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Int J Qual Stud Health Well-being

Perspectives on health and well-being in social sciences

From a social scientific perspective, the field of health and well-being is differentiated with contributions of a wide range of topics, methodological approaches, and interdisciplinary research. This may challenge the understanding of health and well-being but can also make an important contribution to the development of the field. This thematic cluster presents new qualitative research on the importance of supportive structures addressing the societal and the organizational level in order to promote health and well-being in the individual. Social sciences have a double identity, being a science contributing with research on society and interacting processes between different levels in the society, and an identity taking on a critical assignment. The cluster addresses this double identity through research aiming to promote sustainable well-being. As guest editors of this thematic cluster in the International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-being , we would like to present four studies describing different angles of individual experiences and views of the need of supportive structures. Highlighted areas are health promotion activities and shared decision-making processes in mental health care services for individuals suffering from mental ill-health. Furthermore, supportive structures in relation to experiences in professionals and health promotion interventions in work places are discussed. Contemporary societies meet different challenges concerning health and well-being. The overarching objective of this thematic cluster is to increase the knowledge that influencing factors for improved well-being in individuals often are to be found at societal and organizational level. To promote health and well-being in individuals, societal and organizational systems and actors need to interact with the individual as signified by the contribution of research in this thematic cluster. Moreover, the thematic cluster gives an understanding of the variety of approaches in qualitative studies on health and well-being within social sciences.

Living and working conditions are strong determinants of individuals’ physical, mental, and social health and well-being (Marmot, Allen, Bell, Bloomer, & Goldblatt, 2012 ). Applying a social science perspective on health and well-being means the recognition of the importance of influencing structures and pathways on a societal, organizational, and individual level. Moreover, supportive structures for individuals’ health and well-being are to a great extent shaped by the interactive process between these levels where social context, social position, and resources play an important role (Diderichsen, Evans, & Whitehead, 2001 ). Contemporary societies are complex and dynamic and require a reflexive understanding and methodology when aiming at increasing the knowledge of supportive structures for health and well-being. The social sciences have a double identity in the sense of being both a science contributing to research on society conducted with scientific methods based on an epistemological realism, and an identity taking on a critical assignment (Habermas, 1988 ). This critical assignment is a reflective approach in relation to various social phenomena in the society as well as towards the scientific activity in itself. The social sciences then are practiced based on a traditional methodology shared with other academic subjects, as well as a reflexive methodology based on a constructivist epistemology. The reflexive methodology comes from the very nature of the research object: the social aspects of human actions. When transferred to the field of health and well-being, this double identity can be understood as research on health and well-being and research about health and well-being. The research on health and well-being from a social scientific perspective would then level with other research traditions in the sense that the object of research constitutes different social aspects of health and well-being. The research about health and well-being from a social scientific perspective would focus on how the field is formed, what issues are at stake, and how this is done from a critical perspective applying a reflexive methodology (Alvesson & Sköldberg, 2009 ). In this thematic cluster, however, there is domination of traditional methodology in the contributions, with a common denominator of qualitative studies, but differing in approaches.

Studies have shown that mental ill-health problems are on the rise in both young people and among people in working age in Sweden (Danielsson & Berlin, 2012 ; Sandmark & Renstig, 2010 ). This raises an emerging need for health promotion initiatives where different actors on societal and organizational level work together with the individual in the development of supportive structures. In this thematic cluster, the included studies by Grim, Rosenberg, Svedberg, and Schön ( 2016 ) and by Jormfeldt and Hallén ( 2016 ) contribute to valuable understanding of the importance of supportive structures for individuals suffering from mental illnesses. In the work by Jormfeldt and Hallén, the discourse of mental illness is highlighted through written narratives by service users’ diagnosed with schizophrenia and their relatives’ concerning experiences of support in everyday life. Despite the knowledge that individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia often are at risk for an exacerbated well-being, the responsibility for everyday health promotion activities between authorities are not defined. The findings show a lack of support in everyday life, for example, in facilitating the practice of a healthy life style (Jormfeldt & Hallén, 2016 ). The findings may raise incitements for the societal level, that is, local authorities, to further develop health-promotive support structures and activities targeting the everyday needs of individuals with mental ill-health. Another example of a supportive structure within the field of mental health is shared decision-making which is investigated in the study by Grim et al. As in the study by Jormfeldt and Hallén, individuals with own experience of psychiatric illness and use of mental health care services are at focus. With an inductive and a deductive approach using focus group interviews, a thorough understanding is developed revealing the importance of informational as well as decisional needs among users of mental health services. This study makes a contribution to the understanding of what are the important constituents in shared decision-making among individuals with mental health problems. In addition, attitudinal, cognitive, and relation-based factors are discussed in order to reduce potential barriers for individuals to get involved in shared decision-making models and processes (Grim et al., 2016 ). Using different qualitative methods, these studies highlight the importance of participatory approaches where individuals’ experiences and views can form the knowledge base for health professionals and policy makers in the work for supportive structures. In an earlier study in International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-being , another example of supportive structures as a response to a new welfare context was described among young people with intellectual disabilities (Tideman & Svensson, 2015 ).

Furthermore, Cuesta and Rämgård and Stenberg show that qualitative methodology is well suited for research on an organizational level in different work place settings. Cuesta and Rämgård aim at examining the use of an intersectional perspective as a way of increasing the knowledge on work place–based power structures. With focus group interviews, they focus at staff experiences and reflections from their work in an elderly care home for foreign-born persons with dementia. The need for an intersectional perspective that put a multifaceted focus on power relations is discussed as a tool for a “consciousness-rising” process which positively can affect well-being among professionals (Cuesta & Rämgård, 2016 ). The work by Stenberg ( 2016 ) gives another example of research where perspectives on health and well-being can be discussed from an individual and from an organizational and societal level. Narratives on fine artists staging artistic projects in different workplace settings are analysed and the meaning and importance of culture activities as a creative and health-promoting resource in modern working life is analysed. A two-folded result emerges showing that such artistic projects can be an important actor for supporting health and well-being at workplaces not at least by supporting social interaction. However, this study also indicates that this contribution can hamper the opportunity to actually perform and develop as an artist and thus entail adverse health developments and negatively affect the professional's own well-being (Stenberg, 2016 ). From different settings, the studies give an understanding of how the organizational level can be related to individuals’ construction of subjectivity in their professional roles, which in turn can affect their health and well-being. The study by Stenberg furthermore pinpoints a professional group whose working situation seldom is highlighted in occupational studies on health and well-being.

Societies today face emerging challenges concerning health and well-being. Especially the increase in mental ill-health among young people and people in working age is worrying. This call for attention and action and a need for interdisciplinary approaches have been advocated. The results from the included studies show that research from a social scientific perspective can make an important contribution to the knowledge development by including influential processes also originating from a societal and an organizational level. Finally, this thematic cluster will give an understanding of the variety of approaches within the social sciences and by this make an inspiring contribution for future submissions to the International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-being of social science research.

Alvesson M, Sköldberg K. Reflexive metodology—new vistas for qualitative research. London: Sage; 2009. [ Google Scholar ]
Cuesta M, Rämgård M. Intersectional perspective in elderly care. International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-being. 2016; 11 :30544. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/qhw.v11.30544 . [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Danielsson M, Berlin M. Health in the working-age population: Health in Sweden: The National Public Health Report 2012. Chapter 4. Scand J Public Health. 2012; 40 (Suppl. 9):72–94. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1403494812459464 . [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Diderichsen F, Evans T, Whitehead M. The social basis of disparities in health. In: Evans T, Whitehead M, Diderichsen F, Bhuiya A, editors. Challenging Inequities in health: From ethics to action. New York: Oxford University Press; 2001. pp. 13–23. [ Google Scholar ]
Grim K, Rosenberg D, Svedberg P, Schön U.-K. Shared decision-making in mental health care—A user perspective on decisional needs in community-based services. International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-being. 2016; 11 :30563. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/qhw.v11.30563 . [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Habermas J. On the logic of social sciences. London: The MIT Press; 1988. [ Google Scholar ]
Jormfeldt H, Hallén M. Experiences of housing support in everyday life for persons with schizophrenia and the role of the media from a societal perspective. International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-being. 2016; 11 :30571. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/qhw.v11.30571 . [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Marmot M, Allen J, Bell R, Bloomer E, Goldblatt P. Consortium for the European review of social determinants of health the health divide. WHO European review of social determinants of health and the health divide. Lancet. 2012; 380 (9846):1011–1029. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61228-8 . [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Sandmark H, Renstig M. Understanding long-term sick leave in female white-collar workers with burnout and stress-related diagnoses: A qualitative study. BMC Public Health. 2010; 10 :210. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-10-210 . [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Stenberg H. How is the artist role affected when artists are participating in projects in work life? International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-being. 2016; 11 :30549. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/qhw.v11.30549 . [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Tideman M, Svensson O. Young people with intellectual disability—The role of self-advocacy in a transformed Swedish welfare system. International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-being. 2015; 10 :25100. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/qhw.v10.25100 . [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]

Social Science Research: Principles, Methods and Practices - (Revised edition)

(43 reviews)

Anol Bhattacherjee, University of South Florida

ISBN 13: 9781475146127

Publisher: University of Southern Queensland

Language: English

Formats Available

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Learn more about reviews.

Reviewed by Kelle DeBoth Foust, Associate Professor, Cleveland State University on 6/22/23

Comprehensiveness rating: 5 see less

The text really seems to do as it claims; provides the basic overview of the research material needed for graduate students without a lot of other “fluff.” It’s written very clearly, easy to understand and many figures and charts that enhance learning. It covers the majority of the topics that I need it to cover for OTH 740/Research I, at about the level of detail that the students should be able to digest. In particular, I like the sections on survey research, experimental research and that it covers quantitative and qualitative analyses.

Content Accuracy rating: 4

As far as I can tell reading through it, the content is accurate and unbiased (will be able to review further once actually implemented in the intended course).

Relevance/Longevity rating: 4

The content is current at least regarding how we continue to teach and use it in our field. Some of the references are a little outdated, although not much has changed in this world in recent years. I also recognize I can pull more recent literature in order to make the examples up to date and relevant for my particular students.

Clarity rating: 5

This book is written very clearly. I feel that the diagrams really help to add and make sense of higher level concepts that students may struggle with. Concepts that are challenging are recognized as such within the text, with appropriate examples that enhance clarity (will be able to review further once actually implemented in the intended course)

Consistency rating: 5

Yes, the text appears to be internally consistent in terms of terminology and framework.

Modularity rating: 5

The text is easily and readily divisible into smaller reading sections that can be assigned at different points within the course (i.e., enormous blocks of text without subheadings should be avoided). The text should not be overly self-referential, and should be easily reorganized and realigned with various subunits of a course without presenting much disruption to the reader. – Yes. The division of the content makes sense, and how smaller modules are paired (e.g., qualitative and quantitative analysis paired back to back) is logical to facilitate learning.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 5

The text and chapters are laid out in an order that makes sense and provides good flow and continuity between the concepts and analytical applications. In particular, I like how research is introduced, moving into research design and then analysis all within the same text. Will make this more manageable for students.

Interface rating: 5

The text is free of significant interface issues, including navigation problems, distortion of images/charts, and any other display features that may distract or confuse the reader. – Very well put together, no issues with the interface. I would consider this to be very user/student friendly. In particular, the authors made a point to keep it “short and sweet” so students should not be intimidated by the length of the chapters (which is excellent for helping to convince the students to actually read them).

Grammatical Errors rating: 5

The text contains no grammatical errors. – None detected.

Cultural Relevance rating: 5

The text is not culturally insensitive or offensive in any way. It should make use of examples that are inclusive of a variety of races, ethnicities, and backgrounds. – No offensive content noted, the majority of the examples used do not have cultural significance and therefore the amount of diversity is sufficient.

This review was written based on a preliminary review of the text prior to use and implementation within the intended course. I will update the review if it significantly differs once students have used it for their course study.

Reviewed by Ingrid Carter, Professor, Metropolitan State University of Denver on 4/14/23

The textbook includes many of the important elements of a foundational social science research course. A key element of the course I teach which is not included in the text is how to search for literature to inform the research, how to synthesize... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 4 see less

Content Accuracy rating: 3

The content appears to be mostly accurate and unbiased. There is a large emphasis on positivist approaches, and more post-positivist and innovative research approaches should be added to the content.

The text is relevant to foundational/introductory social science research courses. As mentioned previously, broader and more diverse perspectives of research are missing.

Clarity rating: 4

The content is presented clearly.

Consistency rating: 4

The text is presented with a consistent framework and format. The variety of frameworks included could be greater, with at minimum a presentation of different research paradigms and ideally with discussion or questions to grapple with related to various research paradigms and approaches.

As the author indicates, the textbook consists of 16 chapters which can be used in a 16-week semester. These can be easily assigned for weekly readings.

The textbook is well-organized.

Interface rating: 4

The interface is relatively clear

No grammatical errors were found in my initial review. I have not yet used the textbook for the course I am teaching, and therefore have not reviewed the textbook page by page nor line by line.

Cultural Relevance rating: 3

More diverse and culturally relevant example to a diverse audience could be embedded. I did not encounter offensive material.

Reviewed by Sanaa Riaz, Associate Professor, Metropolitan State University of Denver on 3/27/23

Comprehensiveness rating: 3 see less

While not meant for advanced graduate and doctoral students, this text is an excellent introductory resource for learning about paradigms in research methods and data analysis and prepares the learner to begin writing a successful research project proposal. The text largely privileges the scientific method and labels diverse social science research methods as such. However, the preparatory considerations in beginning social science research have been discussed. The book contains important terms in bold to guide a beginner reader as well as sample syllabi for incorporating it at the graduate level. However, the text could be made more comprehensive with the inclusion of an effective index and/or glossary.

Content Accuracy rating: 5

The text is a quick guide to considerations and terminologies used in social science research. The content is accurate, error-free and unbiased.

The text provides a basic introduction to research methods in the social sciences. Updates in social science inquiry with respect to social media and popular culture platforms and mixed methods research should be easy to incorporate.

The text has been written from the point of view of a non-expert. It is free of technical jargon and is meant to provide the essentials of social science inquiry and research considerations.

Consistency rating: 3

The text is internally consistent in terms of terminology within a chapter section. However, it is strongly recommended that the framework is revisited for chapters discussing qualitative research methods and approaches. Qualitative data analysis has not been explored in depth and the basic framework for Chapter 13 will need to be substantially expanded to provide for a smoother transition from a discussion on grounded theory to content analysis and hermeneutic analysis and to incorporate information on other analyses undertaken in qualitative research.

Chapters and sections in the text can be easily reorganized and assigned as per needs of the instructor and the course without causing disruption to the reader.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 3

Chapter sections of the book covering qualitative research are not presented in a logical manner. It is highly recommended that the readers are told about the place of exploratory and other research in social science research inquiry, rather than labeling them as scientific research. Moreover, mixed methods and qualitative visual and social media platform research needs to be discussed. The book overall shies away from delving into approaches and methods in non-empirical research in the social sciences.

The text is easy to navigate. All words, sections and tables are easily searchable.

The book is free of grammatical errors.

The text does not contain any culturally insensitive information as there are hardly any research project examples incorporated.

Incorporating examples and case studies across social science disciplines (after introducing the disciplines in which social science research is employed in the first chapter) would allow readers to see the applicability of one social science research approach, method and data analysis over another based on the research project focus.

Reviewed by Cahit Kaya, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley on 10/17/22

I LIKE THE FIGURE EXPLAINING RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY ON PAGE 55. read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 2 see less

I LIKE THE FIGURE EXPLAINING RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY ON PAGE 55.

IT SEEMED ACCURATE

Relevance/Longevity rating: 3

IT IS RELEVANT

IT IS CLEAR

IT IS CONSISTENT

Modularity rating: 3

IT NEEDS MORE MODULES

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 2

IT CAN BE OGRANIZED BETTER

YES BUT EVEN THOUGH IT CAN BE IMPROVED

Grammatical Errors rating: 4

I DID NOT SEE IT

MORE CULTURAL DIVERSE EXAMPLES CAN BE GIVEN

Reviewed by Dawn DeVries, Associate Professor, Grand Valley State University on 12/9/21

The text provides a complete summary of the research process. While discussions are brief and concise, the text addresses the main issues and processes providing an overview and general understanding of the research process for social science fields. Two areas could be more in-depth, specifically the IRB discussion and the chapter on surveys. Information provided is accurate and succinct as the author intended, providing a comprehensive overview of the research process.

The content is accurate and presented in an objective manner. There was no perception of bias or conflict that would impact accuracy. The chapters offer a variety of examples, inclusive of a variety of social science fields.

Written in 2012, the information remains relevant with few areas that would ever need to change. The research process and research methods stay fairly consistent with little variation; thus, the text would not need regular updating. Updates, if and when needed, would be easy to implement due to the concise and objective writing and the logical organization of the textbook. One area needing updating (or that instructors would need to supplement) is Chapter 9 on Survey Research. The chapter refers to mail surveys, which in 2021, are almost obsolete. Little is presented or discussed on electronic surveys, survey platforms, or the use of social media in recruitment, survey distribution or every survey completion. Furthermore, there is no mention of the ethical issues related to social media research.

Key terminology is bolded with the definition following, making it easy to identify. Definitions are clear and adequate to facilitate understanding of the concepts and terms. The text presents the research process in a logical and understandable way using scaffolding.

The chapter structure, framework, and style are consistent.

Modularity rating: 4

The chapters provide easily divisible readings of 8-10 pages. The chapters are ordered in a logical fashion and flow easily, yet they could be rearranged to fit instructor preferences for order. Chapters are concise, allowing the combination of multiple chapters for a week’s reading if needed. The text is designed for a 16-week semester, but again, because the chapters are not long, several chapters could be read as one assignment. It would be difficult to reduce chapter readings (say, using only 5 pages of the chapter) because of the conciseness of the information and the shortness of the chapters.

The text is logical and has flow. It starts general (with How to Think Like a Researcher) and builds to specific, more detailed content (Inferential Statistics).

There are no observed problems with the interface of the text. Images used are clear and display without difficulty. No hyperlinks are used.

No observed issues or concerns related to grammar or mechanics.

No concerns about inclusivity or offensiveness. The text is clear and concise, offering a variety of short examples specific to various social science professions.

The text reminds me of my Research Methods textbook from my doctoral program. It addresses the differences between scientific research and social science methods in a clear and concise manner. While it is an overview of the information, it is specific and concise enough for students who need to understand the research process but won’t be engaging in research as their full-time profession. Content is brief in a few areas as mentioned, which will allow the instructor to provide supplemental reading or lecture content specific to the university (i.e., IRB) or to the profession. As the author suggests, certain chapters could be skipped depending on the program. For example, chapters 13 – 15 on statistics could easily be omitted if the program has a research statistics course. A nice add is the sample syllabus for a doctoral program.

Reviewed by David Denton, Associate Professor, Seattle Pacific University on 5/3/21

I use this book with graduate students in education taking an initial course in education research. Dr. Bhattacherjee notes the book is organized for semesters with supplemental readings, as shown by the sample syllabus in the appendix. Nevertheless, I have found the book is excellent in meeting objectives for an introductory course in education research, though it is necessary to add education context and examples. Some of the course objectives I have developed from the textbook include i) distinguishing between questionnaire survey method and interview survey method and ii) summarizing criteria for developing effective questionnaire items, among many others. There are some sections that exceed student knowledge without some background in statistics (e.g. description of factor analysis) but omitting these sections as required reading is easy since there are many subheadings used to segment chapters.

Dr. Bhattacherjee has done an excellent job of clearly communicating the content with accuracy. For example, the textbook distinguishes between qualitative and quantitative analysis (rather than qualitative and quantitative research, an appropriate distinction). The textbook makes other distinctions in a way that helps students comprehend concepts (e.g. survey interview and survey questionnaire). At the same time, the textbook does not over-emphasize research methods or design, which might mislead students to think inflexibly about the topic.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 5

One of the advantages of the book, in my view, is that it will not become obsolete anytime soon. It addresses all major topics of interest for instructors needing to develop student background knowledge in social science research methodology. For example, some topics for which the book provides helpful structure include i) Thinking Like a Researcher, ii) The Research Process, iii) Research Design, iv) and Sampling. In addition, an instructor can easily supplement or provide subject-specific examples where needed since the book is thoroughly segmented by chapter and chapter subheadings.

Dr. Bhattacherjee does a fine job of defining terms concisely. I do not recall use of jargon, or if there are complicated terms, the text provides enough elaboration so that students can at least attain a conceptual understanding. In some instances, definitions are so concise that I find it necessary to elaborate with examples. This, however, is a part of instruction and would be done in any case.

The textbook is highly coherent, in my view. Similar to modularity, consistency is a strength. For example, chapters are grouped into four sections: Introduction to Research, Basics of Empirical Research, Data Collection, and Data Analysis. Further, chapters within major sections are sequential, such as chapters on Science and Scientific Research, followed by Thinking Like a Researchers, followed by The Research Process. In addition, content within chapters is consistent, such as Dr. Bhattacherjee’s logical progression of concepts: empiricism, to positivism, to forms of analysis (qualitative and quantitative), etc

Modularity is one of the clear strengths, again in my view. From a structural perspective, neither the chapters nor subsections are very long because Dr. Bhattacherjee writes concisely. Both chapters and subordinate subsections lend themselves to various kinds of divisions. For example, students in need of supplemental instruction on descriptive statistics, such as content about the normal distribution, can be assigned the subsection on Statistics of Sampling in chapter 8, followed by the subsection on Central tendency in chapter 14. Some non-sequential reading is required if students do not have any background in statistics, but this is not difficult to manage using page numbers or subheadings as reference.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 4

The textbook is well organized. Nevertheless, there are some sections that I found helpful to have students read out of sequence. For example, there is a short section at the end of chapter 5, Scale Reliability and Validity, which is perhaps best read after students cover correlation and normal distribution, dealt with in chapter 14. Again, I did not find it difficult to assign sections out of sequence using either page numbers or chapter subheadings as reference.

The textbook does not have interface issues. Chapter titles are hyperlinked within PDF copies to simplify navigation. Some may judge a few of the images as low resolution, but if this is a defect it is not one that interferes with communicating concepts, which is the purpose of the images.

There are a few minor grammatical errors in the 2nd edition, 2012. For example, on p. 126, Dr. Bhattacherjee notes “five female students” when the Chi-square table appears to show four. This is minor, but if students are new to reading Chi-square tables they may not detect the error and believe interpreting a Chi-square table is different than interpreting a typical data table.

The textbook presents appropriate information without prejudice or unfairness. As mentioned, instructors will likely need to include examples that are specific to their course objectives and student populations. For example, chapter 11. Case Research provides exemplars that focus on business and marketing domains. This seems entirely appropriate given Dr. Bhattacherjee’s research area. Instructors using the text for other domains, such as education research, will be interested in elaborating on concepts using examples specific to the needs of their students.

I greatly appreciate that Dr. Bhattacherjee has shared his book as an Open Textbook.

