors. 23 In this sense, there is a directly proportional link between parental participation and attention and a less harmful relationship between children and technologies, especially regarding social factors. 24
Currently, children spend their lives immersed in the world of digital media, and research has consistently shown the growing, early and diversified use of this media. Children exposed to electronics tend to develop a desire for continued use, creating a potentially harmful cycle. Even more worrisome are the effects of digital media on young children by disrupting parent-child interaction, which is critical to a healthy emotional and cognitive development. 25
There are potential benefits of digital technology as a tool to enhance early childhood development, creativity and social connection, but it is imperative that parents monitor what their children are consuming and help them learn from it. 26
A review of the literature about media reported an adverse association between screen-based media consumption and sleep health, mainly due to delays in bedtime and reduced total sleep duration. The underlying mechanisms of these associations include:
There is, therefore, and evident need to identify the warning signs of excessive technology use in this age group and define the appropriate limit of daily screen time. Children can make a balanced use of technologies, taking advantage of them without exaggeration, favoring communication and the search for information that is relevant to learning.
It is important to emphasize that pre-judgments about technology-dependent children should be avoided, and knowing their feelings about themselves, as well as the factors that bother them, is important, as well as having a sensitive listening to form a vision of ideal approach in this condition of technology dependence by means of suggested strategies to effectively face these difficulties. 28
Although this review has important and interesting results, some limitations must be listed. First, there the number of studies identified with the criteria of our work was limited. Also, most of the studies were observational. Therefore, experimental research must be carried out as a means to understand the cause-consequence dynamics between media and their implications for child development. Further studies with larger samples and specific age groups, which would be relevant to increase statistical power, are needed.
The analysis of the articles showed positive and negative factors associated with the use of technologies by children. The main losses caused by technology use in childhood are excessive time connected to the internet, worsening of mental health, and changes in the circadian rhythm. The articles mentioned as negative factors the development of intellectual impairments, including verbal intelligence and attention, emotional instability, internet addiction, binge eating and physiological changes.
The main benefits of the use of technologies by children found were the strengthening of friendships and the possibility of greater social connection. For the preschool age group, there is evidence of improvement in cognitive and psychosocial development. Thus, in order to have technology as an ally for healthy child development, parents and guardians should limit the time of use and control the type of content seen and shared by children.
Currently, preventing internet use is an unrealistic measure, since parents and guardians also make great use of technologies. However, because of the new settings imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic, many services have moved towards digitization, including education and social interaction. Internet use nowadays is a reality for all age groups and makes this study relevant; measures aimed at optimizing its use and reducing risks must, therefore, be adopted. Once again, we emphasize the importance of parents and guardians as moderators and update training of health professionals to better guide them.
Further studies are suggested so the notion of risk-benefit of internet use and its long-term consequences for child development is kept up to date.
The study did not receive any funding.
Table of Contents
Technology utilization in the world is becoming very high with its rapid evolvement resulting in its use in every part of life making it incredible. It has seen numerous systems and appliances relying on them, among them, cell phones use and the internet. However, with its different forms of use and numerous benefits, it continually results in negative impacts in our mental, environmental and physical health.
Use of technology affects health. It does so by first affecting the way of thinking. The increased use of technology such as mobile phones or video games by children and teenagers affects how their brains work. It reduces their attention span on one thing due to continued working with multiple perspectives thus, decreasing their memory abilities. Additionally, the reliance on search engines to find information and constant data flow in 140 characters or less makes them prone to forgetfulness and reducing their attention span.
Secondly, technology affects health through causing obesity. The increased time spend on mobile phones, watching television, using the internet or playing video games results in a lack of physical activities and exercise. Moreover, spending more time watching television also results in increased snacking on unhealthy foods. These aspects lead to obesity. Thirdly, it affects health by emitting chemicals and waves that make one vulnerable to cancer, over extended use of the technology disturbs the sleeping schedule causing poor sleeping habits and causes neck, eyes, and headaches due to increased curving of the body and staring at the gadgets.
Technology destroys the environment. The industries that manufacture technological products increases emission of numerous waste products to the air, earth, and water. When it is disposed of as runoffs, it contaminates water bodies such as lakes and rivers, while their manufacture emits carbon dioxide emissions and other harmful chemicals to the air that boost climate change. Disposing of their waste in landfills results in soil contamination and killing of vegetation around these environments as well.
Additionally, use of technology destroys the environment by causing the extinction of species. The high consumption of energy attributed to technology results in the disruption of the atmosphere through climate change. Thus, the increased emission of toxic substances to the environment produces harmful chemicals that kill various animals such as the peregrine and the bald eagle. Technology also affects the environment through excess power consumption. The high use of technology at work, home and schools result in increased need for energy to ensure the technologies work non-stop. Thus, it enhances the reliance on its generation that relies on nuclear and fossil fuels that further strains the environment.
The reliance on technology results in isolation. Physical interaction is crucial to human health as it facilitates bonding and creation of relationships. However, with technology use, it creates online social networks that result in constant and quick communications. However, it reduces face-to-face communication, personal contact with others and engagement in social activities with families and friends, leaving one in their world. Isolation causes strained relationships, loneliness, depression and lack of support systems to enable one efficiently overcome various issues.
Technology use also breeds privacy and security concerns. Continuous use of technology and posting of personal information online makes it possible for everyone to know about one’s life. Criminals can access this information through phishing, virus attacks, and hacking and use it to conduct criminal activities stripping people of security. Moreover, technology makes children prone to sex crimes by sexual predators and bullying through avenues such as texts, emails or hurtful videos as perpetrators can hide behind fake identities.
In conclusion, use of technologies is an essential phenomenon in the world as it provides connectivity, and creates numerous positives that make a better world. However, its use presents severe adverse impacts that threaten the future. Therefore, one has to choose to use it effectively to reap the benefits while avoiding these consequences as well.
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However, with its different forms of use and numerous benefits, it continually results in negative impacts in our mental, environmental and physical health. Use of technology affects health. It does so by first affecting the way of thinking. The increased use of technology such as mobile phones or video games by children and teenagers affects ...