Reviewed by Elizabeth Moore, Associate Professor, University of Indianapolis on 4/24/21

In Chapter 5 on Research Design there isn't any discussion on how to improve content and statistical conclusion validity. There isn't a discussion of threats associated with the four types of validity. The chapter also does not present how the research design and threats to validity are interconnected. There is a lack of comprehensiveness in the presentation of qualitative research as qualitative research rigor is not addressed.

The content is accurate, error-free, and unbiased. I would like more examples focused on social sciences. Some of the examples are related to business/industry. There are many social science examples that could be used.

Many of the examples should be updated. With everything that is (has been) happening in the U.S. and world, there are many examples that can come from the social sciences. For example, there are several examples that could represent the concept of technostress, especially with many professionals having to move into online environments. Students would be more likely to read assigned chapters and understand the material presented if the examples were relevant to their profession.

The book is clear and has high readability. There are several accessibility issues in the document. This should be checked and fixed. There are 5 issues in the document, 4 in tables, 5 in alternative text, etc. Accessibility is a big issue right now. All documents have to be accessible to all students.

While there is consistency within the textbook, in some topics there is a lock of consistency in how some of the terms and material relate to what is actually used in social science disciplines. For example, in basic social science textbooks in chapters presenting an introduction to measurement of constructs, descriptive statistics that are unfamiliar and rarely used, such as geometric mean and harmonic mean, should not be introduced. This information is usually difficult for novice researchers to understand without adding more advanced descriptive statistics.

It is confusing as to why research validity is in Chapter 5 - Research Design. There is not a discussion of how different research types are affected by different types and threats of research validity. The title of Chapter 7 is misleading. The word "scale" is associated with scale of measurement. It would be better to use designing measurement tools/instruments in the chapter name since the types of validity and reliability discussed are related to creating and developing measurement tools/instruments. I also think Chapter 6 - Measurement of Construction should not come before Chapter 7 - Scale Reliability and Validity since measurement of constructs and scale reliability and validity are related to qualitative research.

I like the organization. It follows the current syllabus I use so it will require very little modifications.

As mentioned below, bookmarks would improve navigation of the pdf file. Also, having links from the table of contents to chapters would be helpful. Including some of the important subsections of the chapters would also improve navigation of the pdf version of the book. Tables and charts are helpful and supplement the text. Use of images would break-up the text.

None were noted.

Cultural Relevance rating: 4

See comments above about the relevancy of the material. While it is important to make sure a book is culturally sensitive and not offensive, it is also important to not ignore what is known about social injustices which are well-documented. Look at the lack of diversity in many professions and organizations, this is important to address.

It would be helpful if bookmarks were placed in the pdf version. While this is a social science textbook, it would be helpful to have subsection in Chapter 4 that introduces at least a couple of the main health behavior theories. These are commonly used by many researchers in social sciences.

Reviewed by Barbara Molargik-Fitch, Adjunct Professor, Trine University on 3/6/21

This textbook provides a nice overview of several topics related to social science specific research. read more

This textbook provides a nice overview of several topics related to social science specific research.

The textbook seems to be accurate and error free.

The text seems to be accurate, relevant, and useful.

The text is organized well and had a professional and academic tone while also understandable.

Text seemed to be internally consistent.

Text is easily divisible to be assigned as different points within the course.

Text is well organized.

The text is free of significant interface issues that would distract or confuse the reader.

I did not see grammatical errors.

I did not see any cultural issues.

I will be using this textbook for one of my classes. I am looking forward to using it. I think it has a lot to offer students looking to develop their research skills.

Reviewed by Kenneth Gentry, Assistant Professor, Radford University on 6/2/20

This text provides a great overview of core concepts relevant to health-science research. An overview of theory, designs, sampling, data collection, data analysis, and ethics are provided. It may be helpful in future editions to add additional content relating to qualitative research (i.e. additional types of designs, as well as how trustworthiness and rigor are addressed [for example, what specific steps can be taken by researchers to address dependability, credibility, confirmability and transferability]).

Information presented appears accurate and unbiased.

While much of the content is 'durable' (not likely to soon become obsolete), the relevance is dependent upon the focus of the instructor/course. For example, if the emphasis of the course will be on quantitative research, then this text is highly relevant, however, if the emphasis is on an equal balance between the traditions of qualitative and quantitative, then this text is slightly less relevant due to the more limited nature of its content in qualitative (in comparison to content on quantitative). That is not to say that this text does not address content relevant to qualitative research, however, it does so with decidedly less depth and breadth than quantitative.

While a subjective interpretation of clarity is highly dependent upon the reader, I found this text to strike a good balance between a scholarly, academic tone, and commonly-understood, easily-relatable descriptions of key concepts. There were times where I wish that the latter had been more so, however, considering the target audience of this text, I feel that the author struck a good balance. Occasionally, there were concepts that I anticipated would require additional clarification (beyond the reading) for my graduate students.

Overall, I found the text to be generally consistent in its approach to the content. Occasionally, there were instances when the flow made sense at the chapter level, however, content might have been spread between chapters (i.e. theory is discussed in Chapters 1, 2 and 4).

This ties in with my comments on consistency. Since some concepts are discussed in more than one place, it might be difficult to identify a single reading for a specific topic ... one might need to assign several readings from more than one chapter. However, having said that, I anticipate that those instances would be infrequent. On the whole, the text demonstrates a fairly good degree of modularity.

At the chapter level (i.e. main topics), and within each chapter, information appears well organized. It is the appearance of content in multiple places that was occasionally problematic for me as I read (i.e. when reading about reliability and validity, I questioned why the author did not discuss the types of reliability and validity ... I later found that content in a subsequent chapter).

Interface rating: 3

While images were viewable, many appeared 'pixelated'/'grainy' (low resolution). This was more of a cosmetic issue, and did not affect the overall interpretation of the image.

Overall, the content was grammatically strong.

Content was not culturally insensitive or offensive.

My sincere thanks to this author, and to the Open Textbook Library and Scholar Commons for this text. I truly appreciate the investment of resources that were invested. I just completed instructing 2 semester courses on research in a graduate health science degree program ... I plan to adopt this text the next time I am rotated into those courses again!

Reviewed by Wendy Bolyard, Clinical Assistant Professor, University of Colorado Denver on 4/30/20

This text presents all the topics, and more, that I cover in my master's-level research and analytic methods course. A glossary would be helpful as students often need to reference basic definitions as they learn these new concepts. I would have... read more

The concepts were presented accurately and often with citations.

The great thing about research methods is that the content ages well (does not change over time). The examples were relevant and should not make the text obsolete. Any instructor should be able to provide current, real-world examples to compare and contrast to those in the text. Although the sample syllabus if for a business class, I did not find the text to be relevant only to business students. The authors uses broad social science illustrations that cross disciplines. This text is definitely relevant to public affairs/public administration.

The text is well-written and provides clear yet concise context.

When students are learning a new language - research methods - they may be confused when definitions vary. Causality is explained with slightly different language which may be misunderstood by students.

One chapter includes a summary section. It would have been helpful to include a summary of key takeaways for each chapter, and perhaps include a list of key terms and definitions (since the text does not include a glossary).

The text follows the linear, systematic research process very well.

The font, size, and spacing varied in some sections. The images were a bit blurred.

A few typos, but otherwise well-written and very clear.

Culturally sensitive with relevant and inclusive cases provided.

I will be adopting this text to supplement other readings assigned in my master's-level research and analytic methods course. I appreciate the clear and helpful context it provides on key concepts that students must understand to become effective researchers. The text is comprehensive yet concise and would not overwhelm students.

Reviewed by Valerie Young, Associate Professor, Hanover College on 12/19/19

I really appreciate the broad focus and examples from social science fields. As a fellow social scientist from a high growth area (communication studies), I would appreciate even more breadth! I supplement with many field-specific resources, so this critique is very minor. An appropriate place and reference might be within the first chapter, under the heading Types of Scientific Research, to give a nod to some of the social science fields and the importance of interdisciplinary questions across disciplinary lines.

I did not find any errors in the content of the book. One critique is that the author rarely cites any sources for assertions or materials. I get the impression that the author is relying on "commonly known" ideas regarding research methods and processes, but I have to consistently remind my students to cite all non-original information, and that example is lacking in this text. As an example, regarding evaluating measurement scales for internal consistency, the author references commonly-accepted factor loadings (>.60) but does not reference or provide linked resources for readers to corroborate this or seek additional readings.

The text content is relevant and the author has taken care to provide relatively timeless sample research examples throughout. Some examples include areas of social and political interest (conflict, crime), business and marketing, and social psychology. The contents of the text are not dated and the author does a fantastic job of offering a variety of relevant examples so that readers of all backgrounds can relate to the content.

Incredibly clear and concise. Main ideas are clearly articulated in headings. Bullet point lists are used infrequently, but appropriately. The writing style is professional, academic in tone, yet relate-able. There is little, if any, discipline-specific references that a graduate student from any area of social sciences could not comprehend; however, this book is empirically-grounded and quantitatively focused. For our readers in fields with lower quantitative literacy, some of the terminology in chapters is better suited for students with basic statistical experience, some research methods or theory coursework completed.

This text is consistent and detailed in the use of interdisciplinary, social scientific terminology.

The layout of materials and the concise writing style contribute to an easy-to-visualize text. The page layout and brief chapters make it appropriate to assign supplemental readings along with the chapter topics. Some areas for improvement: use hyperlinks to reference forward and backward within the text so that readers can pop back and forth to related concepts. Include links in the text to reputable online materials or publications. See my comment below in Organization feedback concerning chapter ordering.

One thing that strikes me as amazing and also challenging about this text is the concision and simplicity for which Bhattacherjee integrates complex information. The chapters are very brief- about half of what would be a typical, field-specific textbook, but the content is simultaneously dense and clear. For example, Chapter 7 addresses scale reliability and validity. In just a few short pages, we get an incredible density of information and terminology, from a formula and brief explanation of Chronbach's alpha to exploratory factor analysis as a method to demonstrate convergent and discriminant validity. There is an appropriate number of tables to visually demonstrate complex topics in-text. Overall, the chapters are well-organized and easy to follow with a working knowledge of basic stats. The introductory chapters have been intentionally placed to introduce readers to basic principles. The following chapters could be assigned as readings in any order that fit with the student's needs (but I find the order of these chapters appropriate, as-is): Chapter 9 Survey Research, Chapter 10 Experimental Research, Chapter 11 Case Research, Chapter 12 Interpretive Research, Chapter 13 Qualitative Analysis, Chapter 14 Quantitative Descriptive Statistics, Chapter 15 Quantitative Inferential Statistics. The final chapter, 16, covers Research Ethics, which seems to have been lopped on at the end of the text. It would be a better fit in the first third; perhaps integrated into one of the first several chapters with a nod toward the evolution of social research.

Regarding navigation, the pdf online version does not allow for creative navigation through the document. Graphics and charts are clear and easy to see in the online pdf version. They are a little smaller than I would like on the page, but the text is clear and the tables and graphs are visually appealing. It looks like most of the graphics were created using PowerPoint. One odd thing I noticed is that the paragraph spacing is inconsistent. In one section, the spacing between paragraph lines seems to be set at 1.25, and then, for no apparent reason, the line spacing moves back to single space. This is not visually distracting, just peculiar. Overall, the graphics in the online version are much clearer than in the softcover print version, which prints only in greyscale, with quite a bit of granulated distortion in the figures.

I did not notice any writing errors.

The research topic examples represented a diverse array of research topics, methods, fields, etc. The overview of science, scientific research, and social science was welcomed and unique to this text. Some areas for improvement would be to include historical scientific figures who are not all male, and link critical methodology in a clearer manner with specific critical and cultural examples of this form of research.

Reviewed by Lee Bidgood, Associate Professor, East Tennessee State University on 10/29/19

The text seems comprehensive, covers a wide range of research approaches, and parts of the research process. I will have to supplement with more of the area-specific writing that my students need, but this is easily added in the adapted version... read more

This text seems to follow the path of other texts that outline research design and methods, such as the Creswell book that I have used for several semesters. I do not detect bias in the text, or any significant errors.

I will discuss disciplinary relevance rather than chronological applicability (which other reviewers have already addressed thoroughly). The course for which I seek a textbook is meant to prepare students in a non-discipline-specific regional studies context, and for a range of methodologies and research design possibilities, mostly in the social sciences and humanities. This text is most relevant to the potential research programs of our students in discussions of the precursors to research design in Chapter 2 (“Thinking like a researcher”) and of the using and creating of theory in Chapter 4 (“Theories in Scientific Research”).

The authors’ prose is clear and easily comprehensible. Definitions are clear, and sufficient (jargon is explained). There could be more examples to clarify and assure comprehension of concepts, I plan to add these in my adaptation.

There is not an overt intra-chapter organization scheme that is consistent from chapter to chapter--each chapter differs in the sorts of content, that some sort of generic outline would feel forced, I think. The “feel” of the text, though, is consistent, and effectively conveys the content.

Because it uses footnote citations instead of endnotes / parenthetical citations, each page contains all of the references contained on it, which helps with modularity. The portions of the text that are less relevant to the course I teach (i.e. the more technical and statistical chapters, such as Chapters 6, 7, 8, 14, and 15 are easily omitted; I will be able to adapt portions of this text (i.e. the discussion of sampling in Chapter 8) without needing to provide all of the chapters. Some of the more technical vocabulary will require editing and explanation, but this seems manageable for me as an adapter.

The book is logically organized and the topics make sense in the order presented. I agree with another reviewer that the ethics portion seems like an appendix, rather than an essential and structural part of the book. As I adapt this text, I would address ethics at the beginning (as I do in my current teaching of research methods) and infuse the topic through other sections to address ethics-related concerns at all stages of research design and implementation. The author’s choice to use footnotes for references is not the one that seemed logical to me at first - it seems “elegant” to put all the references in a list at the rear of a book; now, reading through the whole text, however, I see some value to having the entirety of a citation at hand when reading through the main body of the text. Still, I miss the comprehensive list of works cited at the end of the book, which I would add to a text that I create, since an e-text is not limited by the economics of physically-printed books.

The text is workable as presented in the PDF document that I downloaded. Charts and other imagery are usable. There are no extra navigation features (a link to take a reader to the table of contents in a header or footer, etc.). I am left wondering if, in a PDF form, an OER textbook would be more useful with more navigation features, or if they might make the document buggy, cluttered, or otherwise affect use.

I did not detect any issues with grammar, usage, etc. in the text.

There is a lack of specific examples that might lend a sense of wide scope / global appeal to the textbook, and create an inclusive atmosphere for a reader/student. The author has stated that they hope to translate and widely distribute the text - perhaps, as is the case in the syllabus that the author provides, the hope is that in use for a course, additional readings will provide local knowledge and place-, culture-, and discipline-specific details and context.

This is a solid text that will provide a framework for adaptation in another disciplinary / area context.

Reviewed by Kevin Deitle, Adjunct Associate Professor, TRAILS on 10/6/19

I am pleased with the coverage in the text; it includes the history and foundations of research, as well as chapters on ethics and a sample syllabus. The structure and arrangement of the book differs from my own understandings of research and how I present it in class, but all the material covered in my class appears in the text, and it can be ordered to fit my syllabus. This text spends more time with statistics than I include in a research course, but again, that can be omitted or just used for reference. The book does not include either an index or a glossary, which is unfortunate for anyone who wants a paper version. Of course, most students seem to prefer an electronic text, so I assume they use a search function rather than an index.

I have not spotted any glaring errors, other than an occasional grammatical slip or a cumbersome edit. The author includes a few citations, usually following APA style, but employs footnotes instead of a reference section. The content mostly aligns with my own conceptions of research, although it does have a different arrangement from my presentation in class. This does not suggest that the content is wrong, only that I would likely rearrange it to suit my instructional sequence. I sense no bias in the presentation, including the historical or ethical portions, or sections that mention religion. I’m comfortable that I could rely on this book in class without worrying over slanted content or editorialization.

Research is something of a traditional topic, in the sense that changes or evolutions move at a comfortably slow pace. I expect there is very little of this text that is likely to become obsolete any time soon. The flip side is there is little in this book that is necessarily cutting-edge, but that is not the fault of the author at all. And in the unforeseeable situation where a new protocol or a new advance in either statistics or research warrants an update, I think the organization and the modular design will allow that to happen without major upheavals in the structure or arrangement of the text.

As mentioned elsewhere, the writing is comfortably academic without becoming dense or burdensome. I have seen introductions to research that were more casual and probably fit a beginner audience better than this would, but I daresay this is intended as a core text for a graduate-level class, and for that reason, can be expected to sound less approachable and more authoritative. The text employs features for fast visual reference, to include breaks in the text to allow for visual elements, and bolded text where key terms are introduced or defined. While this would probably not be a particularly exciting text for a self-study course, it will sit well with classes that need a reference text that takes the time to explain concepts with some authority.

Structurally the author has a style and sticks to it throughout the text. Visually this book is sparse, and it will require some effort on the part of the professor to make the content digestible in a classroom environment. However, that also suggests that the arrangement and format remain predictable from the first page to the last, without any surprises in presentation or discourse. Research has a tendency to step on its own toes when it comes to terminology, but this text follows those conventions for the most part, making it mostly congruent with other research texts I have seen. I think this book would complement other research texts without causing too many difficulties in terminology or arrangement.

The author suggests in the preface that the work was intended to be rearranged by sections, and I can appreciate how the chapters and structure support that statement. I do see this more as a foundational reference for a graduate-level course than a self-study text though, and it has the feel of a reference work to it. Text appears in large blocks, is illustrated sparsely, and has no callout texts or pull quotes. Key words are bolded but get no more embellishment, which again suggests a reference rather than an instructional work. I’m sure this material could be the groundwork for a more reader-friendly presentation, if someone wanted less of a reference and more of a textbook.

This might be the most appealing point of the text for me. As I mentioned earlier, I like the overall sequence that the author follows, but at the same time I can appreciate how the sections can be detached and still stand alone. The logic follows principles and theory through to fundamentals, then diverges to cover the details that fit more complex or esoteric versions of research. There is enough statistical explanation to avoid vague generalizations, but at points I expect it would overwhelm a beginner. I would prefer ethics was near the start of the text, rather than an epilogue; our course is arranged to require students to complete ethics training before they may pursue later assignments. But this is easily solved.

On the whole the text is satisfactory, the layout from page to page is acceptable, but there’s a minimum of graphic elements or visual components. Some of the statistical formulas or graphs are low-quality, or have suffered compression artifacts. Their appearance in the text is logical though, and the few tables or diagrams that do appear are in color, with arrows or labels to ease interpretation. The table of contents is primitive, and there is no way to navigate specific tables or diagrams except moving page by page in sequence. External sites are hyperlinked, and the table of contents has been designed for electronic use, but there are no cross-reference features. This gives the text the feel of a word processed document converted to a PDF format, intended to be printed. Overall, the core content is strong, as a printed book it is probably acceptable, but as an electronic textbook it lacks some contemporary features.

I have found very few grammatical errors or incomplete sentences, and none of those were so flagrant as to make the text unusable. If this had been submitted as an academic work it would likely earn some criticism for style or grammar (the author seems to follow APA style, but tends to footnote references simultaneously), but this never impedes the delivery. The text is readable at a collegiate level without becoming over-academic, or for that matter, casual.

The text manages to broach sensitive issues in a level and balanced format; in particular the ethics section manages to discuss some well-known failings in past research without becoming overly critical of the researcher or the participants. Arguably, research and its underlying processes are mostly mechanical (or at least standardized), meaning it is possible for individual researchers to violate cultural, ethnic, racial, or other boundaries, but the underlying science is generally unconcerned with those issues. In that sense, the book has very few opportunities to broach hot-button topics except when dealing with historical or ethical examples.

I appreciate this text as a starting point for a more accessible design, or as a background reference for a full course introducing social science research. I see it as a foundation text or an external source for students who seek a concise fallback for lessons, and with content that is compatible with other textbooks. In many ways it needs much more to compete with established textbooks or dedicated electronic learning tools, and in some places I would like more references for the material that is included. On the whole though, I would consider this as the core text for my next introductory research course.

Reviewed by Krystin Krause, Assistant Professor, Emory and Henry College on 4/10/19

This text covers the core elements of a social science research methods course at the undergraduate level. While the notes state it is intended for graduate coursework, I would have no problem teaching in my undergraduate courses. The concise chapters are undergraduate-friendly and will make a solid foundation with the addition of supplemental reading assignments that show examples of the concepts discussed in the textbook. There is no glossary or index, but keyword searching in the pdf copy is simple and effective.

The text seems to be an accurate reflection of social science research methods, particularly when considering causal inference and hypothesis testing. If your course is also covering descriptive inference, you would want to supplement the text with additional material.

Research methods is not a subject that changes quickly, and thus this text will not become obsolete quickly. The only things that may need updating over time are any links that lead to pages that no longer exist. Any other updates will be relatively easy and straightforward to implement.

The text is written in a style that is accessible for undergraduates. It follows the conventions of including relevant key words and phrases in bold and includes easy to follow definitions of terms. I anticipate that undergraduates will also appreciate how concise the text is.

The chapters are consistent in both terminology and framework. It offers a unified organization that also allows for mixing and matching chapters if an instructor wishes to teach the chapters out of order.

The organization of the text lends itself to be adapted to any introductory social science research methods course, regardless of what order the instructor wants to place the topics being discussed. Chapters could be taught out of order and can be subdivided accordingly.

While it is certainly possible to break apart to teach the text in a different order than how the chapters are originally offered, the progression of the text from the introduction to the chapters on qualitative data analysis is both logical and clear.

The text is free of interface issues, and charts and images appear to be clear and correct. The only exception to this are the links found in the sample syllabus at the end of the book. I was only able to get one of the links to work.

No grammatical errors jumped out at me. There are a few here and there, but they are not distracting for the reader.

The text is not culturally insensitive or offensive.

Because the book is concise, I would recommend its use in addition to other supplementary resources such as class lectures, academic articles that demonstrate the methods discussed in the textbook, and projects that allow students to experience the methods first-hand. It would make a good alternative to more elaborate basic research methods textbooks when the instructor wishes to keep costs for the students low.

Reviewed by Mari Sakiyama, Assistant Professor, Western Oregon University on 4/5/19

The textbook covers the major key elements that are essential in research methods for social science. However, both the breadth and depth of information might be too elementary for Ph.D. and graduate students. With the use of additional reading... read more

I did not notice any errors or unbiased content. The author had provided accurate information with simple/straightforward examples that can be understood by students with various discipline in social science.

Given the nature of the subject, the content is considered to be up-to-date. However, although there will not be too many changed expected in the research strategies and designs, it is important to note that some of the sampling procedure have been facing some changes in recent years (e.g., telephone survey, online sampling frame).

The textbook provided the content in a clear and concise manner. The author, instead of providing a complex list of academic jargon/technical terminologies, but rather clarified and explained these terms in a simple and straightforward fashion.

Overall, the content was consistent throughout the textbook. Starting with a broad/general statement of each chapter topic, the author narrowed it down to smaller element which is easy for the reader to follow and understand. As he provided in CH.6, it might be even more helpful to have summaries for each chapter.

This textbook is certainly divided into smaller segments, but maybe too small (short). However, as mentioned above, this problem can be solved by adapting additional readings.

The textbook is significantly reader-friendly and well-structured. Although some instructors prefer to cover some chapters earlier (or later) in their semester/term than others, this is just a personal preference. There are no issues with the author’s organization of the textbook.

Overall, the use of indentations, bolding, italicization, and bullet points, was consistent. However, many of the images were blurry (e.g., Figure 8.2, Table 14.1) and some fonts were smaller than others (i.e., pg. 34).

I did not notice any grammatical errors. Even I had missed some, they would not be destructions for the reader. (Note: The scale is confusing. What I mean by '5' is the least amount of grammatical errors were found)

The author did not use any concept that was insensitive or offended people and/or subjects from various backgrounds. (Note: The scale is confusing. What I mean by '5' is the least amount of cultural insensitivity or offensiveness were found)

See my comments above.

Reviewed by Candace Bright, Assistant Professor, East Tennessee State University on 11/7/18

There are some key elements that I would expect to be in a social science research methods book that are missing in this book. I think this comprehensiveness may be appropriate for an undergraduate course (with some supplementation), but the text... read more

The information in the book seems accurate. When necessary, it is cited appropriately.

The content is very relevant. Because the book focuses on methods, it does not need too much change over time. It was published in 2012. The main area that might need to be updated in the discussion regarding the Internet and how it impacts our research options. Perhaps more could be added on machine learning, AI, web-scraping, and social media in general. I increasingly see studies conducted either using social media content or recruiting through social media; neither of these are addressed in this book.

I really like the way the book is laid out. In particular, the qualitative and quantitative analysis sections are well organized. They succinctly cover a lot of information is a way that is very consumable. There were some instances, however, where I thought wording lacked clarity or definitions needed further explanation.

I do not see any issues with consistency.

I like the organization of this book and each chapter does a good job of standing alone on important topics within research methods. The sections within the chapters are clearly marked and logically organized.

The organization is clear and logical. It covers important concepts in research methods in the same order in which they are typically taught, with the exception of ethics. In this book, ethics comes last, whereas I would have taught it earlier.

This might be minor, but I noticed some places where the spacing was different and it was a little distracting. Overall, it is well formatted.

I didn't notice any grammatical errors.

Overall, the text book could use more examples and applied examples, but when present, I find them culturally appropriate.

I have mixed feeling on the image on the cover and the limited visuals within the book. I also don't feel like this textbook has enough visuals or figures that could be used to support comprehension of the materials. More examples would also be helpful. Overall, however, the author has presented a lot of information succinctly and I look forward to using this text (in parts) in future methods courses.

Reviewed by Alysia Roehrig, Associate Professor , Florida State University on 11/5/18

This text provides an overview of many important issues for my graduate research methods course in education. There are a few important topics missing, however. In particular, types of correlational designs and mixed-methods designs would be important to include. Likewise, single-subject designs are not mentioned at all. I will have to supplement these areas with other readings. I also think more about specific threats to internal and external validity should be provided, along with information about when and how certain threats are avoided. There is no glossary but being an online text, it is simple enough to search for certain terms.

Content seems to be error-free and unbiased for the most part. However, I have an issues with the language in chapter 2 about about strong and weak hypotheses because it seems to treat the experimental/causal hypotheses preferentially. The author also states that hypotheses should have IVs and DVs...but what about non-experimental hypotheses?? I think students could be misled by this and I think this requires a lot of unpacking. Thus, I do sense somewhat of a prejudicial treatment of quantitative and experimental research methods. I plan to add information to pages 13 and 15 about how qualitative methods do not involve testing hypotheses though the results might be an inductively derived hypothesis or nascent theory.

The content covered is pretty standard and basic and so not likely to be out-dated soon.

The writing is straightforward and easy to follow.

The use of terms and framework seems to be consistent throughout the book.

The chapter and subject headers all seem to be clear. They will make it easy to select sections for assignment or reordering if revising for use.

The order of topics makes sense and is aligned with the process of conducting research.

The hotlinks in the table of content are nice, but additional navigational aids would be helpful. For example, a back to the Table of Contents (TOC) button would be nice, as well we a list of all subsections (hotlinked) added to a long version of the TOC.

I have not noticed any egregious problems.

There are not many examples, which means there is little opportunity to offend.

Reviewed by Eddie T. C. Lam, Associate Professor/Editor-in-Chief, Cleveland State University on 9/12/18

The book provides ample information for a research course, but it may not meet the needs of every instructor. For this reason, the book should include a few more chapters so that course instructors can have more options for a semester-long research course. For instance, at least one chapter should be on nonparametric statistics and their applications on research studies, while another chapter should be on research paper writing (e.g., what should be included in the Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion, and so on). For the Appendix, it is nice to provide a sample syllabus for the instructors, but the students may want a sample research paper in proper journal or thesis/dissertation format.

Most of the information presented in this book is accurate. The author has mentioned in Chapter 5 (p. 37) that “construct validity” will be described in the next chapter, but I don’t see any construct validity in Chapter 6 or Chapter 7. In addition, the author may want to emphasize what “alpha is set to 0.05” means. Does it mean the p-value has to be less than 0.05 (p. 125) or p ≤ 0.05 (p. 130) to reject the null hypothesis?

In terms of content, the book has fairly good amount of information. However, it is also obvious that many terms appeared in the last few decades are missing from the book. For example, Survey Monkey and social media can be included in Chapter 9 (Survey Research) and structure equation modeling can be introduced in Chapter 15.

The information is presented in layman’s terms without any jargon. New terms are bolded with clear definition, and sometimes they are illustrated with examples.

The terminology and framework are consistent throughout the text.

The chapters are logically presented and they are grouped under different sections. As mentioned before, the text should add a few more chapters for the course instructors to select from.

In my opinion, “Chapter 16 Research Ethics” should not be standalone (under the “Epilogue”) and it could be part of the “Introduction to Research” (i.e., the first few chapters).

The text does not have any significant interface issues, though the font size of the figures can be larger (e.g., they should not smaller than the font size of the text).

Overall, the text contains very few grammatical errors. However, in a number of occasions, a comma is added for no reason, such as “. . . we must understand that sometimes, these constructs are not real . . .” (p. 44). It is also unnecessary to always add a comma before the word “because.”

The content of the text is not culturally insensitive, and the author does not present any offensive statements or comments anywhere in the text.

It’s time to have a second edition.

Reviewed by Amy Thompson, Associate Professor, University of South Florida on 6/19/18

This text is a nice overview of some of the key points in social science research. There are useful definitions of key terms throughout the book, although none of the chapters go into much depth. It should be noted that there is more of a focus on... read more

Overall, the text seems accurate. There are some cases when the author gives advice that I don't agree with (i.e. advises against even-numbered Likert scale items, p. 48; encourages people not to do "trendy" research, such as that on new technology, p. 24). Even so, most of the information seems to be accurate.

The book is relevant. It gives a good overview of the theories and methods, which change little over time. I would suggest a few updates, however. Currently, there is controversy on the over-reliance of the p-value, and it would be useful to include some of this discussion on p. 125. Also, on p. 73, the author talks about "mail-in" and "telephone" surveys as a research method, and even goes on to say on p. 74 that most survey research is done by self-administered mail-in surveys with a pre-paid return envelop. This information needs to be updated, as currently, much of the survey research is done via online platforms.

The book is quite clear and provides succinct definitions.

The book seems consistent throughout.

The chapters are short and very readable. There would be no problem dividing the chapters up for a class, or using a portion of the book.

The topics are presented in a logical manner.

The text in some of the tables is blurry, especially when enlarging the PDF. Perhaps the print copy is clearer. The text outside of the tables is clear.

I didn't have any trouble reading or understanding the text.

This book is not offensive.

Overall, this is a good book to have as a reference or an additional text for a class. For my field, it wouldn't be sufficient to use as a stand-alone text. Although its intended audience is graduate students, it's a bit too basic for Ph.D. students, in my opinion. It would be a good text for an intro to research class at the UG or MA level, as a supplemental text. I would recommend it to Ph.D. students to use as a reference because of the key terms included. It's great that a resource like this is available for free to students and faculty in a wide variety of disciplines.

Reviewed by Huili Hao, Assistant Professor, University of North Carolina Wilmington on 5/21/18

This book provides an introductory and broad review of some of the key topics in social science research including research theories, research design, data collection, data analysis and research ethics Students from different disciplines in social science will find these topics useful in developing their research method skills. However, the book falls short on the depth of the essential concepts. It would also benefit from offering more practical examples for some of the theories or terminology. A glossary is not found within the text, although the table of content lists the topics covered in each of the modules.

Overall, this textbooks seems to be accurate.

The relevancy and longevity of this book are great. It focuses on fundamental research methods as well as incorporates current research approaches. Given the nature of research method that does not change drastically, content is up-to-date and won’t make the text obsolete within a short period of time. The topics are written in the way that necessary updates will be relatively easy and straightforward to implement.

The text is written in a logical and concise fashion. The text is easy to follow. I did not find any jargon or technical terminology used without explanation.

The text consistently matches the topics outlined in the table of content.

The text is clearly organized into five modules: introduction to research, basics of empirical research, data collection, data analysis, and research ethics. It also includes a course syllabus, which is nice and useful. Each of the modules / chapters can also be used as subunits of a research method course without putting the reader at a disadvantage.

The table of content is clear and the chapters are organized in a logic order.

I downloaded the PDF version of the textbook and find it easy to read offline. The formatting, navigation and images/charts seems clear and appropriate.

I had no trouble reading or understanding the textbook.

Overall, this is a good textbook that covers a broad range of topics important in research method. As this textbook is designed as a succinct overview of research design and process, more practical topics are not included in much detail such as how to conduct different statistical analyses using SPSS or SAS, or how to interpret statistical analysis results. It would require additional materials / textbooks for graduate level research method courses.

Reviewed by Jenna Wintemberg, Assistant Teaching Professor, University of Missouri on 5/21/18

I use almost the entire text in an undergraduate Health Science research methods course. I do supplement the text with additional readings on: -selecting a research topic -developing a research question -how to read scholarly articles -how to search the literature -mixed methods research -community-based participatory research -disseminating research findings -evidence-based practice

I have found this text to be accurate, error-free and unbiased.

The content is written in a way that will allow for longevity of use. I compliment this text with current peer-reviewed journal articles which are relevant to my students' career paths and can be updated more regularly.

I have found the book to be clearly written and appropriate for upper-level Health Science undergraduate students. Technical terminology is sufficiently defined.

The text uses a consistent framework throughout.

The text is easily divisible into smaller reading sections. I assign the chapters in an alternative order and students have not had problems with this.

I assign the chapters in an alternative order for my undergraduate students. For example, I have students read chapter 1 following by chapter 16 (research ethics).

There are no interface issues.

The text is free of grammatical errors

The text is not culturally offensive.

Because of the basic nature of the materials presented and clear writing, my upper level undergraduate students have done well with this text. The brevity of the chapters and bolded key terms particularly appeal to the students. I do have to supplement the text with journal articles and other materials. However, I am pleased with this straight-forward text and will continue to use it as the main text in my course moving forward.

Reviewed by Amy Thompson , Associate Professor, University of South Florida on 3/27/18

Reviewed by Debra Mowery, Assistant Professor, University of South Florida on 3/27/18

The text covers all of the areas of basic research information that I cover when I teach research and research methods in the social sciences. The table of contents is straight forward, and the chapters are arranged in a fluid, logical order. The nice thing with this text is that you could rearrange as you see fit for your course without an issue. There is also a sample syllabus in the appendix which could be useful when setting up a course. I feel this text is great for students who may not necessarily be interested in research as a job prospect (their interests may be more clinical in nature) but need the basics of research in a clear, easy to understand, and straight forward format.

I felt the content of this text is accurate, unbiased, and free of any glaring errors..

This text appears to be up-to-date including issues such as web-based or internet surveys and questionnaires. I did see that the copyright for this text was 2012 so not sure if revisions or updates to the original have happened or not. It seems that there should be a way to document if this is the latest version of the text. This may be useful information for users of this text.

This textbook is written in a concise and easy to read and understand manner - it is very user-friendly. This is a plus for students - it means they may actually read the text! Jargon and acronyms were appropriately defined with an explanation of how the terms originated and came to be utilized in research. This is appealing to me as an instructor so there is background information for the students.

The consistency of this text is uniform throughout. One appealing issue I liked was the use of social science examples when explaining topics like theories or paradigms. In some research texts examples are utilized but they may not necessarily be in the discipline that you are teaching.

I do like that this text is divided into 16 chapters which is perfect for a 15/16 week semester. The chapters are not so overwhelming that other supporting readings cannot be assigned to students as well to assist with explanation of the weekly topic. The text serves as a great base for building weekly assignments/readings for students.

The majority of the text is presented in a logical format. One issue I had with the order of the chapters in the text was including Ethics at the end in the Epilogue as if it was an after thought. Ethics, ethical behavior, and rigor are a must in research and should be addressed early on in the research process. Having said this, I feel the chapter on Ethics should be moved up further in the chapter line-up (possibly to chapter 2 or 3).

I did not experience any navigation problems. There was however, distortion with many of the images especially the graphics that were utilized throughout the text. A review of the images/graphics and an update to them would be useful. If this e-text has not been updated since 2012 this may be the issue for the distorted figures.

There are a few grammar/spelling/word choice errors. The errors do not effect the content of the text but when reading it makes you pause and think - what is trying to be said here? It might be useful to the author to have the text proofread or copy edited to resolve these issues.

In reviewing this text I did not see any examples that might be deemed offensive or insensitive to other cultures, orientations, ethnicities, etc,

Reviewed by Kendall Bustad, Clinical Assistant Professor, University of Maryland, College Park on 2/1/18

This book covers all the important topics in social science research and is approachable regardless of discipline and course level (high school, undergraduate, graduate, and even post-graduate). It provides an introduction to philosophy as well as components of research. You'll find yourself returning to the basics, and it gives strong foundations. Specifically, I find that the book provides a very comprehensive introduction to research philosophy and research designs, particularly in addressing how to come up with research questions, which is often a challenge for new doctoral students. However, due to the succinct nature of the book, some sections seemed lacking. Particularly, in the more practical steps of the research process (the data collection and data analysis sections)

The text does not seem to be biased in any way.

The content of the book is up-to-date. The text included relevant descriptions of current software commonly used in research.

If you want to have a compressed body of knowledge of social science research, you may read this one. Beneficial.

The text consistently matches the book outline. Terms were used consistently throughout the text.

Each chapter can stand along as a separate lecture. The headings, subheadings, an bold items are great additions that highlight important topics or definitions.

Most of the text flows in a logical, clear fashion. However, it may be clearer to have quantitative data analysis methods immediately follow quantitative data collection methods, and similarly for the qualitative data collection and analysis.

No issues noted.

There are a few grammatical errors.

There does not seem to be any culturally insensitive or offensive text.

Reviewed by Jason Giersch, Assistant Professor, UNC Charlotte on 2/1/18

The biggest challenge faced when writing a book about research methods is the decision about what NOT to include. Instructors and disciplines within the social sciences vary widely in terms of their expectations of students in an introductory methods course, and thus their needs from a textbook also vary. This textbook does an excellent job setting the stage for what we mean by "research" in the social sciences. Students will develop a solid foundation in the goals and rationales behind the methods social scientists employ. Students will also develop a comprehensive vocabulary in social science research methods. However, the book falls short in the development of students' research skills. Learning about methods is important, but not much is gained from that knowledge unless the student also learns how to execute at least some techniques. Furthermore, there is little guidance for the student regarding how to properly write a research paper, something that many instructors will find disappointing. This book is probably comprehensive enough for a 3-credit methods course with test-based assessments in a program where few students pursue graduate work. But if teaching students to actually conduct and write up research is important to the course, there are much better books out there (although at significant cost).

Content is accurate and unbiased.

The relevance and longevity are strong. This book describes some of the most current methods but still focuses on the foundations of research that will be appropriate for the foreseeable future. Updates could be easily made every five years or so to keep up with methodology.

The writing is very easy to follow with helpful examples. Prose is direct and to the point, giving only the essential information so as to allow the learner to develop a grasp of fundamentals. The section on theory, for example, is refreshingly clear for learners. Graphics aid in understanding the material in many parts.

This textbook uses consistent terminology and framework.

The textbook is appropriately structured for a standard 15 week course and even recommends a syllabus. Adapting it to other formats, like a 5 or 10 week summer course, might be tricky. There are ample headings and sub-headings, however, that allow the text to be divided into smaller chunks, which is nice to see given how many students feel overwhelmed by this topic.

Organization and flow is excellent. From an education and instructional standpoint, I wouldn't change the organization.

The simplicity of design is a strength -- students should have no difficulty opening and viewing the text on a wide variety of devices. On the downside, there are no bells and whistles that many some students have come to expect from online textbooks.

The casual writing style makes it very accessible, but one consequence is the very occasional grammar problem. It's a trade-off, I think, that is worth making.

Research methods are pretty "culturally-neutral", so there's nothing in it I would see as insensitive or offensive. That being said, the text recommends SPSS and SAS as software to use while neglecting free options (like R) or more ubiquitous programs (like Excel). For a textbook intended to keep costs at zero, these are glaring omissions.

I could certainly see this book being used as an accessible and low-stress introduction to the world of research methods in the social sciences. The main improvements I would like to see would be (1) sidebars throughout that guide students through the paper-writing process and (2) activities using datasets for students to actually perform some of their own quantitative analyses. Perhaps a companion volume could address these needs.

Reviewed by Nathan Favero, Assistant Professor, American University on 2/1/18

This text provides a fairly comprehensive coverage of topics. It is broad, hitting most of the major topics I need to cover in an intro PhD seminar for social science research methods (I'm teaching public administration/policy, political science, and criminology students). That said, there is not a ton of depth in this textbook. I don't view that as a negative; I prefer having a textbook that gives a basic outline of essential concepts and then fleshing this out with supplemental readings, but some might prefer a textbook that goes into more depth.

Overall, this textbook is accurate but not perfect. Sometimes I wish it was a bit more precise, particularly in coverage of quantitative topics. But I use another textbook to more fully cover quantitative topics anyway for my course.

I would say this textbook reads as modern and relevant, although perhaps it could do more to address emerging methodological concerns in social science disciplines (p-hacking, replication, pre-registration of research designs, etc.).

The textbooks is very accessible and easy to read for someone new to the disciplines of social science.

The book appears to be consistent.

I've assigned students to read the chapters in a different order than they are presented in the text had have not encountered any problems. Chapters are coherently organized into distinct topics.

The organization of the book is logical.

Overall, this book is easy to read and use. Graphs are not always high-resolution, but they are readable.

I have not noticed many grammatical errors.

I have not noticed any clear biases or insensitive handling of material in the book.

I'm delighted to have found this book. It's a great starting point for teaching my students to think about the basics of social science research and provides a nice skeleton on which I can layer more in-depth material for my course.

Reviewed by Holly Gould, Associate Professor, Lynchburg College on 8/15/17

The author states that the text is not designed to go in-depth into the subject matter but rather give a basic understanding of the material. I believe the author covers the necessary topics with enough depth to give the reader a basic... read more

I found no errors in content and no observable bias in any of the chapters.

This text will continue to be relevant because of the nature of the subject matter. Updates may be needed to reflect more current research or trends, but no major changes should be necessary.

The text is written clearly and succinctly. The text is understandable for those who are new to the subject matter.

I found no inconsistencies in the text.

The text is divided into logical chapters, and subheadings seem to be appropriate. Chapters can be read fairly easily in isolation without putting the reader at a disadvantage.

The topics are presented in a logical fashion. Some of the chapters have summaries or conclusions, while other chapters seem to end abruptly. It would be helpful to the reader to have a summary statement at the end of each chapter.

I downloaded and read the text in a PDF reader and had no trouble with formatting, navigation, or images/charts.

The text contains some grammatical errors but the errors are minor and do not distract the reader.

This text is well written and I would recommend it to an individual looking for a bare bones book on basic research methods. It contains information essential to understanding quantitative and qualitative research. The charts and images provided enhance the understanding of the text. At times, the author digs a little deeper into background and formulas for certain statistical ideas, which may be unnecessary to someone looking to understand the basics (e.g. the formula for Cronbach's alpha). Some chapters seem to end abruptly while other chapters have excellent summaries or conclusions. There is one recommendation that goes against the prevailing wisdom on survey design. On page 77, the author indicates that a survey should begin with non-threatening questions such as demographic information. Many experts have written that these types of questions, when asked at the beginning of a questionnaire or survey, can affect the respondents' answers to subsequent questions and should be saved for the end. Aside from these minor issues, this text is a great resource and I recommend it.

Reviewed by Virginia Chu, Assistant Professor, Virginia Commonwealth University on 4/11/17

The text offers an introductory overview to scientific research for PhD and graduate students in social sciences. It covers a broad range of topics, research theories, research process, research design, data collection methods, qualitative and quantitative research, statistical analysis, and research ethics. This book touches on many important topics related to the scientific research process that is typically found in several different text. As the author stated in the preface, this is an introductory book that is minimalist by design, it does not contain in-depth discussions or many examples. This is both a plus and a minus, as it makes the book more compact and allow it to be used by many different disciplines, but may be harder for students to relate. The comprehensive nature of the book allows the reader to be exposed to all the necessary topics, or provides a structure for a course instructor, who then supplements with additional materials to create the depth that is specifically tailored for their discipline. Specifically, I find that the book provides a very comprehensive introduction to research philosophy and research designs, particularly in addressing how to come up with research questions, which is often a challenge for new doctoral students. However, due to the succinct nature of the book, some sections seemed lacking. Particularly, in the more practical steps of the research process (the data collection and data analysis sections), as a new doctoral student will certainly need more details than what is provided in the text to begin their first research endeavor. For example, in the quantitative analysis section, only a handful of basic analysis were discussed in detail (univariate analysis, hypothesis testing, t-test, regression). I would like to see a more practical discussion of ANOVA, as it is a very commonly used statistical analysis tool. These topics may also be more discipline specific, where instructors of research classes can supplement with additional materials. The discussion on research ethics is certainly a nice addition to the book where many other research methods texts lack. An index/glossary is not included with the text, but the table of content clearly outlines the topics discussed for each module.

The book is overall accurate and unbiased. The book covered different social science research methods fairly. I did notice a discrepancy in Figure 5.1, where “single case study” is plotted on the graph as high in external validity, but the rest of the text frequently brought up case studies (especially single case studies) having the difficulty with generalizability which should have low external validity.

The content of the book is up-to-date. The text included relevant descriptions of current softwares commonly used in research. It will also stand against the test of time as research methods do not change drastically. The content can also be updated to reflect new technological updates. One needed update noticed is on page 120, where the authors cautioned that only smaller datasets can be stored in Excel and larger datasets needs a more elaborate database system. While the statement is still relevant, the numbers the author cited appear to be old and Excel has since been updated to handle larger datasets (1,000,000 observations and 16,000 items) than what the author had listed.

The content is written in a very clear and concise manner. It is easy to read and to follow the author’s arguments. I did not notice any jargon or technical term that was used without explanation.

The book has a modular organization, with each chapter designed to be used for a different lecture. Each chapter is a self contained unit that can be used as its own reading. Each chapter also has subsections that are clearly marked with subheadings. Important terms are also highlighted by bolding, making it easy for the reader to identify the important concepts.

The chapters of the book flows logically from one to the next. The current layout of the text groups all the data collection methods together and all the data analysis methods together. It may be clearer to have quantitative data analysis methods immediately follow quantitative data collection methods, and similarly for the qualitative data collection and analysis. This could be easily done based on the course instructor preference.

No interface issues noted.

The text is generally free of grammatical and spelling errors, with the exception of 2 minor typos noticed on page 139 (“Rik”, “riska”).

The text and examples provided are not culturally insensitive or offensive.

The text is easy to read and covers a broad and comprehensive range of topics important for research. I particularly enjoyed the discussion on research ethics which is often missing in many research methods texts. I would recommend discussing that topic earlier, together with research design, as many of these ethical issues and IRB requirements come up during research design phase. As the text is a meant to be a concise overview of the research process, the more practical topics are not covered in as much detail and would require supplementary material.

Reviewed by Brock Rozich, Instructor, University of Texas at Arlington on 4/11/17

The textbook covers the majority of what would be expected for a research methods course. It builds upon basic topics to more advanced concepts, so students from various backgrounds of research experience should still find the text useful. The glossary for the text is clear and a sample syllabus is provided by the author for individuals wishing to use this text for their course. The text was lacking an index, which would prove helpful for students.

The text is accurate and up-to-date with research methods in the social sciences. A variety of data collection methods and concepts are discussed in an easy to understand manor.

The content is up-to-date with research methods in the social sciences. The text should be able to prove useful for a research methods or as supplementary material for a statistics course for the foreseeable future. While I looked through this text with a focus on using it for a psychology course, I feel that this text would be useful across other fields as well.

The book was clear and built upon concepts in a thorough manner. Technical terms were well defined, though as mentioned previously, an index would be helpful for this text for students to look up key terms if they became lost. The text would be useful for an upper-level undergraduate or introductory graduate level course.

The text is consistent throughout. There were no notable deficiencies in any of the content provided in each chapter.

The course is broken down into logical subsections and chapters. Introductory topics relating to research methods are provided early and are built upon in subsequent chapters. A sample syllabus and course outline are provided for instructors who wish to utilize the text for their class.

The book is constructed in a well-organized fashion, without any issues of chapter structure.

The PDF version of the text worked wonderfully on a laptop, with no issues of navigation or distortion of images. This text was not, however, viewed on a tablet or e-reader, which many students use for classes. Based solely on use of a PDF file on a laptop, the interface was flawless, however, if you are considering using this for a class, I would test it out on an e-reader/tablet first to make sure there are no issues with format/text size, etc.

The book did not appear to have any noticeable grammar or syntactical errors.

There were no notable instances of cultural insensitivity throughout the text. Examples were broad and not specific to an individual race or culture.

This is a wonderful open source option for a main text for a research methods course or as a supplementary option for a statistics course that also focuses on data collection.

Reviewed by Divya Varier, Assistant Professor, Virginia Commonwealth University on 2/8/17

The textbook adequately covers most fundamental concepts related to research methods in the social sciences. Areas that would need attention: a chapter introducing mixed methods research, and a deeper discussion on Research Ethics. More social science based examples on specific research designs, experimental research would be great. The research process could include steps involved in academic research with information on the publishing and peer review process.

Content is accurate for the most part. I would have liked a more nuanced discussion of reliability and validity concepts- introducing the concept of validity as conceptualized by Messick/Kane is needed. In social science, especially education (the field I work in), masters/ doctoral students need to be introduced to the complex nature of establishing reliability and validity. While the content covered is detailed, a more critical introduction of the concepts as being situated in the obtained scores as opposed to the instrument itself would have made the chapter stronger.

Content is for the most part up to date (see above comments for specific areas: reliability, validity, mixed methods); some examples may become outdated very soon (example of political movements in middle eastern countries for example).

The writing is excellent in terms of clarity. I appreciate the use of straight forward language to explain the multitude of concepts!

The text is consistent in its overall approach to research methods as well as consistent in its use of terminology.

Bold font for key terms is appreciated. More insets/boxes within chapters would be a great addition visually. Addition of research studies and discussion questions would be great.

The chapters are well-organized. Only suggestion would be to introduce research ethics early on in the book.

No issues whatsoever in this regard.

No issues with grammar

The text is best suited for universities in western countries although I did not identify any insensitivity that would hinder teaching and learning of research methods using this textbook elsewhere.

Specific chapters in this book will be useful for me, from an instructor's perspective. For example, Chapter 2 - 'thinking like a researcher' is wonderfully written. The chapter on Interpretive Research and Qual. Data Analysis are thorough and clear in presentation of concepts- I definitely would use these chapters in my Research Methods class.

Reviewed by Rachel Lucas-Thompson, Assistant Professor, Colorado State University on 12/5/16

As acknowledged by the author in the preface, this is intended as a survey book that doesn't cover all topics in great detail. The upside is that this is a flexible text that can be used in many disciplines; the down side is that the text is short on examples, which reduces readability. I also prefer a textbook that provides a more detailed discussion of the following issues, but could supplement the textbook with these discussion in class: a) confounding variables, b) writing a research report, and the parts of a research report, c) evaluating the internal and external validity of a study, d) how we handle Likert and Likert-type scales (with better reflection of the rich controversy about this issue), e) historical background that has informed our current ethical guidelines, and f) more detail about manipulated vs. observed independent variables. Also, the 'research process' section doesn't include a step for going through IRB review and approval, so overlooks an important step in social science research. I think more detail is provided about paradigms and theories than is necessary, but those chapters and sections could be left out of course reading assignments quite easily.

In general, I think this textbook would be best suited to a course where the textbook is seen as an overview to supplement course discussions rather than a detailed coverage of research methods principles.

As far as I can tell, the book is accurate. There are some terms that the author uses that are not widely used in my field (developmental psychology, human development & family studies) but the descriptions are clear enough that I think students will be able to understand what is meant (however, it would be great to acknowledge and discuss some of these variations in terminology so the burden isn't entirely on the students who are still learning these concepts).

Research methods and statistics content are unlikely to change rapidly, although with the increasing use of ecological momentary assessments, daily diaries, and internet sampling techniques, it might be useful down the road to include more detail about those techniques.

The book is easy to read and follow, although the lack of examples to clarify concepts sometimes reduces the clarity of ideas (but is in keeping with the philosophy of the book).

I haven't spotted any problems with internal consistency.

It would be very easy to divide this into smaller reading sections and assign at different time points.

In general the organization makes sense; the only exception is having research ethics as an epilogue, when ethical issues need to be considered before a study is completed.

My two suggestions for increasing are a) hyperlinking the table of contents so that it was easier to find exactly what you want in the textbook, and b) providing a more detailed table of contents (with subheadings) so it's easier to determine where in chapters you should reference.

I haven't found any grammatical errors.

The text is neither culturally insensitive nor offensive.

I think this book is very well-suited for intro graduate level courses in research methods, as long as instructors are comfortable with this as an overview supplement rather than a detailed stand alone resource for students.

Reviewed by Robin Bartlett, Professor, University of North Carolina at Greensboro on 12/5/16

Generally the major topics are covered. The table of contents (chapter listing) makes it easy to find content. Occasionally I found what I thought was a topic covered only minimally in a chapter - but then found additional information in a later chapter (e.g., treats to internal validity). Overall I'd say in comparison to most other texts with which I am familiar that most all topics are covered, to some degree, but some topics are covered less than I would expect in a doctoral level textbook.

I found no errors in fact in the textbook. I found it to be written in an accurate and unbiased manner.

Primarily due to the topic covered (research methods), I do not believe the text will become obsolete in a short period of time. I think updates could be easily added, and if the author decided to cover some topics more thoroughly, that could be accomplished relatively easily, too.

The book is written in an easy to read style. It is easy to understand. Technical terminology is explained appropriately. The author puts many words in bold type and then defines or describes the word. Students will like this approach.

I had no issues as I reviewed the book in terms of consistency of terms used. The text is internally consistent.

The chapters of the book are separated by natural divisions. It would be easy to use this book in a course on research methods, in fact, there is a syllabus included at the end of the book that could be used by a faculty member when course creating.

The textbook topics are presented in a logical fashion. The ordering isn't necessarily the same order I have seen in other texts, but the order is reasonable.

I had no major interface problems as I reviewed the book. Some of the diagrams in the book are a little out of focus, but, they are still readable.

I found no grammatical errors in the sections of the book that I read.

I found no cultural insensitivity in the text. I noticed the examples cited were from articles written by authors from different countries.

The book is easy to read and fairly comprehensive in terms of topics covered. Some topics are covered in less detail than in some other books I've had the chance to read / review. I am most accustomed to finding discussion of theories in separate texts and presentation of statistics that might be used to analyze quantitative data in separate texts. There are even a couple of chapters on qualitative methods in this book. So, the book covers a wide variety of topics and introduces them in a clear way. Topics are not covered in as comprehensive way as in many texts.

Reviewed by Kelly Pereira, Assistant Professor, The University of North Carolina at Greensboro on 12/5/16

This text offers a comprehensive overview of social science research methods appropriate for advanced undergraduate and graduate students. The text covers the basic concepts in theory, research design and analysis that one would expect of a text geared toward the social sciences in general. The text could be easily adapted and/or supplemented to fit any discipline-specific needs. While the text covers a broad array of topics, it is a bit superficial and lacks depth in some areas. More examples and case studies, for example, could improve the text's thoroughness. The text also lacks an index, glossary and discussion questions, all of which would have been quite useful for a text of this nature. I do like that it includes a chapter on research ethics and an appendix with a sample syllabus, however.

Based on my review, the text's content is accurate, error-free and unbiased. I liked that it presented both qualitative and quantitative research methods fairly, as this divide is often a source of bias.

The text contains up-to-date approaches to research methods and presents classic theoretical debates. The methods presented should not become obsolete in the near future. Any new trends in research methodology could be easily updated in future versions of this text. I feel the text will be relevant and useful for multiple years.

The text is generally well written. It presents the information in a clear and concise way. I find it provides sufficient contextualization and examples for graduate students with some background already in research methods. Undergraduates will likely require supplemental materials and additional case studies to grasp some of the concepts covered. The illustrations do help guide understanding of concepts presented.

The terminology and research methods frameworks presented in the text are consistent. The use of bolded terms and illustrations throughout the text provide additional consistency.

The division of the text into the following sections: theoretical foundations, concepts in research design, data collection and data analysis, make it easy for instructors to structure a course and assign readings based on these main foundational areas. This format also enables instructors to easily supplement with other materials.

Overall, this is a well-organized text. Bolded words/phrases throughout the text provide some structure to guide reading. The text is divided into 16 chapters, which corresponds seamlessly with a 16-week semester. This enables instructors to cover one chapter per week, if they so desire, or optionally spend more time on chapters relevant to their course and exclude others. As mentioned earlier, the logical division of the text chapters into the areas of theory, research design, data collection and data analysis, lends to a soundly-structured course and facilitates the assignment of readings and other coursework.

I did not experience any issues with the text's interface, navigation or displays of images/illustrations. The text is in PDF format.

I did not notice any grammatical errors that impeded reading of the text.

I did not come across any culturally-insensitive or offensive passages in the text.

Reviewed by Peter Harris, Assistant Professor, Colorado State University on 12/5/16

This is a comprehensive overview of research design and research methods in the social sciences. The book's introductory sections offer a discussion of the philosophy of science, the history of science, and definitions of some key terms and concepts, which will help students to contextualize their own endeavors - and their own discipline(s) - inside a larger framework. It also tackles the more familiar topics of research design - conceptualization, measurement, sampling, and so forth - and several specific approaches to data-collection. Overall, then, the book is to be commended for tackling both the philosophical issues at stake in research design as well as the 'nuts and bolts' (or 'brass tacks') of actually doing research.

One of the book's touted selling-points is its focus on phases of research that precede data collection. That is, the book aims to train students not only in research methods, but also in the critical tasks of theorizing problems, generating research questions, and designing scientific inquiries - what the author refers to as 'thinking like a researcher.' This is certainly a welcome addition to a textbook on research design, and ought to help students to overcome some familiar stumbling blocks that seem to present themselves during graduate programs.

Because of its breadth, however, parts of the book can sometimes seem thin and underdeveloped. In particular, the chapters on data collection (specific research methods) are less detailed and comprehensive than other books manage to provide. It is hard to give a detailed 'how to' guide to either survey research, experiments, case studies, or interpretive methods in just 10 pages. As a result, instructors will almost certainly want to supplement this book with more detailed material, perhaps tailored to their specific discipline.

Even so, this book is an excellent backbone for an undergraduate or graduate class on research methods. It will have to be read in conjunction with discipline-specific guides to conducting research (and, most likely, alongside examples of good and bad research), but this does nothing to detract from the book's own value: it will certainly offer a valuable overview of key concepts, ideas, and problems in research design and data-collection, and will serve students throughout the duration of their studies and not just for one class.

This book is accurate, error-free, and as unbiased as it is possible to be in the social sciences. Of course, it is possible to imagine those who simply hold different views about what social science "is" or should be; some scholars might bristle at the notion that only knowledge produced according to the narrow strictures of the scientific method can be considered "scientific knowledge," for example, while others might balk at interpretivism being given parity of esteem with what they see as more rigorous methodological practices. But for the broad mainstream of the social sciences, there will be little in this book that stands out as unusual, controversial, or one-sided.

On the whole, the content of this book will remain relevant for a long time. After all, the basics of the scientific method and the fundamentals of research design seem unlikely to change in the foreseeable future. New and cutting-edge strategies of data collection and theory-testing do emerge, of course, but these are probably best delivered to students in the form of discipline-specific books or articles that could be assigned to complement this textbook, which deals more with foundations than it does with current debates.

The book is organized well and information is presented in a clear way. The prose is accessible and each chapter proceeds methodically.

This text is certainly consistent, and proceeds according to a methodical and logical structure. Key terms and concepts are introduced early on, and there are no 'surprises' in later chapters.

This book is organized into chapters, each of which could be used as the keystone reading for a given class session, and each chapter is broken down in easy-to-digest sections, making the book as accessible as possible. The fact that there are 16 chapters mean that the book could support 16 separate class sessions - that is, just enough to orient classroom discussion for an entire semester. That said, each module does not comprise sufficient material for a whole week; the chapters will need to be supplemented with extra reading material, especially in graduate seminars. It is unlikely that instructors will want to assign only part of a given chapter. Overall, the text reads well as a whole and in terms of its individual chapters.

The chapters for this book are organized into five sections: the introductory section, a section dealing with the basics of empirical research, sections on data collection and data analysis, and a final section that deals with ethics in research. This is a sensible and logical structure for the book, and nothing seems out of place. Again, the book is an accessible and smooth read; it will pose no challenges to an informed reader, and there will be nothing in the organization of the book that will be distracting or irritating.

As a single PDF, this book is easy to navigate.

I noticed no spelling or grammatical errors in this well-written book.

I can detect no culturally insensitive or offensive remarks in this book.

It is worth mentioning that this text ought to serve students well throughout their undergraduate studies, graduate careers, and beyond. It is a timeless - if necessarily limited - resource, and be returned to again and again.

Reviewed by Tamara Falicov, Associate Professor, University of Kansas on 8/21/16

The book is divided into sixteen chapters, which seemed a bit intimidating at first. I later realized that they are not necessarily very long chapters; it varies in terms of the topic. This makes the book quite comprehensive in that the book could be used for the length of the semester, one chapter per week. This is a useful model and one can add or subtract if needed. For example, the beginning chapter which discusses what science is and uses vocabulary from the hard or natural sciences may not necessarily be relevant in a social science course, but the author is being comprehensive by explaining the origins of science and the creation of the scientific method.The vocabulary in bold is extremely effective throughout the book.

The book is meticulously researched and I did not note any egregious statements or inaccuracies. There was one strange sentence when the author was trying to contrast a liberal to a conservative’s viewpoint on page 18 that made this reader feel a bit uncomfortable in how one ideological viewpoint was portrayed, but I’m not sure it was necessarily bias; perhaps just the writing was a bit heavy handed

The book makes sure of updated case examples, discusses how students utilize the internet for research, etc. The theories outlined here are the classic important debates, and the breadth of knowledge the author imparts is extremely comprehensive and up to date. this book could definitely stand on its own for many years before changes in the field might necessitate updating.

I found the textbook to be a refreshing read. The writing is very accessible and clear, but can be dense at times (though not in a problematic way—it means that with some of the more challenging material, the students will have to dig a little deeper to glean the information. The writing was very crisp, and to the point.

The book is written in a careful, consistent manner. As mentioned earlier, the vocabulary words in bold are consistent signposts, and there are citations (not too many, not too few) that help structure the book and provide a cogent framework. Sometimes there are summaries and bullet points, and other times there aren’t, so this is not exactly consistent, but it doesn’t detract from the overall work.

The chapters are excellent stand alone essays that could be used interchangeably. Some of them, such as the first chapter, is historical and philosophical, but not essential to understanding social science research methods. The second and third chapters are excellent for the researcher who is just starting out to formulate a research question. It helps them to think about the various theories and approaches available to them in terms of the angle, focus and methodology selected. The later chapters explain in greater detail various kinds of methods such as how to measure constructs, and scale reliability. These are higher order concepts which would be useful to graduate students—chapters 1-3 could not only work for graduate students, but also for upper division undergraduates.

The book was structured in a logical progression. There were no problems there. There was some repetition with various terms such as Occum’s razor, but this is because there is some overlap with concepts which I think is fine, given that some chapters may not be used in the course of a semester.

No problems with typeface, the diagrams and graphs are incredibly useful in breaking down more complex research methods.

There were no problems with syntax, grammar, spelling that I came across, except for a minor typo in chapter 9 in the table of contents.

I felt that the author was careful in his selection of case students to try to be inclusive and culturally sensitive. There was that one sentence that raised eyebrows about liberals versus democrats that I mentioned previously, but it wasn’t a major deal.

I found this book to be extremely useful and of high quality. I will to recommend it to a colleague who is teaching research methods next semester in a different department.

Reviewed by Yen-Chu Weng, Lecturer, University of Washington on 8/21/16

Dr. Bhattacherjee’s book, Social Science Research, is a good introductory textbook for upper-level undergraduate students and graduate students to learn about the research process. Whereas most research methods textbooks either focus on “research design” or on “data analysis”, this book covers the whole research process – from theories and conceptual frameworks to research design, data collection, and analysis. This book is structured as four modules and is very adaptable to instructors who want to teach any portions of the book.

Social science is a quite diverse field, including studies of socio-economic data, human behaviors, values, perceptions, and many others. Not only are the topics wide-ranging, but the research methods and the underlying philosophy of science also vary. Therefore, it is extremely difficult to write a textbook that includes everything. Dr. Bhattacherjee’s book is a nice overview of all these different methods commonly used in the social sciences. It aims for breadth, but not depth. Once could use this book as an entry to the field, but would need to seek additional resources for specific methods or analytical skills.

Based on my review of the book, the content is accurate, error-free and unbiased. However, better consistency with terminology often used in other related fields (such as statistics) would lessen students’ confusion with concepts.

Research methods are not time-sensitive topics and are not expected to change much in the near future. The inclusion of some cases or examples showcasing how social science research methods can be applied to current events or topics would help illustrate the relevance of this book (and social science research).

The book is very clear and accessible. It’s written in a way that is easy to understand. Important terminologies are bolded and these are good signposts for key concepts. A glossary summarizing definitions for the key terminologies would help students understand these key concepts. The book includes some helpful figures illustrating concepts in research design and statistics.

Overall, the book is very consistent.

The author, Dr. Bhattacherjee, structured the book following the research process – from theories, to research design, data collection, and analysis. Each module can be a standalone unit and is very adaptable to instructors who want to teach with either the whole book or individual modules. Although each module is mostly self-contained, it is impossible not to refer to other chapters since research is an iterative process. However, I do not expect this to be a huge problem for someone who wants to teach only a section of the book.

The fact that this book is structured as modules also makes it expandable. For those who want to teach only the philosophy of science or only the research design portion, they can add more details and in-depth discussion to these topics.

The book is well-organized and flows well with the research process. The chapters are clearly titled as well as the subheadings. Some numbering with the subheadings would help with navigation. In addition, a chapter summary/conclusion would also help with summarizing the main concepts of a chapter (some chapters do have a summary, but not all chapters).

The flow of the first module (Introduction to Research) is sometimes confusing – the book jumps between big ideas (scientific reasoning, conceptual framework) and specific details (variables, units of analysis) several times in the first four chapters. I thought that reorganizing the chapters as Ch1, Ch4, Ch3, Ch2 would flow better (from big ideas to specific details).

Since the book is organized by the research process, not by the type of research (qualitative vs. quantitative), Module 3 (Data Collection) and Module 4 (Data Analysis) cover both types of research. As a result, the flow/connection between each chapter are less clear. By reorganizing these two modules into “qualitative research methods and data analysis” and “quantitative research methods and data analysis”, not only would improve the flow of the book, but also better serve researchers who are interested in a particular type of research.

There are no major problems with the book’s interface. Each chapter is clearly titled. I would like to see the subheadings being numbered as well. If the PDF could have the Table of Contents on the sidebar, it would improve the navigation even more.

There are no grammatical errors noticed.

There are no culturally insensitive or offensive materials noticed. The few examples used in the book are very general and not controversial.

This book is a nice walk-through guide for researchers new to the field of social science research. One thing I would recommend adding is examples and cases. With more examples and cases, students would be able to put research methods into context and practice how they can apply the methods to their own research projects.

Reviewed by Dana Whippo, Assistant Professor of Political Science and Economics, Dickinson State University on 1/7/16

For its purpose, as introduced by the author, this is appropriately comprehensive. However, it is much more brief, more concise, than traditional research methods texts for undergraduates – which the text does not claim to be. It lays a sufficient foundation, with room and expectation for the professor to supplement with additional materials. Supplementing would be important if using this in an undergraduate classroom. I appreciate that the author emphasizes the process of research, and takes the time to address, in the first four chapters, the logic and process of research in a way that allows the text to be used in multiple disciplines. Indeed, this is one of the strengths of the book: that it can be used broadly within the social sciences. The text does not provide either an index or a glossary. This is more challenging when planning for its use in an undergraduate research methods class; however, I think that the strengths of this book outweigh the weaknesses.

I have not noticed any errors or bias. The only issue I’ve noticed, as indicated in other parts of the review, is depth. Doctoral students would bring in a sufficient foundation for reading this on their own; undergraduates will need scaffolding and additional resources to competently understand the complexity inherent in research.

The content does not read in a way that seems (either now or in the future) likely to read as dated or obsolete. The discussion of survey methodology and analysis programs will change with technology, but that should be easy to update. One of the book’s strengths is its focus on the foundation of research methods: the relationship between theory and observation, the understanding of science, and the logic that underlies the process of research.

The book is well-written and concise. Bearing in mind the author’s stated target audience of graduate and doctoral students, it is entirely reasonable that this would require additional work and instructor support (extra time and explanations for definitions and examples, for instance) when used in an undergraduate classroom.

The terminology is consistent throughout.

Faculty would be able to easily divide the text into smaller sections, which would be useful as those smaller reading sections could be combined with targeted supplementary materials.

The topics generally flow well as presented; the only exception is having the section on research ethics at the end. However, this chapter would be easy to assign earlier in the semester.

I did not have any problems with respect to interface issues.

I did not notice any grammatical errors that interfered with the reading process.

I did not notice any offensive comments or examples. The book is brief by design; it does not include the numerous examples that populate the traditional undergraduate research methods text. I did not find it offensive or insensitive.

Reviewed by Andrew Knight, Assistant Professor of Music Therapy, Colorado State University on 1/7/16

I have not seen a more comprehensive text for this topic area, and yet it retains a concision that I would have appreciated as a PhD student when I took courses in research methods. I think that the text may lend itself to several different types of courses. The early chapters can by used for more theoretical research courses, especially for new researchers and fundamentals of research courses. The later chapters can be used for "nuts and bolts" courses for addressing specific methodological issues. The appendices are an especially nice touch and added value for faculty to understand how the author uses this text and creates a syllabus to complement it.

There are very few typographical errors, and overall, the text is rigorously unbiased in its scientific method claims and explanations.

The overwhelming majority of the content in this text is classical understandings of research and methodologies that are essential to all graduate students, particularly in business and the social sciences. There is no indication that any of the content will suffer from claims that it is obsolete or irrelevant.

The clarity of the text is sound partly due to the concision of the book. Shorter chapters, easily navigable paragraphs, and other compositional devices make the text accessible to most levels of graduate students. The bolded words invite the reader to create a self-guided glossary, not any different than a textbook in an 8th grade student collection, which is helpful to counter the sometimes sophisticated nature of research theory.

No consistency issues noted.

The chapters have a nice flow to them, and can be "chunked" out for use in more beginner or more advanced courses. One preference of this reviewer would be to assign the ethics in research chapter earlier in the course calendar, and thus earlier in the textbook, so it is part of the foundational aspects of understanding social science inquiry. Meanwhile, the qualitative and two separate quantitative chapters play well together for students who will want to review them before exams or after the course is finished while they pursue a thesis/dissertation.

Again, I think the ethics chapter should be earlier, but that is simply a personal choice and can be altered by my syllabus. One issue that I wonder if graduate students might prefer is if they are not already 13 chapters into a text/course and only then are they getting to a basic concept such as measures of central tendency. Offering some of the nuts and bolts of research methods earlier in the text and tying them into the more theoretical concepts might help with clarity of flow for the typical graduate student.

No issues, nice charts and graphics throughout.

Very few noted.

This text is not insensitive in any way. As a matter of fact, pointing out historical issues in research ethics using some sensitive vignettes actually heightens the importance of research in everyday life.

I'm looking forward to adopting it for courses and using it for my own reflections on research!

Reviewed by Allison White, Assistant Professor, Colorado State University on 1/7/16

This text covers a wide array of topics relevant to social science research, including some that are not traditionally included but are welcome additions, such as a chapter dedicated to research ethics. A sample syllabus for a graduate course on research design is also offered at the end of the book, facilitating course development. The book is comprehensive in its treatment of the central components of research design and the different methodological strategies that researchers can leverage to investigate various research questions. Notably absent, however, is an index, glossary of terms, or questions for discussion, which are frequently included in textbooks devoted to research design.

The content is accurate and unbiased, which may be particularly important for texts on research design, as many fields within social science are intractably polarized between quantitative and qualitative approaches. The book goes a long way toward bridging that gap by treating the multitude of methodological orientations fairly and without obvious preference for one or another.

This book will stand the test of time due to its comprehensiveness and fair and balanced approach to research design. Both cutting-edge and classic approaches to research are discussed and the book may be easily updated as warranted by important developments in the social sciences.

The text is written clearly and accessibly, providing adequate context for most of the jargon and technical terminology that is covered. For this reason, it seems suitable for a variety of graduate-level courses, including research design survey courses and more advanced courses focusing on specific approaches.

The text is internally consistent in terms of terminology and framework.

The book neatly compartmentalizes the topics, making it easily divisible into smaller reading sections that can be assigned at different points within the course. The individual chapters stand on their own and do not require contextualization. Numerous sub-headings throughout each chapter flag the central themes.

The topics in the text are presented in a logical, clear fashion. The topics build productively throughout the textbook, beginning with the basic concepts of research design and culminating with different strategies to approach research.

The book's interface is seamless. Charts and images appear appropriately sized and undistorted and the text is free from navigation problems.

The text does not contain conspicuous grammatical errors.

The text and examples provided in it are not culturally insensitive or offensive in any way. Examples are drawn from universal theories rather than research that is culturally-specific.

Reviewed by Jim Hutchinson, Lecturer, University of Minnesota on 6/10/15

This text covers all the basic concepts expected in a book on social science research. However, it does so at a fairly superficial level. The author says this was intentional in order to provide coverage of essential topics and not distract students. As such, the book seems to do a good job introducing all the essential concepts for graduate research, but supplemental materials are likely needed depending on instructor or student needs.

The book seems to free of errors and bias.

Social science research isn't likely to change greatly so this text should remain relevant for some time and can easily be updated to accommodate new techniques as they arise.

The book is generally well-written and accessible. The writing is clear and there are sufficient examples to help students grasp concepts.

The text appears consistent with others in the field.

The text may be best used as an overview of the research process in social sciences rather than a reference. However, various chapters could also be used alone or as supplement to other materials and excluding chapters not relevant to a particular course should not cause any issues. The author even mentions excluding certain chapters that are actually full courses where he teaches.

The organization and sequence seems very logical.

I accessed the PDF version and did not experience any issues with text or graphics.

I think a good proofread would help. There are a number of places where extraneous words were left in (perhaps when rewriting and changing the structure of a sentence) or where words are not quite right. For example:

"...a researcher looking at the world through a “rational lens” will look for rational explanations of the problem such as inadequate technology or poor fit between technology and the task context where it is being utilized, while another research[er] looking at the same problem through a “social lens” may seek out social deficiencies..."

Such errors are not really problematic but they are a bit distracting at times.

I did not find the book to be insensitive or offensive. Examples used are fairly benign. For example, when discussing the tendency of lay people to view a scientific theory as mere speculation the author uses an example of teacher practice instead of a more charged example such as evolution.

Overall, this is a good book to introduce graduate (and even undergraduate) students to social science research. It is not comprehensive enough to be the only text students encounter, but it would be sufficient for say master's level programs that focus more on capstone or practical "informed by research" projects. Students planning to conduct original research, analyze data and interpret results will likely find this insufficient.

Reviewed by Paul Goren, Professor, University of Minnesota on 7/15/14

This text introduces social science doctoral students to the research process. It can be used in sociology, political science, education public health, and related disciplines. The book does an excellent job covering topics that are too often neglected in research methods classes. Standard texts devote most of their attention to different modes of data collection (e.g, lab experiments, field experiments, quasi-experiments, survey research, aggregate data collection, interpretive and case study methods, etc.). This book covers these materials but also devotes a lot of time to steps in the research process that precede data collection. These steps include formulating a research question, concept definition, theory elaboration, measurement (including reliability and validity) and sampling. There is also cursory coverage of descriptive statistics and inferential statistics (a chapter on each) as well as chapter on research ethics. In terms of coverage, then, the text can be described as comprehensive in terms of topics. In terms of depth of coverage of the topics, the text takes a minimalist approach. That is, the fundamentals of each topic are covered, but there is little discussion beyond the basics. Teachers looking for the perfect text that nails all the key points should look elsewhere or make heavy use of supplements. For instance, in the discussion on concepts, constructs, and variables, the text does not distinguish between latent variables, which are unobservable, and manifest variables, which are observable, as is common in the structural equation modeling tradition used in sociology and psychology. This is a minor omission and there are others one might quibble with. The bottom line is that most key topics in the research process are covered, but the coverage is not terribly deep.

From what I can tell, the book is accurate in terms of what it covers. There are some things that should probably be included in subsequent revisions.

The social science research process is unlikely to change in any signfiicant way for some time; therefore, I suspect the book will be relevant for years to come. The key will be ensuring that the latest research trends/improvements/refinements are added to the book. For instance, internet sampling techniques have come a long way over the past decade and there are now pollng firms that can admister online surveys to representative samples of the broader U.S. population. So long as the author keeps on these develops, this will serve as a useful introductory text for the foreseable future.

This text is extremely and unusually well-written and clear. This is one of the text's greatest selling points. No complaints on this score.

The book is very consistent from what I can see.

This book can work in a number of ways. A teacher can sample the germane chapters and incorporate them without difficulty in any research methods class.

The organization is fine. The book presents all the topics in an appropriate sequence.

The interface is fine. I didn't experience any problems.

I didn't see any errors, it looks fine.

The book is not culturally offensive.

Teachers looking for a text that they can use to introduce students to the research process and cover the foundational components of the research process should find this manuscript sufficient for their needs. Simple additions on slides or class room commentary can easily take care of the various omissions that pepper the text. Indeed, one could use this text in conjunction with discipline specific supplements quite effectively. For instance, in chapter 3 on the research process, the author devotes 5 paragraphs to common mistakes in the research process, such as pursuing trivial research questions or blind data mining. I can see how psychologists, sociologists and political scientists could provide discipline-specific examples to tailor this to their students particular needs. More generally, I suspect that the text could be used in conjunction with germane discipline specific materials quite effectively in research methodology classes. The book is not perfect. I wish there was more discussion on field experiments in the experiment chapter. Other than a brief mention that these are relatively rare, there was nothing. These are indeed relatively rare but that seems to be changing in some fields (e.g. economic, political science), and I think more discussion of this technique is warranted. The chapter on case study methods would benefit from discussion on the historical and comparative methods that are used in various social science disciplines, as well as some discussion on case selection methods. The statistical coverage is very thin and should not serve as the primary source material in any class that covers statistics. For instance, the discussion on the empirical assessment of reliability (for items or scales) does not discuss in depth the assumptions that underlie the various methods nor the modifications that need to be made across different levels of measurement. To take another example, the author presents the formulae for the variance and standard deviation on p. 122 with the customary n-1 in the denominator. Students often ask me why we divide the mean squared deviation by n-1 instead of n, which is what we do for the mean. Professors will need to make sure that their slides include discussion of the degrees of freedom idea and perhaps some discussion on unbiasedness as well. In the inferential statistics chapter there's no discussion on desirable properties of estimators (unbiasedness and efficiency). This is an unfortunate oversight. These could be added very easily using simple graphs. One thing that's lacking is a chapter on statistical graphics. The book makes great use of graphics and other visual aids throughout the chapters, but I wish there as a standalone chapter that introduces simple plots for univariate and bivariate data. This can be supplemented easily enough, but the omission seems odd. Again, this book can serve as an compact introduction in a graduate research methodology class for students across the social sciences, but it would work best in conjunction with deeper and more discipline specific materials prepared by the professor.

Reviewed by Anika Leithner, Associate Professor, California Polytechnic State University on 7/15/14

This text certainly covers all the basic concepts and processes I would expect to find in an introduction to social sciences research. What I liked in particular is that the author includes information on the ENTIRE research process, including critical thinking and research ethics, in addition to the "nuts and bolts" of research such as operationalization, data collection, and data analysis. I also find it useful that the author includes sections on both qualitative and quantitative research, which is great for an introductory level course. In general, readers can expect to find information on theory- and hypothesis building, operationalization/measurements, sampling, research design, various data collection strategies (e.g. surveys, experiments, etc.), as well as data analysis. The primary reason I did not give this text 5 stars is that the author does not provide a great amount of detail for a lot of the book's sections. He explains in the preface that he purposefully chose to reduce the text to the basics in order to keep the text compact and clutter-free. In general, I tend to agree with this approach, as so many methodology textbooks seem to get lost in examples and case studies without clearly illustrating the research process as a whole. However, as I was reading through this book, I kept thinking that I would need to supplement multiple areas of this book with more information in order to make it truly accessible to my students. To be fair, I think that A) anyone who has taught methods before would be able to use the "bones" of this book to prepare students sufficiently well for class and then easily fill in the blanks, and B) it appears that this text was written primarily with graduate students in mind, whereas I most teach undergraduates. In all, I still think that this is a great free alternative to many textbooks out there, but if your teaching style depends on your text including a lot of explanation and examples (or even applications), then this is likely not the text for you. Finally, this book does NOT include an index or a glossary. Personally, I did not find this to be a problem, as the outline/table of contents is very useful, but perhaps students using the text could benefit from an index that would allow them to quickly look up what they need to know.

I did not detect any errors or any purposeful bias in this textbook! Some readers might find that the author's choice of terminology does not necessarily match what I would consider standard practices in the broader social sciences (e.g. the use of the term "mediating variables" instead of "intervening variables"), but it is always clear what the book is referring to and it shouldn't be too difficult to bridge this "terminology gap." Occasionally, I was a bit puzzled by a definition or an explanation. For instance, the author states that "control variables" are not pertinent to explaining the dependent variable, but need to be taken into consideration because they may have "some impact" on it. I'm assuming the author means that they are not pertinent to the hypothesis being tested (as opposed to them not being pertinent to the explanation of the dependent variable). This type of ambiguity does not occur very often in the textbook and it does not necessarily represent an error. It merely seems to be an issue of miscommunication. Overall, I very much liked this text for its accuracy.

Luckily, research methods do not change drastically in a short period of time, so I expect the longevity of this book to be very high. In my experience, the biggest factor that can make a research text outdated is the use of up-to-date examples and case studies. This text includes very few of either, so I think this text could be used for many years to come.

The book is very clear and accessible, probably largely due to its minimalist approach. Aside from the above-mentioned deviations from broader social sciences terminology on a few occasions, I did not encounter any problems with the jargon/technical terminology used. The only minor problem I noted (which made me I've a ranking of 4 as opposed to 5) was a certain amount of repetitiveness in the earlier chapters, specifically with regard to positivism/post-positivism and the discussion of theory/hypothesis creation and testing.

The book is very consistent. It has a clear outline that matches the natural research process and the author very consistently adhere to this outline. Chapters naturally flow from one another and are logical.

This book is very well organized and easily accessible due to its division into logical chapters and sub-sections. In addition, the author highlights important concepts in bold, making it even easier to follow along. I would have no problem assigning smaller reading sections throughout the quarter/semester.

As mentioned above, the text is very well organized and flows naturally/logically. It follows the research process from critical thinking, conceptualization, to operationalization/measurements, research design, data collection, and data analysis. Research ethics are discussed in an appendix/addendum.

There are no major problems with the book's interface. Occasionally, graphs and tables are not as crisp and visually appealing as they might be in an expensive textbook, but personally, the ability to assign an open source text to my students far outweighs any concerns I might have about the visual attractiveness of a book. This text is easy to read and quite user-friendly.

I detected no grammatical errors.

The text includes very few examples and it is hard to imagine how research methods in general could be offensive to anyone (unless it is the practice of science itself that offends them), but for completeness' sake, allow me to state that I found no instances of insensitivity or offense in this textbook.

This text covers all the basics of the research process. It does not contain a lot of the "bells and whistles" that the expensive traditional textbooks have (e.g. lots of examples, fancy graphs, text boxes with case studies and applications, etc.), but it certainly gets the job done. Personally, I appreciate the compact nature of this text and I would much rather fill in a few gaps on my end, if it means that I can assign my students an open textbook.

Reviewed by Brendan Watson, Assistant Professor, University of Minnesota on 7/15/14

See overall comments. read more

See overall comments.

Dr. Bhattacherjee's "Social Science Research: Principles, Methods, and Practices," is a comprehensive, but a bare-boned (and generic) introduction to social science research. In this case "generic" is actually a positive attribute: because the text covers social science research broadly, rather than sociology, psychology, etc. specifically, this text can easily be adapted to the needs of basic research methods courses in allied disciplines. (I teach an introductory quantitative research course for master's and Ph.D. students in a School of Journalism & Mass Communication). I describe the text as comprehensive, because if my students got a basic grasp of all of the concepts in the book, they'd be well positioned to continue on to more advanced research courses (though the text is less valuable as a reference than more comprehensive introductory texts). But while Dr. Bhattacherjee's introduction says that the book is bare-boned by design -- "I decided to focus only on essential concepts, and not fill pages with clutter that can divert the students' attention to less relevant or tangential issues" -- some topics deserve more attention. For example, Institutional Review Boards (IRB) receive only two short paragraphs, and there is no mention of the history of why such boards were deemed necessary and play an important role in the research process. I'd consider such knowledge essential for students, and this is the type of information I would like a text to focus on so that I can spend class time reviewing more complicated concepts students might have trouble grasping on their own. (Generally I found the writing to be approachable, and concepts to be well explained, though extensive examples are also part of the "clutter" omitted from this book). Another topic I would have liked to see developed further - and perhaps is especially important to the more digitally-savvy crowd interested in the open textbook movement - is the expanding role of the Internet and digital technologies in the research process itself, particularly in the era of "big data." The text, for example, mentions Internet surveys, but there is no conversation about tools one can use to build an Internet survey; how Internet surveys differ from traditional modes of surveying; or the practice of weighting Internet survey results to make them "representative" of the larger population. That said, I am balancing using this text versus a more comprehensive, but much more expensive, commercially produced text. Another thing that this book is missing are instructional resources that commercial publishers provide, but ultimately by using this text I can contribute to creating greater value for my students. However, it would have to be supplemented heavily with other materials, as well as lectures, which is not without a trade-off cost. It's certainly doable, but ultimately means a greater investment of my time, and I have to weigh investing my time in creating hands-on learning opportunities and providing students with thorough feedback on their work with the time I'd have to invest in using a text that is complete, but needs to be much more heavily supplemented with additional materials. Ideally, several faculty with similar teaching needs would team up to combine and adapt several open texts to their courses' needs. Adapting and supplementing this text for my purposes by myself, however, remains a steep, if not insurmountable task for a tenure-track professor. This text, however, is thorough enough to maintain my interested in trying to find a way to make it work.

About the book.

Part I. Main Body

Science and scientific research
Thinking like a researcher
The research process
Theories in scientific research
Research design
Measurement of constructs
Scale reliability and validity
Survey research
Experimental research
Case research
Interpretive research
Qualitative analysis
Quantitative analysis: Descriptive statistics
Quantitative analysis: Inferential statistics
Research ethics

Ancillary Material

This book is designed to introduce doctoral and postgraduate students to the process of conducting scientific research in the social sciences, business, education, public health, and related disciplines. It is a one-stop, comprehensive, and compact source for foundational concepts in behavioural research, and can serve as a standalone text or as a supplement to research readings in any doctoral seminar or research methods class. This book is currently being used as a research text at universities in 216 countries, across six continents and has been translated into seven different languages. To receive updates on this book, including the translated versions, please follow the author on Facebook or Twitter @Anol_B.

About the Contributors

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Social science research plays a vital role in understanding and addressing complex issues within the field of public health. While medical advancements and analysis of disease data contribute significantly to healthcare improvements, social science research, including the use of qualitative methods, brings a unique perspective that focuses on the human dimensions of health. By examining factors such as risk perception, social norms, cultural context, and social support networks, researchers can develop evidence-based interventions that promote positive health behaviours, prevent disease, and minimise harms. Additionally, social science research plays a pivotal role in informing public health policy and program development. It generates evidence to support policy decisions, evaluate program effectiveness, and guide resource allocation. By integrating social science perspectives, policymakers can drive strategies that are contextually relevant, responsive to community needs, and inclusive of marginalized populations. Key contributions of social science and qualitative research to public health include: • Understanding social determinants of health. • Informing policy and program development. • Enhancing community engagement. • Evaluating program effectiveness. • Examining health behaviours and interventions, including during outbreak response. • Collaborating with end-users to determine needs, appropriate responses or interventions and long-term sustainability. This research topic will highlight the significance of social science and qualitative methods in understanding the complex social dynamics and lived experiences that shape health outcomes. The articles will showcase rigorous qualitative research that deepens our understanding of the social determinants of health, health behaviours, and the impact of interventions. The collection will also promote the integration of qualitative research findings into evidence-based practice and policy development, demonstrating the value social science in informing interventions, program development, and policy decisions that are sensitive to the social, cultural, and contextual nuances of public health. We are particularly interested in submissions on the following topics: ● Rapid mixed methods to investigate public health problems in communities. ● Community Engagement and Risk Communication to deliver public health outcomes. ● Exploration of risk perception and underlying drivers of health behaviour. ● Exploration of the socio-cultural considerations to a successful public health program. ● The significance of social science as part of a One Health approach. ● Working in multidisciplinary teams. ● The challenges of conducting qualitative research in a public health context.

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Welcome to Discover Social Science and Health

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Published: 06 April 2021
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On behalf of the entire editorial team, I am pleased to inaugurate Discover Social Science and Health ( DSSH ), which will showcase research that bridges the social and biomedical sciences.

The launch of this new journal is especially appropriate in the midst of the COVID-19 pandemic, which has vividly revealed, to lay-person and scientist alike, how profoundly the combination of social and biological factors shapes human health. The story of COVID-19 is complex, but already we see (among other things) how infections, vaccinations, hospitalizations, and deaths reflect geopolitical forces, national and regional policies, spatial diffusion mechanisms, and myriad forms of racial and ethnic disparities. Yet to scientists working at the intersection of the social and biomedical sciences, it is abundantly clear that, like COVID-19, other diseases and disease processes, symptoms, treatments, and outcomes also reflect such mechanisms.

In addition to its obvious topicality, the launch of DSSH offers several other grounds for enthusiasm. First, DSSH is inclusive of all branches of the social sciences and all types of data that describe human health, which is broadly conceived to include indicators of general health, diagnoses, symptoms, health care, treatment adherence, and sequelae. This inclusion reflects the conviction that diverse theoretical and empirical approaches collectively inform larger scientific questions related to inequalities in health and to the social organization of health. DSSH is thus a new forum that will promote cross-talk among scientists studying similar topics from differing perspectives.

Second, DSSH will publish papers that are at the intersection of social and biomedical sciences. This bridging is made possible by many exciting developments, including the collection of sophisticated forms of health data in social surveys, big data efforts that join medical records to other forms of data, and a growing list of training initiatives that introduce social scientists to medical, biological, and other forms of health data. In turn, these developments warrant new spaces for increasingly sophisticated, interdisciplinary research that joins social and health data.

Third, DSSH offers diverse formats for submissions, and we hope that these new opportunities enliven the field. These formats include traditional papers but also Perspectives, Reviews, Brief Communications, and Data Notes—new formats that will create a one-of-a-kind forum to share findings, express viewpoints, and suggest ways forward in both theory and data analysis. DSSH will publish solid replications, pre-registered studies, and well-executed studies—whatever the findings.

Finally, Springer Nature has innovated its publishing model with the new Discover series. The submission and review process will be expedited, while still ensuring robust and independent peer-review for all publications, and DSSH will be open-access with competitive fees. While open-access is not in itself innovative, many scientists believe that the trend toward open-access should continue.

For these and other reasons, the editorial team is excited by this new journal, and we will strive to realize these ambitions fully. Above all, we hope that this new journal will promote understanding of how the social and biomedical join to affect human health and, in turn, of how these insights can translate into better health for everyone.

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Showcasing the contribution of social sciences to health policy and systems research

Stephanie M. Topp ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3448-7983 1 , 2 ,
Kerry Scott 3 , 4 ,
Ana Lorena Ruano 5 , 6 &
Karen Daniels 7 , 8

International Journal for Equity in Health volume 17 , Article number: 145 ( 2018 ) Cite this article

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This collection of articles is presented by SHAPES, the thematic working group of Health Systems Global focused on social science approaches to research and engagement in health policy and systems. The issue aims to showcase how qualitative and theory-driven approaches can contribute to better promoting equity in health within the field of HPSR.

This issue builds on growing recognition of the complex social nature of health systems. The articles in this collection underscore the importance of employing methods that can uncover and help explain health system complexities by exploring the dynamic relationships and decision-making processes of the human actors within. Articles seek to highlight the contribution that qualitative, interpretivist, critical, emancipatory, and other relational methods have made to understanding health systems, health policies and health interventions from the perspective of those involved. By foregrounding actor perspectives, these methods allow us to explore the impact of vital but difficult-to-measure concepts such as power, culture and norms.

This special issue aims to highlight the critical contribution of social science approaches. Through the application of qualitative methods and, in some cases, development of theory, the articles presented here build broader and deeper understanding of the way health systems function, and simultaneously inform a more people-centred approach to collective efforts to build and strengthen those systems.

This Special Issue represents a critical response to the frequent silencing of qualitative social science research approaches in mainstream public health journals, particularly in those that inform the field of health policy and systems research (HPSR), and the study of equity in health [ 1 , 2 , 3 ]. The issue is presented by SHAPES, a thematic working group of Health Systems Global (a membership-based society which aims to convene researchers, policymakers and implementers to develop the field of HSPR) focused on social science approaches.

By bringing together this collection of articles, the special issue highlights the critical contribution of qualitative social sciences including interpretivist, critical, emancipatory, and other relational methods to our understanding of health systems, policies and interventions. Today, political, professional and disciplinary structures continue to privilege positivist research and quantitative methods, attributing greater evidential value to the knowledge produced by these approaches. This issue builds on growing recognition of the complex social nature of health systems [ 4 ] and on the understanding that utilizing only positivist research approaches in the study of health and health systems contributes to stripping away human experience and context. Articles in this issue demonstrate the importance of employing qualitative social science methods to explore the perspectives, experiences, relationships and decision-making processes of human actors within health systems, and in so doing, help uncover and explain the impact of vital but difficult-to-measure issues such as power, culture and norms. Through their application of qualitative methods and, in some cases, development of theory, they help build a broader and deeper understanding of the way various health systems function, and simultaneously inform a more people-centred approach to collective efforts to build and strengthen those systems.

Linked by two important themes, this initial collection of six research papers and two commentaries cut across a range of social science approaches and include policy analysis, rapid ethnography, and theory driven sociological enquiry. Future papers will be added to an online thematic collection on a rolling basis.

Global policies, local realities

The ways in which global health policies are absorbed into national and subnational health systems, and their impact as they interact with local realities is a strong theme running through the issue.

Contractor, et al. [ 5 ] use rapid ethnography to explore the dissonance between tribal women’s perception of pregnancy and childbirth, and the Indian health system’s approach to maternity care in the context of a national policy that strongly incentivises facility-based birth. Drawing on five months of data collection in Odisha state, this exploratory study used qualitative methods to document how different actors perceived and experienced the policy. Unstructured group discussions explored community perceptions around pregnancy and childbirth; in-depth interviews explored women’s actual experiences and practices of pregnancy and childbirth; key informant interviews with service provides yielded contextual information about the field area and views from within the health system; and observations enabled triangulation and produced first-hand information about the location and conditions of health services and tribal areas. The authors highlight the tensions between priorities embedded within national-level policies and tribal women’s own preferences and needs when it comes to childbirth. Their narratives demonstrate how multiple financial, geographic, social and cultural factors mitigate against uptake of facility-based maternity services, and result in pressure, sometimes coercion, by local health system actors, to comply. The article demonstrates the importance of qualitative methods and grounded analysis for surfacing the unintended consequences of blanket state policies through documentation of its impacts on so-called beneficiaries.

Also focussing on India, Sriram, et al. [ 6 ] present a nuanced, contextually rich analysis, reflecting on the way that actors from high-income countries and members of the extended Indian diaspora contribute to socialisation and legitimation of a new medical speciality (emergency medicine). The research draws on a full year of qualitative data collection conducted by the first author including interviews with 76 participants across 11 towns/cities within India, review of 248 documents and observation of 6 meetings. The authors use framework analysis, applying concepts from the literature to insights emerging from the reading of the data, and brought both emic (subject; the first author is a member of the diaspora) and etic (observer) perspectives in making sense of the data. They point to the way power within these networks resulted in the rapid growth of the speciality of emergency medicine, but also influenced its evolution as a highly medicalised, tertiary-level form of care, inaccessible to the majority of Indians for structural reasons including affordability and availability. The authors note that the socialisation of domestic Indian stakeholders in this field ‘flows from a long history of LMIC (low- and middle-income country) stakeholders adopting ideas from high-income countries, driven by undercurrents of globalization and innovations in communication and technology’. Through the personal accounts of stakeholders with a range of perceptions and experiences in relation to the growth of emergency medicine, the authors interrogate and debunk the positive narrative of knowledge flow from high-income countries to LMICs. The qualitative analysis presented instead paints a complex picture, in which power influences knowledge transfer, the outcome of which is not always experienced as beneficial or positive.

Lodenstein, et al. [ 7 ] describe the contradictory role played by traditional leaders in Malawi in the pursuit of improved reproductive health outcomes. They bring attention to the power of traditional leaders, who are regarded as key to facilitating community adoption of positive public health norms including earlier and more frequent attendance at clinic-based antenatal visits. In recent times, the adoption of public health norms in Malawi has been driven by by-laws, set by traditional leaders and with often punitive consequences for those who do not comply; for example imposing fines on women who do not attend antenatal care or who are not accompanied by their husbands on those visits. While some have heralded the success of such by-laws, the authors use qualitative methods and a gendered perspective to explore these as a social process of norm formulation from the perspective of stakeholders involved in by-law creation, as well as the perspective of those affected by them. Recognising that norms are expressed in multiple ways (rules, behaviours, narratives and mechanisms of enforcement), the authors collected data from various sources (documents, observations, and interviews), so as to explore this range of expression. They show that although by-laws were meant to strengthen service uptake and improve health outcomes for pregnant women, they also resulted in the most vulnerable women bearing the moral and material responsibility for any perceived failure to meet reproductive health policy and targets. This study, which is grounded in rich contextual experience, provides important information to national and global health systems decision makers who may be considering using traditional lines of authority to enhance uptake of public health interventions.

Resources and mechanisms of redress

While the above papers describe, and to differing extents deconstruct, the ways in which health systems interact with and exacerbate broader social and structural inequities, a second harmonizing theme in this collection is the way different resources and mechanisms can be mobilised as a form of redress to such inequities.

Spanning both themes showcased in this issue, Turcotte-Tremblay, et al. [ 8 ] describe the local effects of a globally touted performance-based financing (PBF) policy in Burkina Faso. The authors examine the equity measures (such as user fee exemptions available to those holding an indigent card) within PBF, which were introduced to address inequitable access. The study is framed using Rogers’ diffusion of innovations theory. In a comparative case study design across four primary health services, the authors utilise empirical methods, including 93 interviews, discussions, observation and document analysis. Using primary data the authors are able explore the way multiple local actors, including members of local indigent selection committees, re-invented elements of the PBF equity measures over which they had control, to either increase their relative advantage or to adapt to implementation challenges and context. For example, distributing free or very low-cost medications led to financial difficulties and drug shortages at some clinics and compensatory actions intended to resolve these problems by the ‘street level bureaucrats’ running front-line services led to adverse knock-on impacts for clients. Ultimately, the authors demonstrate how local knowledge of what it means to be indigent, and the power dynamics inherent within the health services, interacted with PBF implementation to result in both ‘uncertain and unequal’ coverage of the policy.

Topp, et al. [ 9 ] report on an empirical study of a policy-driven effort to improve the social accountability of prison health services in Zambia through the establishment of prison health committees. Locating their work in the discipline of public policy, the authors use a combination of interviews, focus groups and ethnographic observation, and begin by exploring Joshi’s three domains of impact for social accountability interventions: state responsiveness (represented by facility-based prison officials), societal impact (represented in this study by inmates), and state-society relations. (represented by relations between inmates and prison officials). Their analysis reflects on the ways in which power relations became less hierarchical, and how health outcomes improved in one particular prison after the introduction of a staff-inmate committee. A second phase of analysis draws on a more theoretical and (hence) more widely generalisable model comprising three intersecting ‘axes’ of accountability: power, ability and justice [ 10 ], using these axes to examine the depth and breadth of committee impact. The authors conclude that in relation to prison health care, local context as well as national level politics and legislative reforms, “will be crucial to support democratic decision-making, authentic engagement and appropriate action” in prison health services in low-income settings.

Kapilashrami and Marsden [ 11 ] report a study of access to health-enabling resources by multiply-disadvantaged groups in a deprived part of Scotland. Drawing on human geography and political science, their research uses the theoretical concept of intersectionality – that is, “the multiple interacting influences of social location, identity and historical oppression” – and a combination of standard qualitative tools (interviews, focus groups) and more contemporary and participatory methods (notably collaborative health resource mapping). The authors find that health-enabling resources were variously material, environmental, cultural or affective, with the combined influence of these resources playing out differently for different individuals. Amartya Sen observed in his health capabilities framework, the need to consider both individual choices and societal chances [ 12 ]. Through their use of multiple qualitative methods and the application of intersectionality, the authors demonstrate how individual responsibility, and blame, for health-related behaviour choices is an impoverished explanatory framework because it overlooks the institutional, structural and environmental influences on such behaviours.

While methodologically heterogenous, the articles in this issue showcase just some of the ways in which qualitative social science methods generate important new knowledge that is sensitive to context and which can act as a means to ‘un-silencing’ voices on the margins. Greenhalgh [ 13 ] in her commentary highlights these points, discussing the important role of critical social science as an underutilised method of social critique and emancipation of oppressed groups. She notes that methods such as these ask, “whose definitions count?”; “who makes the rules?”; and “whose voice is not being heard?”

In their commentary too, Lewin and Glenton [ 14 ] note that perhaps the key role of qualitative social sciences is to represent “the views and experiences of stakeholders, including vulnerable and marginalised groups who are often not represented directly.” And indeed, this collection represents a clear body of evidence that health policies and system levers require much work. Contractor, et al. [ 5 ], Kapilshrami, et al. [ 11 ] and Lodenstein, et al.’s [ 7 ] articles, in particular, demonstrate how qualitative social science research can surface issues experienced by, and present the voices of, people on the ground, helping to hold to account global and national health systems leaders responsible for health policy and planning. In order to realise the full value of this type of evidence, however, Lewin and Glenton [ 14 ] also argue the need for more investment in our collective capacity to synthesise the knowledge generated, and to work more closely with policy users and other stakeholders to build their capacity for evidence use.

Articles in this issue demonstrate how qualitative social science methods may be used to engage and participate with actors to co-produce knowledge, evidence and even solutions for change [ 1 ]. At inception, the idea for this special issue also encompassed ambitious plans to model a participatory and empowering approach through mentorship of early career authors, as well as for those based in LMICs. These ideas align with the values of people-centredness and equity that underpin the broader mission of Health Systems Global. Many of the lead authors in this issue are early career researchers, although most are either based in, or receive substantial support from institutions in high-income settings. We therefore believe more personal and institutional investment in learning opportunities through webinars, online teaching, and one-to-one mentoring needs to be made available. This has been recently modelled through various initiatives undertaken by HSG members, affiliates, and thematic working groups. We also acknowledge the ongoing challenges experienced specifically by health system actors who work in, or alongside, services to find the time or receive the guidance necessary to write about what they do. Questions that arose in the process of collating this issue, and which require more, and deeper examination include: how should rich (practitioner) experiences be documented? Should such documentation be acknowledged as a form of research? And if so, where does it belong in a saturated, but often siloed, publication world?

Critically engaging with issues of inclusion, voice and power is vital to building equitable and people-centred health systems and must be at the heart of the research processes that support these systems. As showcased in this special issue, robust qualitative social science research is ideally suited to understanding the social systems that generate or limit opportunities for equity in health, and that must be engaged with and transformed to build truly people-centred health systems.

Abbreviations

health policy and systems research

Health Systems Global

Low- and Middle Income Countries

performance based financing

social science approaches for research and engagement in health policy & systems

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Lodenstein E, Pedersen K, Botha K, Broerse JEW, Dieleman M. Gendered norms of responsibility: reflections on accountability politics in maternal healthcare in Malawi. Int J Equity Health. 2018;17:131.

Turcotte-Tremblay A-M, De Allegri M, Gali Gali IA, Ridde V. The unintended consequences of combining equity measures with performance-based financing in Burkina Faso. Int J Equity Health. 2018;17:109.

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Acknowledgements

We thank Health Systems Global for its support of this and several other articles in this special issue .

Health Systems Global supported this work through payment of the Article Processing Charge.

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College of Public Health, Medical and Veterinary Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville, 4810, QLD, Australia

Stephanie M. Topp

Nossal Institute for Global Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, 3002, VIC, Australia

Research Consultant, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India

Kerry Scott

Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, 615 North Wolfe Street, Baltimore, 21205, USA

Center for the Study of Equity and Governance in Health Systems, Guatemala, Guatemala

Ana Lorena Ruano

Center for International Health University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway

Health Systems Research Unit, South African Medical Research Council, Cape Town, South Africa

Karen Daniels

Health Policy and Systems Division, School of Public Health and Family Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa

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Policy Forum

Policy Forum articles provide a platform for health policy makers from around the world to discuss the challenges and opportunities in improving health care to their constituencies.

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Building the Field of Health Policy and Systems Research: Framing the Questions

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliation Public Health Foundation of India, New Delhi, India

Affiliations School of Public Health and Family Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa, Department of Global Health and Development, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom

Affiliation Ghana Health Service/University of Ghana School of Public Health, Accra, Ghana

Affiliation Department of Global Health and Development, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom

Affiliation School of Public Health, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda

Affiliation Health Systems Programme, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America

Kabir Sheikh,
Lucy Gilson,
Irene Akua Agyepong,
Kara Hanson,
Freddie Ssengooba,
Sara Bennett

Published: August 16, 2011

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001073
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Citation: Sheikh K, Gilson L, Agyepong IA, Hanson K, Ssengooba F, Bennett S (2011) Building the Field of Health Policy and Systems Research: Framing the Questions. PLoS Med 8(8): e1001073. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001073

Copyright: © 2011 Sheikh et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Funding: No specific funding was received for writing this article.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Abbreviations: HPSR, Health Policy and Systems Research; LMIC, low- and middle-income country

Provenance: Commissioned; externally peer reviewed.

PLoS Medicine Series on HPSR

Following the First Global Symposium on Health Systems Research in Montreux in November 2010, PLoS Medicine commissioned three articles on the state-of-the-art in Health Policy and Systems Research (HPSR). Three Policy Forum articles, authored by a diverse group of global health academics, critically examine the current challenges to the field and lay out what is needed to build capacity in HPSR and support local policy development and health systems strengthening, especially in low- and middle-income countries.

Paper 1 . Kabir Sheikh and colleagues. Building the Field of Health Policy and Systems Research: Framing the Questions.

Paper 2 . Lucy Gilson and colleagues. Building the Field of Health Policy and Systems Research: Social Science Matters.

Paper 3 . Sara Bennett and colleagues. Building the Field of Health Policy and Systems Research: An Agenda for Action.

Summary Points

This is the first of a series of three papers addressing the current challenges and opportunities for the development of Health Policy and Systems Research (HPSR). HPSR is a multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary field identified by the topics and scope of questions asked rather than by methodology. The focus of discussion is HPSR in low- and middle-income countries.
Topics of research in HPSR include international, national, and local health systems and their interconnectivities, and policies made and implemented at all levels of the health system. Research questions in HPSR vary by the level of analysis (macro, meso, and micro) and intent of the question (normative/evaluative or exploratory/explanatory).
Current heightened attention on HPSR contains significant opportunities, but also threats in the form of certain focus areas and questions being privileged over others; “disciplinary capture” of the field by the dominant health research traditions; and premature and inappropriately narrow definitions.
We call for greater attention to fundamental, exploratory, and explanatory types of HPSR; to the significance of the field for societal and national development, necessitating HPSR capacity building in low- and middle-income countries; and for greater literacy and application of a wide spectrum of methodologies.

Introduction

The field of Health Policy and Systems Research (HPSR) is currently experiencing an unprecedented level of interest. The First Global Symposium on Health Systems Research, held in Montreux, Switzerland, in November 2010, is the most recent of a succession of conferences and task force deliberations that have spun off a series of debates about the nature of the field and the future directions it should take. Establishing the identity and terrain of HPSR is part of these debates, which is made difficult by the fact that it is an essentially multidisciplinary field delimited not by methodology but by the topic and scope of research questions asked. In this paper, the first of a series of three addressing the current challenges and opportunities for the development of HPSR, we introduce and map the types of research questions that it has addressed over its natural course of evolution, analyze the nature of current heightened attention, and highlight emerging opportunities and challenges for the development of the field.

We use the extended term Health Policy and Systems Research for a field that is often referred to simply as Health Systems Research. For us, the broader term better captures the terrain of work it encompasses because it explicitly identifies the interconnections between policy and systems, and highlights the social and political nature of the field. The geographical focus of our concern is low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) [1] , but we suggest that our approach also has value for high-income countries. Our understanding of the evolution of HPSR draws primarily from the English language literature, which we acknowledge as a limitation. However, this reflects global discussion about the field, which has tended to neglect literature in other languages.

Evolution of a Question-Driven Field

Compared to other health research traditions, HPSR has a short but eclectic history. Many of the researchers who have led its development have brought social science perspectives, including health economics, sociology, political science, and anthropology, complementing the contributions of individuals and institutions engaged in delivering health services. A rearview look at these diverse antecedents reveals that HPSR has taken form from, and continues to be shaped by, questions bubbling up from the field—whether those asked by curious social scientists and observers drawn to the complexity of health systems and seeking to support change within them, or by public health specialists and health systems actors impelled to resolve practical concerns of service delivery. The state of HPSR in terms of methodological sophistication and advances results both from the independent contributions of discrete traditions of enquiry, as well as from the mixing of disciplinary influences—it is simultaneously, therefore, a multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary field.

Focus Areas in HPSR

Figure 1 illustrates how understanding of subjects of inquiry in HPSR varies depending on the perspective taken [2] . Health policy is commonly seen as the formal written documents, rules, and guidelines that present policy makers' decisions about what actions are deemed legitimate and necessary to strengthen the health system and improve health. Increasingly, however, it has been understood to encompass, importantly, the processes of decision-making at all levels of the health system and the wider influences that underpin the prioritisation of policy issues, the formulation of policy, the processes of bringing them alive in practice, and their evaluation [3] .

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https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001073.g001

Definitions of health systems, meanwhile, have been based mainly on their utility in the achievement of health outcomes. The World Health Organization (WHO) building blocks approach is one such popular classification, which conceptualizes health systems in the functional or instrumental terms of its constituent “hardware”—finance, medical products, information systems, levels and types of human resources, forms of service delivery, and governance understood as organizational structures and legislation, for example. [4] . It also recognises that the system encompasses both the suppliers of policy, services, and interventions, and the communities and households intended to benefit from them who, as citizens, also play important roles in policy change. However, in addition to these concrete and tangible expressions of health systems, the “software”—by which we mean the ideas and interests, values and norms, and affinities and power that guide actions and underpin the relationships among system actors and elements—are also critical to overall health systems performance. Alternative formulations of complex health systems have been influenced by economic theories of markets and political institutionalism, drawing attention to non-linear and dynamic relationships between different parts of health systems, and to the role of software and its interplay with the visible and quantifiable hardware of systems [5] , [6] . Finally, the influence of discursive and critical theory, through contributions from policy analysis and sociology, have brought an emerging recognition that health systems and policies are artifices of human creation, embedded in social and political reality and shaped by particular, culturally determined ways of framing problems and solutions [7] , [8] . Acknowledgement of these influences was another reason for our choice of field name, and has radical implications for research, and also for how we envision change in systems.

International, national, subnational (provincial), and local arenas, as well as their respective intersections, are each equally part of this broader conception of the constructed reality of health systems, with the local arena encompassing not only delivery of services, but also the worlds of health providers; activities of provision, protection, and promotion of health in local communities and households; and systems of local health governance.

A Typology of Questions

The range of questions encompassed by HPSR is broad. In the first place, there are different levels of analysis—macro-level analysis analyzes the architecture and oversight of systems, meso-level analysis focuses on the functioning of organizations and systemic interventions, and micro-level analysis considers the roles of individuals involved in activities of health provision, utilization, and governance, and how systems respectively shape and are shaped by their decisions and behaviour. Research questions can also be classified by their intent , which may broadly be seen to be either 1) normative/evaluative or 2) exploratory/explanatory in nature [9] . Table 1 maps types of questions, with indicative examples, according to the level and intent of analysis—this may be seen as a step towards constructing a broad church (or mosque, or temple) for HPSR.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001073.t001

The New Interest in HPSR

The recent upsurge of interest in HPSR, whilst partly a culmination of the efforts of earlier generations of researchers, owes much to recognition of its importance for the success of health interventions and programmes, and the changing macroeconomic environment of international health. As funding for health scaled up during the period 2000–2008, it became evident that Millennium Development Goal targets would not be achieved due to weak health systems. This catalyzed interest in the health systems field by international alliances and donors, as well as a nascent advocacy movement, partly synergistic also with HIV/AIDS advocacy. Specific departments within international organizations, such as the Health Systems and Services cluster at WHO, were established and new research organizations focusing on health systems research, such as the Alliance for Health Policy and Systems Research and the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, emerged. During the past decade a series of conferences and task forces on health research, including the International Conference on Health Research for Development, Bangkok, 2000, and ministerial meetings in Mexico City in 2004 and Bamako in 2008, had a strong focus on practical, operational questions, and this was frequently framed as health systems research. In addition to these global trends, innovative health reforms in emerging economies such as Brazil, China, India, and Thailand have created enthusiasm around the scope for system-level interventions.

The upsurge in interest is a reflection of the wide-ranging relevance of HPSR, as well as a commentary on the overdue need for the elevation of this research field to the stature of the dominant traditions of health research. There are numerous potential benefits of the current concern, for the future of the field:

New insights into key problems and focus areas, particularly resulting from the participation of actors representing the clinical and epidemiological sciences, and from reflection on operational and service delivery experiences.
Opportunities for development of a range of new research methodologies drawing from diverse disciplinary perspectives.
Expansion of funding platforms and increased funding for HPSR in LMIC contexts.

However, the combination of heightened attention in a short span of time with the differing interests of involved actors has altered how HPSR is perceived and framed in the present day. In itself this presents significant threats for the balanced and holistic development of the field—three of the most important threats are discussed here.

Skewed Balance in Focus Areas and Questions

HPSR has previously played an important role in exploring the societal relevance and purpose of systems and interventions, and helping shape systems values [10] , [11] . Another important potential function of HPSR is to examine software elements such as power and trust that have been demonstrated to be key determinants of health systems performance, and success of health policies [12] , [13] . However, the current focus of the field of research is frequently framed around the hardware of health systems, and less around its software (See Figure 1 ). This is underpinned by the dominance of the positivist paradigm of knowledge which, with its claims to value-neutrality, has led to health systems being seen primarily as vehicles for technological solutions rather than being grounded in political and social contexts with underlying power structures, interests, and interdependencies.

Secondly, particular arenas of health policy and systems remain poorly addressed. The current framing of HPSR has tended to foreground issues around the delivery of specific interventions and services (often specific programmes of disease control, and often driven by global actors and agendas) rather than the existing national and sub-national systems and institutions through which they are administered. The influence of local political cultures and practices over system performance is another critical area of neglect in HPSR—yet organizational ethos and inter-organizational relationships are key determinants of how and whether policies get implemented.

Finally, the current framing of HPSR has broadly been skewed towards short-term pragmatic and operational questions, rather than being oriented towards theoretical development. Within the predominantly normative/evaluative focus of current questions there has also been a particular emphasis on deriving generalizable solutions that can be applied internationally, rather than working towards resolving specific societal problems through engagement with national and subnational policy planners. The dominant trend of donor-driven HPSR with an emphasis on addressing operational needs could have the effect of undermining the capabilities of research and academic organizations to address more fundamental, exploratory, and explanatory questions around the character and relevance of health policies and systems in real-world social and political contexts [14] .

“Disciplinary Capture”

The stakeholders—including researchers, funders, and journal editors—who are converging on HPSR, come from diverse disciplinary backgrounds. In this plural field, probably the most significant risk to its development lies in the lack of mutual understanding and respect across the range of contributory disciplines. In HPSR, as in health research in general, the dominant group of actors (in terms of both volume and influence) are those involved in the delivery of health services (primarily medical professionals). These actors work mainly in the frame of the dominant health research traditions—including epidemiological, biomedical, and clinical research—and commonly employ a positivist paradigm of knowledge [15] .

Disciplinary capture may occur if this knowledge frame, with its attendant criteria of research quality, is superimposed on the entire field for want of a wider understanding of alternative paradigms of knowledge. The quantitative methods and measures commonly used in these dominant health research fields may be over-utilised in the service of HPSR questions, where qualitative, inductive, or participatory methods may work better. Frequently too, the rigour of HPSR is assessed with inappropriate standards, extrapolated from the dominant research traditions [15] .

Inappropriate Definitions

As HPSR is beginning to take shape from its multitude of influences, there is an undoubted and widely acknowledged need to enhance clarity and consensus on research methods, and deepen the theoretical foundations of the field. Prevailing attempts to characterize the field have broadly focused on offering definitions of HPSR, sometimes seeking to distinguish it from related areas of research [16] . It is argued that these definitional attempts have utility in guiding the allocation of global funds. However, for much the same reason, they risk constraining the understanding and natural development of the field, and may lead to the neglect and “crowding out” of particular types of HPSR that do not fit neatly into popular definitions, such as the examples of overlooked focus areas and types of questions cited above. In addition to militating against the hitherto inclusive, question-driven ethos of the field, such territorial approaches also present significant problems when definitions are inappropriately narrow or incomplete (Box 1).

Box 1. Narrow Definitions: Two Case Studies.

Implementation Research: In the world of public policy analysis, research on implementation is a far-reaching terrain of work synonymous with the study of governance, clearly a central element of HPSR. Implementation research in this understanding is a four-decade-old field built on a wide foundation of empirical and theoretical work, propelled by vibrant debates between top-down and action-centered (or bottom-up) thinking. While top-down approaches analyze the ineffectiveness of public policies at all levels [22] , and aim to diagnose and resolve implementation deficits, action-centred theorists see implementation as a relationship between policy and action, involving negotiations and interactions in social and political contexts, and use social science research methods to understand “what actually happens, how and why” [23] . However, current definitions of Implementation Research (IR) in recent influential articles appear to overlook this entire paradigm and the extensive body of research within it [16] . IR in this interpretation focuses on the concerns of programme managers regarding the effectiveness of specific health interventions. In restricting IR to the objective of facilitating predetermined programmatic solutions, a broad terrain of understanding and research is effectively reduced to a topic area with a predominant top-down focus. The narrow enunciation of delivery of health interventions or programmes also excludes an understanding of implementation of other levels (e.g., global, sectoral, institutional) and domains of policy (e.g., health workforce, regulation, financing), each a significant area of research enquiry.
Impact Evaluation: A related movement is the current ascendance of the field of “impact evaluation”, with its emphasis on a narrow range of “robust” methods that are believed to ensure an unbiased measure of intervention impact. This restriction on admissible study designs is also seen in Cochrane reviews of health system interventions undertaken through the Effective Practice and Organisation of Care (EPOC) group, which also holds the randomised design as the “gold standard”. Yet, such methods are often ill-suited to the evaluation of complex interventions (which would include many, if not all, health system strengthening interventions) where the causal mechanism is multifaceted and contextual factors play an important role. For instance, when there is a change in policy at the national level, there may be no obvious group against which change can be assessed, nor the opportunity to randomize units to intervention or control group. Even where it is possible to introduce variation in policy at the local level, reliance on randomised methods to rule out confounders in the measurement of impact may lead to a neglect of understanding of the specific elements of the context that are responsible for programme success or failure. For these interventions, it would seem wise to admit a wider variety of study designs for examining and interpreting programme impact, and for generating knowledge that can be generalised to other contexts.

Furthermore, LMIC health systems are also changing rapidly, and moves to delimit the field with narrow definitions may well be short-sighted. Emerging phenomena such as the changing roles of health care professionals, increasing health literacy, commercialization of health, and technological innovation—for information and communication, diagnosis, and treatment—will each pose new questions, necessitating a relatively open-ended outlook on the topics and approaches of enquiry constituting HPSR [17] – [20] .

Framing HPSR: A Balanced Agenda

HPSR owes much of its present-day prominence to its utility in supporting the effective implementation of health interventions and programmes. The key underlying assumption in this popular use of HPSR is that scientific-technical solutions for health concerns have previously been proven through epidemiological, biomedical, or clinical research, and the problem lies in actualization due to deficiencies in how the solution is administered by the health system, and necessitating enquiry into system “bottlenecks”. Consequently, in the broader schema of health research, research questions pertaining to health policy and systems have tended to occupy the position of being secondary or subsequent to the primary scientific-technical question.

It is important to recognize that HPSR does not exist only for reasons of its usefulness in addressing the constraints of specific health interventions, nor does it need to mimic the systems of knowledge generation prevalent in the dominant health research traditions. HPSR may logically be conceptualised in a complementary and equivalent , not subordinate, position to the other health research traditions in the quest for solutions to health concerns. It is a free-standing field of research with diverse, serious goals including supporting societal development and self-sufficiency of nations and communities in the long term, and examining the appropriateness of scientific-technical solutions when applied in real-world contexts [21] .

HPSR should have room for multiple foci of enquiry and types of research questions, and a wide spectrum of methodological approaches. The normative and evaluative functions of HPSR are well established, but there is also scope in HPSR for more fundamental, exploratory, and explanatory questions. Acceptance of and support for fundamental research is an important signifier of the maturation and wholeness of a field. Fundamental research has instrumental value in aiding health systems performance, and also serves long-term developmental goals. It is essential in shaping policy, and is the basis for a body of reference knowledge and a firm theoretical platform—baselines on which future researchers can build.

While the awakening of interest in HPSR contains great opportunities, we are also concerned that the disciplinary biases, premature enunciation of definitions, and the skewed balance of questions currently prioritised within HPSR weakens rather than strengthens the field, and so could undermine its potential to facilitate long-term goals of societal development. The practical challenges ahead, particularly as we seek to build capacity for HPSR in LMICs, include balanced growth and promoting wider literacy of the inherent diversity and varied potentialities of the field. These questions are addressed in the two forthcoming papers in this series.

Author Contributions

Wrote the first draft of the manuscript: KS LG IAA KH FS SB. Contributed to the writing of the manuscript: KS LG IAA KH FS SB. ICMJE criteria for authorship read and met: KS LG IAA KH FS SB. Agree with manuscript‚s results and conclusions: KS LG IAA KH FS SB.

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Postgraduate study

Postgraduate research opportunities A-Z

Social Science & Health
Staff research interests search

Postgraduate research

Social Science & Health PhD

Our aim is to better understand and improve human health and wellbeing via the study of social, behavioural, economic, cultural and environmental influences on health and the application of social science theories and methodologies.

Social science and health is located in the School of Health and Wellbeing and includes:

MRC/CSO Social and Public Health Sciences Unit , based in our College of Medical Veterinary and Life Sciences
A group of ‘social science and health’ researchers , based in our College of Social Sciences.

MRC/CSO Social and Public Health Sciences Unit

The overarching aim of this Unit is to improve human health and wellbeing via the study of social, behavioural, economic, cultural and environmental influences on health. It comprises a large group of social science-led researchers, focusing on social determinants of health, health inequalities and health improvement. More specific objectives include:

studying the multiple interacting processes through which biological, social, behavioural, economic, cultural and environmental factors influence physical and mental health and health behaviours over the lifecourse
discovering mechanisms which can modify these processes and have the potential to improve public health in a complex and changing world
developing and evaluating interventions which harness these mechanisms to improve public health and reduce social inequalities in health
influencing policy and practice by communicating the results and implications of research to a range of audiences

The Unit’s work is organised as five programmes:

Complexity in health
Inequalities in health
Relationships and health
Places and health
Systems science in public health

Social Science and Health researchers working in the College of Social Sciences

Our overarching aim is to provide a stimulating, participative, environment for research to inform policies and practices that will promote social justice, improve population health and wellbeing and reduce inequalities in these.

We bring a particular commitment to:

the application of social science theory and method to world class research
the promotion of social justice
a reduction in inequalities
working with government, local authorities and third sector organisations and wider civic society to deliver change, particularly for disabled people, people of low social economic status (SES) and those who are otherwise disadvantaged

Study options

The MRC/CSO Social & Public Health Sciences Unit advertises a small number of MRC-funded studentships annually. These are funded for 3 years for those who already have a Masters degree, or equivalent training, in an appropriate scientific discipline. For those wishing to undertake an appropriate Masters degree in the first year, studentships are funded for 4 years.

Social Science and Health researchers working in the College of Social Sciences support PhD students funded through a variety of sources including the ESRC, Scottish Government, the Commonwealth Fund, the Glasgow Centre for Population Health and the Lord Kelvin/Adam Smith Foundation.

All social science and health researchers welcome applications from candidates who have arranged their own funding and/or to work with candidates on applications for competitively funded studentships.

Our supervisors include those with social science backgrounds (a wide range, including sociology, psychology, social anthropology and geography) and statistical expertise. Our research employs both quantitative and qualitative approaches as well as systematic reviews; great value is placed on the development and application of novel methods to address research questions of contemporary relevance to health and wellbeing from a social science perspective. We provide diverse training opportunities for all aspects of research and for transferable academic and generic skills.

Prospective studentsare encouraged to get in touch with individual academics to find out about opportunities in their areas of research and supervision.

Broad themes within the social and public health sciences unit’s research programmes include:

development and evaluation of complex interventions
transferability of interventions
complex systems science
health inequalities and linked data analysis
natural experiments from observational data
enhancing cohort, survey and routine data sources
peers and social networks
intimate and sexual relationships
communities
educational settings
professional sports club settings
secure institutional settings
measuring and understanding impacts of regeneration/transformation on health and wellbeing
contextual influences on children and young people
improving health in neighbourhoods and communities
understanding emerging health debates
understanding policy and using evidence
evaluating healthy public policies

Themes addressed by social science and health researchers working in the College of Social Sciences include:

changing Public Policy and Public Policy for Change
history of Public Health and Medicine
improving Health and Wellbeing: Programmes for Change
experiences of Health and Disability

Postgraduate students within the Social & Public Health Sciences Unit and in the Social Sciences in Health Group have the opportunity to acquire a wide set of transferable skills and leave with excellent career prospects.

They are recognised and treated as full members of the Unit/Group, expected to attend seminars, team meetings, etc., and required to contribute to unit/group-wide activities in the same way as all staff. There are also opportunities for secondment to policy and practice organisations. Our postgraduate students are thus able to learn about a wide range of disciplines and topics beyond those specific to their PhD.

The Social & Public Health Sciences Unit also provides unique opportunities to gain experience of different aspects of social and public health science beyond that offered in typical university environments. These include working with the unit’s in-house population health research facility, gaining first-hand experience in large-scale field work and the necessary regulatory, ethics and data compliance processes of study data collection.

In the Social Science in Health Group there are opportunities to work as graduate teaching assistants or on occasional additional research for other teams. These give wide-ranging opportunities for transferable skill development.

After completing their studies, many students find employment as university researchers, others in NGOs, independent research organisations or local or national government organisations.

Entry requirements

Awarded or expected First-class or high Upper Second-class BSc degree.

English language requirements

For applicants whose first language is not English, the University sets a minimum English Language proficiency level.

International English Language Testing System (IELTS) Academic module (not General Training)

6.5 with no subtests under 6.0
Tests must have been taken within 2 years 5 months of start date. Applicants must meet the overall and subtest requirements using a single test.

Common equivalent English language qualifications accepted for entry to this programme:

Toefl (ibt, my best or athome).

79; with Reading 13; Listening 12; Speaking 18;Writing 21
Tests must have been taken within 2 years 5 months of start date. Applicants must meet the overall and subtest requirements , this includes TOEFL mybest.

Pearsons PTE Academic

59 with minimum 59 in all subtests

Cambridge Proficiency in English (CPE) and Cambridge Advanced English (CAE)

176 overall, no subtest less than 169

Oxford English Test

Oxford ELLT 7
R&L: OIDI level no less than 6 with Reading: 21-24 Listening: 15-17
W&S: OIDI level no less than 6

Trinity College Tests

Integrated Skills in English II & III & IV: ISEII Distinction with Distinction in all sub-tests.

University of Glasgow Pre-sessional courses

Tests are accepted for 2 years following date of successful completion.

Alternatives to English Language qualification

students must have studied for a minimum of 2 years at Undergraduate level, or 9 months at Master's level, and must have complete their degree in that majority-English speaking country and within the last 6 years
students must have completed their final two years study in that majority-English speaking country and within the last 6 years

For international students, the Home Office has confirmed that the University can choose to use these tests to make its own assessment of English language ability for visa applications to degree level programmes. The University is also able to accept UKVI approved Secure English Language Tests (SELT) but we do not require a specific UKVI SELT for degree level programmes. We therefore still accept any of the English tests listed for admission to this programme.

Pre-sessional courses

The University of Glasgow accepts evidence of the required language level from the English for Academic Study Unit Pre-sessional courses. We also consider other BALEAP accredited pre-sessional courses:

School of Modern Languages and Cultures: English for Academic Study
BALEAP guide to accredited courses

Fees and funding

UK: £4,786
International & EU: £25,290

Prices are based on the annual fee for full-time study. Fees for part-time study are half the full-time fee.

Irish nationals who are living in the Common Travel Area of the UK, EU nationals with settled or pre-settled status, and Internationals with Indefinite Leave to remain status can also qualify for home fee status.

Fee status and policies

Alumni discount

We offer a 20% discount to our alumni on all Postgraduate Research and full Postgraduate Taught Masters programmes. This includes University of Glasgow graduates and those who have completed Junior Year Abroad, Exchange programme or International Summer School with us. The discount is applied at registration for students who are not in receipt of another discount or scholarship funded by the University. No additional application is required.

Possible additional fees

Re-submission by a research student £540
Submission for a higher degree by published work £1,355
Submission of thesis after deadline lapsed £350
Submission by staff in receipt of staff scholarship £790

Depending on the nature of the research project, some students will be expected to pay a bench fee (also known as research support costs) to cover additional costs. The exact amount will be provided in the offer letter.

External funding information

The College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences Graduate School provides a vibrant, supportive and stimulating environment for all our postgraduate students. We aim to provide excellent support for our postgraduates through dedicated postgraduate convenors, highly trained supervisors and pastoral support for each student. Our overarching aim is to provide a research training environment that includes:

provision of excellent facilities and cutting edge techniques
training in essential research and generic skills
excellence in supervision and mentoring
interactive discussion groups and seminars
an atmosphere that fosters critical cultural policy and research analysis
synergy between research groups and areas
extensive multidisciplinary and collaborative research
extensive external collaborations both within and beyond the UK
a robust generic skills programme including opportunities in social and commercial training

The breadth of academic disciplines within the Social & Public Health Sciences Unit ensures excellent support for research students. It has dedicated IT and database maintenance and support staff and an information scientist. The in-house Research Support Unit co-ordinates and delivers large-scale community based studies and, increasingly, supports community based trials and evaluations.

Students in Social Sciences and Health have access to the full range of support provided by the School of Social and Political Sciences, with excellent IT and library support. Students are encouraged to take part in the annual School of Health and Wellbeing postgraduate student conferences and to contribute to the student-led blog IHAWKES.

How to apply

Identify potential supervisors.

All Postgraduate Research Students are allocated a supervisor who will act as the main source of academic support and research mentoring. You may want to identify a potential supervisor and contact them to discuss your research proposal before you apply. Please note, even if you have spoken to an academic staff member about your proposal you still need to submit an online application form.

You can find relevant academic staff members with our staff research interests search .

Gather your documents

Before applying please make sure you gather the following supporting documentation:

Final or current degree transcripts including grades (and an official translation, if needed) – scanned copy in colour of the original document.
Degree certificates (and an official translation, if needed): scanned copy in colour of the original document.
Two references on headed paper and signed by the referee. One must be academic, the other can be academic or professional. References may be uploaded as part of the application form or you may enter your referees contact details on the application form. We will then email your referee and notify you when we receive the reference. We can also accept confidential references direct to [email protected] , from the referee’s university or business email account.
Research proposal, CV, samples of written work as per requirements for each subject area.

Before you apply

PhD/MSc/MD: email [email protected]

iPhD: email [email protected]

After you have submitted your application

PhD/MSc/MD/iPhD: contact our Admissions team

Any references may be submitted by email to: [email protected]

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Impact of public health guidance is focus of new NSF partnership with Social Science Research Council

The U.S. National Science Foundation is partnering with the Social Science Research Council (SSRC) to support research that advances scientific knowledge about public health guidance and its impact on the health and well-being of individuals and communities.

SSRC will donate up to $7.5 million to NSF over the next two years to support fundamental research exploring the effects of public health guidance on society. NSF will invest an additional $12.5 million for a combined total of up to $20 million in research funding.

SSRC is an independent nonprofit organization that has supported social science research since 1923. The partnership will leverage the unique capabilities of NSF and SSRC through their diverse connections to the research community and public health organizations.

"Fundamental social and behavioral science has the power to help every American live a healthier and more prosperous life," says NSF Social and Economic Sciences Division Director Rayvon Fouché. "The societal benefits from robust exploratory research are amplified by dynamic partnerships like this one. We are grateful to SSRC for partnering with NSF in our shared mission to enhance the resilience and strength of communities across the entire country."

"Information networks are a critical component of our public health infrastructure. However, in today's complex information ecosystem, accurate information is not equally accessible for everyone," says SSRC President Anna Harvey. "This partnership will fund social and behavioral scientists to understand the causal impacts of methods that increase the sharing and uptake of critical health-related information, contributing to an information environment that benefits everyone."

The challenge of understanding the diverse effects that public health guidance can have on U.S. society and the economy has been underscored by the COVID-19 pandemic. The health and well-being of individuals, communities and entire regions of the U.S. can be fortified through fundamental scientific insights into how public health guidance is created and distributed and how people perceive it.

NSF and SSRC invite research proposals that can reveal the complex factors that contribute to effective public health guidance and provide rigorous evidence that will be useful for decision-makers seeking to improve and protect the health of their communities.

For details on how to prepare and submit a research proposal, see Dear Colleague Letter: NSF and SSRC Partnership to Advance Scientific Knowledge About the Impact of Public Health Guidance .

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Short report
Open access
Published: 12 April 2024

A modified action framework to develop and evaluate academic-policy engagement interventions

Petra Mäkelä ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0938-1175 1 ,
Annette Boaz ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0557-1294 2 &
Kathryn Oliver ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4326-5258 1

Implementation Science volume 19 , Article number: 31 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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There has been a proliferation of frameworks with a common goal of bridging the gap between evidence, policy, and practice, but few aim to specifically guide evaluations of academic-policy engagement. We present the modification of an action framework for the purpose of selecting, developing and evaluating interventions for academic-policy engagement.

We build on the conceptual work of an existing framework known as SPIRIT (Supporting Policy In Health with Research: an Intervention Trial), developed for the evaluation of strategies intended to increase the use of research in health policy. Our aim was to modify SPIRIT, (i) to be applicable beyond health policy contexts, for example encompassing social, environmental, and economic policy impacts and (ii) to address broader dynamics of academic-policy engagement. We used an iterative approach through literature reviews and consultation with multiple stakeholders from Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) and policy professionals working at different levels of government and across geographical contexts in England, alongside our evaluation activities in the Capabilities in Academic Policy Engagement (CAPE) programme.

Our modifications expand upon Redman et al.’s original framework, for example adding a domain of ‘Impacts and Sustainability’ to capture continued activities required in the achievement of desirable outcomes. The modified framework fulfils the criteria for a useful action framework, having a clear purpose, being informed by existing understandings, being capable of guiding targeted interventions, and providing a structure to build further knowledge.

The modified SPIRIT framework is designed to be meaningful and accessible for people working across varied contexts in the evidence-policy ecosystem. It has potential applications in how academic-policy engagement interventions might be developed, evaluated, facilitated and improved, to ultimately support the use of evidence in decision-making.

Peer Review reports

Contributions to the literature

There has been a proliferation of theories, models and frameworks relating to translation of research into practice. Few specifically relate to engagement between academia and policy.

Challenges of evidence-informed policy-making are receiving increasing attention globally. There is a growing number of academic-policy engagement interventions but a lack of published evaluations.

This article contributes a modified action framework that can be used to guide how academic-policy engagement interventions might be developed, evaluated, facilitated, and improved, to support the use of evidence in policy decision-making.

Our contribution demonstrates the potential for modification of existing, useful frameworks instead of creating brand-new frameworks. It provides an exemplar for others who are considering when and how to modify existing frameworks to address new or expanded purposes while respecting the conceptual underpinnings of the original work.

Academic-policy engagement refers to ways that Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) and their staff engage with institutions responsible for policy at national, regional, county or local levels. Academic-policy engagement is intended to support the use of evidence in decision-making and in turn, improve its effectiveness, and inform the identification of barriers and facilitators in policy implementation [ 1 , 2 , 3 ]. Challenges of evidence-informed policy-making are receiving increasing attention globally, including the implications of differences in cultural norms and mechanisms across national contexts [ 4 , 5 ]. Although challenges faced by researchers and policy-makers have been well documented [ 6 , 7 ], there has been less focus on actions at the engagement interface. Pragmatic guidance for the development, evaluation or comparison of structured responses to the challenges of academic-policy engagement is currently lacking [ 8 , 9 ].

Academic-policy engagement exists along a continuum of approaches from linear (pushing evidence out from academia or pulling evidence into policy), relational (promoting mutual understandings and partnerships), and systems approaches (addressing identified barriers and facilitators) [ 4 ]. Each approach is underpinned by sets of beliefs, assumptions and expectations, and each raises questions for implementation and evaluation. Little is known about which academic-policy engagement interventions work in which settings, with scarce empirical evidence to inform decisions about which interventions to use, when, with whom, or why, and how organisational contexts can affect motivation and capabilities for such engagement [ 10 ]. A deeper understanding through the evaluation of engagement interventions will help to identify inhibitory and facilitatory factors, which may or may not transfer across contexts [ 11 ].

The intellectual technologies [ 12 ] of implementation science have proliferated in recent decades, including models, frameworks and theories that address research translation and acknowledge difficulties in closing the gap between research, policy and practice [ 13 ]. Frameworks may serve overlapping purposes of describing or guiding processes of translating knowledge into practice (e.g. the Quality Implementation Framework [ 14 ]); or helping to explain influences on implementation outcomes (e.g. the Theoretical Domains Framework [ 15 ]); or guiding evaluation (e.g. the RE-AIM framework [ 16 , 17 ]. Frameworks can offer an efficient way to look across diverse settings and to identify implementation differences [ 18 , 19 ]. However, the abundance of options raises its own challenges when seeking a framework for a particular purpose, and the use of a framework may mean that more weight is placed on certain aspects, leading to a partial understanding [ 13 , 17 ].

‘Action frameworks’ are predictive models that intend to organise existing knowledge and enable a logical approach for the selection, implementation and evaluation of intervention strategies, thereby facilitating the expansion of that knowledge [ 20 ]. They can guide change by informing and clarifying practical steps to follow. As flexible entities, they can be adapted to accommodate new purposes. Framework modification may include the addition of constructs or changes in language to expand applicability to a broader range of settings [ 21 ].

We sought to identify one organising framework for evaluation activities in the Capabilities in Academic-Policy Engagement (CAPE) programme (2021–2023), funded by Research England. The CAPE programme aimed to understand how best to support effective and sustained engagement between academics and policy professionals across the higher education sector in England [ 22 ]. We first searched the literature and identified an action framework that was originally developed between 2011 and 2013, to underpin a trial known as SPIRIT (Supporting Policy In health with Research: an Intervention Trial) [ 20 , 23 ]. This trial evaluated strategies intended to increase the use of research in health policy and to identify modifiable points for intervention.

We selected the SPIRIT framework due to its potential suitability as an initial ‘road map’ for our evaluation of academic-policy interventions in the CAPE programme. The key elements of the original framework are catalysts, organisational capacity, engagement actions, and research use. We wished to build on the framework’s embedded conceptual work, derived from literature reviews and semi-structured interviews, to identify policymakers’ views on factors that assist policy agencies’ use of research [ 20 ]. The SPIRIT framework developers defined its “locus for change” as the policy organisation ( [ 20 ], p. 151). They proposed that it could offer the beginning of a process to identify and test pathways in policy agencies’ use of evidence.

Our goal was to modify SPIRIT to accommodate a different locus for change: the engagement interface between academia and policy. Instead of imagining a linear process in which knowledge comes from researchers and is transmitted to policy professionals, we intended to extend the framework to multidirectional relational and system interfaces. We wished to include processes and influences at individual, organisational and system levels, to be relevant for HEIs and their staff, policy bodies and professionals, funders of engagement activities, and facilitatory bodies. Ultimately, we seek to address a gap in understanding how engagement strategies work, for whom, how they are facilitated, and to improve the evaluation of academic-policy engagement.

We aimed to produce a conceptually guided action framework to enable systematic evaluation of interventions intending to support academic-policy engagement.

We used a pragmatic combination of processes for framework modification during our evaluation activities in the CAPE programme [ 22 ]. The CAPE programme included a range of interventions: seed funding for academic and policy professional collaboration in policy-focused projects, fellowships for academic placements in policy settings, or for policy professionals with HEI staff, training for policy professionals, and a range of knowledge exchange events for HEI staff and policy professionals. We modified the SPIRIT framework through iterative processes shown in Table 1 , including reviews of literature; consultations with HEI staff and policy professionals across a range of policy contexts and geographic settings in England, through the CAPE programme; and piloting, refining and seeking feedback from stakeholders in academic-policy engagement.

A number of characteristics of the original SPIRIT framework could be applied to academic-policy engagement. While keeping the core domains, we modified the framework to capture dynamics of engagement at multiple academic and policy levels (individuals, organisations and system), extending beyond the original unidirectional focus on policy agencies’ use of research. Components of the original framework, the need for modifications, and their corresponding action-oriented implications are shown in Table 2 . We added a new domain, ‘Impacts and Sustainability’, to consider transforming and enduring aspects at the engagement interface. The modified action framework is shown in Fig. 1 .

SPIRIT Action Framework Modified for Academic-Policy Engagement Interventions (SPIRIT-ME), adapted with permission from the Sax Institute. Legend: The framework acknowledges that elements in each domain may influence other elements through mechanisms of action and that these do not necessarily flow through the framework in a ‘pipeline’ sequence. Mechanisms of action are processes through which engagement strategies operate to achieve desired outcomes. They might rely on influencing factors, catalysts, an aspect of an intervention action, or a combination of elements

Identifying relevant theories or models for missing elements

Catalysts and capacity.

Within our evaluation of academic-policy interventions, we identified a need to develop the original domain of catalysts beyond ‘policy/programme need for research’ and ‘new research with potential policy relevance’. Redman et al. characterised a catalyst as “a need for information to answer a particular problem in policy or program design, or to assist in supporting a case for funding” in the original framework (p. 149). We expanded this “need for information” to a perceived need for engagement, by either HEI staff or policy professionals, linking to the potential value they perceived in engaging. Specifically, there was a need to consider catalysts at the level of individual engagement, for example HEI staff wanting research to have real-world impact, or policy professionals’ desires to improve decision-making in policy, where productive interactions between academic and policy stakeholders are “necessary interim steps in the process that lead to societal impact” ( [ 24 ], p. 214). The catalyst domain expands the original emphasis on a need for research, to take account of challenges to be overcome by both the academic and policy communities in knowing how, and with whom, to engage and collaborate with [ 25 ].

We used a model proposing that there are three components for any behaviour: capability, opportunity and motivation, which is known as the COM-B model [ 26 ]. Informed by CAPE evaluation activities and our discussions with stakeholders, we mapped the opportunity and motivation constructs into the ‘catalysts’ domain of the original framework. Opportunity is an attribute of the system that can facilitate engagement. It may be a tangible factor such as the availability of seed funding, or a perceived social opportunity such as institutional support for engagement activities. Opportunity can act at the macro level of systems and organisational structures. Motivation acts at the micro level, deriving from an individual’s mental processes that stimulate and direct their behaviours; in this case, taking part in academic-policy engagement actions. The COM-B model distinguishes between reflective motivation through conscious planning and automatic motivation that may be instinctive or affective [ 26 ].

We presented an early application of the COM-B model to catalysts for engagement at an academic conference, enabling an informal exploration of attendees’ subjective views on the clarity and appropriateness, when developing the framework. This application introduces possibilities for intervention development and support by highlighting ‘opportunities’ and ‘motivations’ as key catalysts in the modified framework.

Within the ‘capacity’ domain, we retained the original levels of individuals, organisations and systems. We introduced individual capability as a construct from the COM-B model, describing knowledge, skills and abilities to generate behaviour change as a precursor of academic-policy engagement. This reframing extends the applicability to HEI staff as well as policy professionals. It brings attention to different starting conditions for individuals, such as capabilities developed through previous experience, which can link with social opportunity (for example, through training or support) as a catalyst.

Engagement actions

We identified a need to modify the original domain ‘engagement actions’ to extend the focus beyond the use of research. We added three categories of engagement actions described by Best and Holmes [ 27 ]: linear, relational, and systems. These categories were further specified through a systematic mapping of international organisations’ academic-policy engagement activities [ 5 ]. This framework modification expands the domain to encompass: (i) linear ‘push’ of evidence from academia or ‘pull’ of evidence into policy agencies; (ii) relational approaches focused on academic-policy-maker collaboration; and (iii) systems’ strategies to facilitate engagement for example through strategic leadership, rewards or incentives [ 5 ].

We retained the elements in the original framework’s ‘outcomes’ domain (instrumental, tactical, conceptual and imposed), which we found could apply to outcomes of engagement as well as research use. For example, discussions between a policy professional and a range of academics could lead to a conceptual outcome by considering an issue through different disciplinary lenses. We expanded these elements by drawing on literature on engagement outcomes [ 28 ] and through sense-checking with stakeholders in CAPE. We added capacity-building (changes to skills and expertise), connectivity (changes to the number and quality of relationships), and changes in organisational culture or attitude change towards engagement.

Impacts and sustainability

The original framework contained endpoints described as: ‘Better health system and health outcomes’ and ‘Research-informed health policy and policy documents’. For modification beyond health contexts and to encompass broader intentions of academic-policy engagement, we replaced these elements with a new domain of ‘Impacts and sustainability’. This domain captures the continued activities required in achievement of desirable outcomes [ 29 ]. The modification allows consideration of sustainability in relation to previous stages of engagement interventions, through the identification of beneficial effects that are sustained (or not), in which ways, and for whom. Following Borst [ 30 ], we propose a shift from the expectation that ‘sustainability’ will be a fixed endpoint. Instead, we emphasise the maintenance work needed over time, to sustain productive engagement.

Influences and facilitators

We modified the overarching ‘Policy influences’ (such as public opinion and media) in the original framework, to align with factors influencing academic-policy engagement beyond policy agencies’ use of research. We included influences at the level of the individual (for example, individual moral discretion [ 31 ]), the organisation (for example, managerial practices [ 31 ]) and the system (for example, career incentives [ 32 ]). Each of these processes takes place in the broader context of social, policy and financial environments (that is, potential sources of funding for engagement actions) [ 29 ].

We modified the domain ‘Reservoir of relevant and reliable research’ underpinning the original framework, replacing it with ‘Reservoir of people skills’, to emphasise intangible facilitatory work at the engagement interface, in place of concrete research outputs. We used the ‘Promoting Action on Research Implementation in Health Services’ (PARiHS) framework [ 33 , 34 ], which gives explicit consideration to facilitation mechanisms for researchers and policy-makers [ 13 ] . Here, facilitation expertise includes mechanisms that focus on particular goals (task-oriented facilitation) or enable changes in ways of working (holistic-oriented facilitation). Task-orientated facilitation skills might include, for example, the provision of contacts, practical help or project management skills, while holistic-oriented facilitation involves building and sustaining partnerships or support skills’ development across a range of capabilities. These conceptualisations aligned with our consultations with facilitators of engagement in CAPE. We further extended these to include aspects identified in our evaluation activities: strategic planning, contextual awareness and entrepreneurial orientation.

Piloting and refining the modified framework through stakeholder engagement

We piloted an early version of the modified framework to develop a survey for all CAPE programme participants. During this pilot stage, we sought feedback from the CAPE delivery team members across HEI and policy contexts in England. CAPE delivery team members are based at five collaborating universities with partners in the Parliamentary Office for Science and Technology (POST) and Government Office for Science (GO-Science), and Nesta (a British foundation that supports innovation). The HEI members include academics and professional services knowledge mobilisation staff, responsible for leading and coordinating CAPE activities. The delivery team comprised approximately 15–20 individuals (with some fluctuations according to individual availabilities).

We assessed appropriateness and utility, refined terminology, added domain elements and explored nuances. For example, stakeholders considered the multi-layered possibilities within the domain ‘capacity’, where some HEI or policy departments may demonstrate a belief that it is important to use research in policy, but this might not be the perception of the organisation as a whole. We also sought stakeholders’ views on the utility of the new domains, for example, the identification of facilitator expertise such as acting as a knowledge broker or intermediary; providing training, advice or guidance; facilitating engagement opportunities; creating engagement programmes; and sustainability of engagement that could be conceptualised at multiple levels: personally, in processes or through systems.

Testing against criteria for useful action framework

The modified framework fulfils the properties of a useful action framework [ 20 ]:

It has a clearly articulated purpose: development and evaluation of academic-policy engagement interventions through linear, relational and/or system approaches. It has identified loci for change, at the level of the individual, the organisation or system.

It has been informed by existing understandings, including conceptual work of the original SPIRIT framework, conceptual models identified from the literature, published empirical findings, understandings from consultation with stakeholders, and evaluation activities in CAPE.

It can be applied to the development, implementation and evaluation of targeted academic-policy engagement actions, the selection of points for intervention and identification of potential outcomes, including the work of sustaining them and unanticipated consequences.

It provides a structure to build knowledge by guiding the generation of hypotheses about mechanisms of action in academic-policy engagement interventions, or by adapting the framework further through application in practice.

The proliferation of frameworks to articulate processes of research translation reveals a need for their adaptation when applied in specific contexts. The majority of models in implementation science relate to translation of research into practice. By contrast, our focus was on engagement between academia and policy. There are a growing number of academic-policy engagement interventions but a lack of published evaluations [ 10 ].

Our framework modification provides an exemplar for others who are considering how to adapt existing conceptual frameworks to address new or expanded purposes. Field et al. identified the multiple, idiosyncratic ways that the Knowledge to Action Framework has been applied in practice, demonstrating its ‘informal’ adaptability to different healthcare settings and topics [ 35 ]. Others have reported on specific processes for framework refinement or extension. Wiltsey Stirman et al. adopted a framework that characterised forms of intervention modification, using a “pragmatic, multifaceted approach” ( [ 36 ], p.2). The authors later used the modified version as a foundation to build a further framework to encompass implementation strategies in a range of settings [ 21 ]. Oiumet et al. used the approach of borrowing from a different disciplinary field for framework adaptation, by using a model of absorptive capacity from management science to develop a conceptual framework for civil servants’ absorption of research knowledge [ 37 ].

We also took the approach of “adapting the tools we think with” ( [ 38 ], p.305) during our evaluation activities on the CAPE programme. Our conceptual modifications align with the literature on motivation and entrepreneurial orientation in determining policy-makers’ and researchers’ intentions to carry out engagement in addition to ‘usual’ roles [ 39 , 40 ]. Our framework offers an enabler for academic-policy engagement endeavours, by providing a structure for approaches beyond the linear transfer of information, emphasising the role of multidirectional relational activities, and the importance of their facilitation and maintenance. The framework emphasises the relationship between individuals’ and groups’ actions, and the social contexts in which these are embedded. It offers additional value by capturing the organisational and systems level factors that influence evidence-informed policymaking, incorporating the dynamic features of contexts shaping engagement and research use.

Conclusions

Our modifications extend the original SPIRIT framework’s focus on policy agencies’ use of research, to encompass dynamic academic-policy engagement at the levels of individuals, organisations and systems. Informed by the knowledge and experiences of policy professionals, HEI staff and knowledge mobilisers, it is designed to be meaningful and accessible for people working across varied contexts and functions in the evidence-policy ecosystem. It has potential applications in how academic-policy engagement interventions might be developed, evaluated, facilitated and improved, and it fulfils Redman et al.’s criteria as a useful action framework [ 20 ].

We are testing the ‘SPIRIT-Modified for Engagement’ framework (SPIRIT-ME) through our ongoing evaluation of academic-policy engagement activities. Further empirical research is needed to explore how the framework may capture ‘additionality’, that is, to identify what is achieved through engagement actions in addition to what would have happened anyway, including long-term changes in strategic behaviours or capabilities [ 41 , 42 , 43 ]. Application of the modified framework in practice will highlight its strengths and limitations, to inform further iterative development and adaptation.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

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Acknowledgements

We are very grateful to the CAPE Programme Delivery Group members, for many discussions throughout this work. Our thanks also go to the Sax Institute, Australia (where the original SPIRIT framework was developed), for reviewing and providing helpful feedback on the article. We also thank our reviewers who made very constructive suggestions, which have strengthened and clarified our article.

The evaluation of the CAPE programme, referred to in this report, was funded by Research England. The funding body had no role in the design of the study, analysis, interpretation or writing the manuscript.

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PM conceptualised the modification of the framework reported in this work. All authors made substantial contributions to the design of the work. PM drafted the initial manuscript. AB and KO contributed to revisions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Mäkelä, P., Boaz, A. & Oliver, K. A modified action framework to develop and evaluate academic-policy engagement interventions. Implementation Sci 19 , 31 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13012-024-01359-7

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Dr. Jane M. Simoni selected as Associate Director for Behavioral and Social Sciences Research, NIH

I am pleased to announce the selection of Jane M. Simoni, Ph.D., as NIH Associate Director for Behavioral and Social Sciences Research and Director of the NIH Office of Behavioral and Social Sciences Research (OBSSR). She will join NIH on July 30, 2023, to lead OBSSR’s efforts to advance and coordinate behavioral and social sciences research at NIH, working closely with NIH Institutes and Centers.

Dr. Simoni brings more than 25 years of experience in research focused on health disparities and resilience among populations that have been socially marginalized, including persons with HIV and other chronic illnesses, Latinx, LGBT and Indigenous peoples. Her intervention research has examined behavioral aspects of chronic illness, using mixed methods and clinical trials to evaluate strategies such as peer support, medical record alerts, provider training and counseling and mHealth to promote treatment engagement and health outcomes. Her work capitalizes on cutting-edge behavioral and social science methods and theory to inform the development, efficacy and implementation of health promotion and disease prevention programs.

A clinical psychologist, Dr. Simoni joins NIH from the University of Washington (UW) in Seattle where she is Professor and Director of Clinical Training in the Department of Psychology and has served on the faculty since 2001. She is the founding director of the UW Behavioral Research Center for HIV and co-directs the UW/Fred Hutch Center for AIDS Research, where she also is Associate Director of the Behavioral Science Core and Senior Advisor to the eHealth Scientific Working Group. She earned her B.A. at Princeton and her Ph.D. at the University of California, Los Angeles. She also completed postdoctoral fellowships at the University of Southern California and Columbia University. A fellow in four divisions of the American Psychological Association, Dr. Simoni has been a frequent grant reviewer and chair for NIH study sections.

Dr. Simoni has led more than two dozen research projects, including NIH-funded studies in New York City, Seattle, the U.S.-Mexico border, Beijing, Shanghai, Haiti, and Kenya. She has authored more than 300 publications, and two of her medication adherence-promotion strategies (involving peer support and electronic reminders) are included in the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s Compendium of Evidence-Based Interventions and Best Practices for medication adherence. Dr. Simoni has collaborated on research and training awards on HIV, mental health, substance use, trauma, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and pediatric overweight treatment in the U.S. and globally. Her current work examines the acceptability of long-acting antiretroviral treatment for HIV infection and digital technology to enhance intervention impact and dissemination. Dr. Simoni actively trains a diverse and interdisciplinary group of students and early career investigators. She has been a mentor on more than 50 training awards, including as a sponsor for individual trainees and as part of the leadership or mentoring faculty for NIH-funded research education programs.

Please join me in welcoming Dr. Simoni. I want to thank Christine R. Hunter, Ph.D., for her service as OBSSR Acting Director, from January 2022 to May 2023, and Wendy B. Smith, Ph.D., for her service as OBSSR Acting Director in the interim.

Lawrence A. Tabak, D.D.S., Ph.D. Acting Director, NIH

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Teen stress may raise risk of postpartum depression in adults

In a new study, a Johns Hopkins Medicine-led research team reports that social stress during adolescence in female mice later results in prolonged elevation of the hormone cortisol after they give birth. The researchers say this corresponds to the equivalent hormonal changes in postpartum women who were exposed to adverse early life experiences -- suggesting that early life stress may underlie a pathophysiological exacerbation of postpartum depression (PPD).

The team's findings, first published online Apr. 11, 2024, in Nature Mental Health , also suggest that current drug treatments for PPD in people may, in some cases, be less effective at targeting the relevant chemical imbalances in the brain, and that alternative methods may be more beneficial.

According to previous studies, an estimated one-third of psychiatric conditions fail to respond to current therapies, and "PPD is difficult to treat," says study senior author Akira Sawa, M.D., Ph.D., director of the Johns Hopkins Schizophrenia Center and professor of psychiatry, neuroscience, biomedical engineering, genetic medicine and pharmacology at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine. "The new study results add to evidence that patients with PPD are not all the same, and more individualized diagnosis and treatment -- a precision medicine approach -- is needed."

PPD, states the federal government's Office on Women's Health, is estimated to occur in 7% to 20% of all women, most commonly within six weeks of giving birth. Symptoms include feelings of sadness, anxiety, and fatigue, and can make it difficult to complete basic self-care tasks and care for the new baby.

The current first-line treatment for PPD is the use of a class of anti-depressant pills called selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), but these are only effective in approximately half of all patients. SSRIs boost the effects of the natural brain chemical serotonin, one of many hormone-like substances that help control mood. Some patients also are treated with IV infusions of a different class of drugs that target GABAA, a brain chemical linked to nerve hyperactivity.

However, the calming infusions are costly (more than $30,000 for a single course of one such drug) and often require hospitalization. They are generally reserved for the most severe and resistant cases of PPD.

In the new study, the Johns Hopkins-led research team aimed to build on evidence that adverse life events may affect the likelihood and severity of PPD. Previous studies have shown that PPD is more prevalent in teens, and in urban populations.

Working with mice, the researchers first created four test groups: unstressed virgins, stressed virgins, unstressed mothers and stressed mothers. The stressed mice were subjected to social isolation in their adolescence, and all groups were tested for stress. At seven days postpartum, the stressed mothers showed decreased mobility and a decrease in sugar preference, both of which are considered markers for depression. This persisted for at least three weeks after delivery.

As the second and most critical step, the researchers tested plasma levels of several hormones and found the level of cortisol was increased in mothers both with and without adverse early life experiences. However, cortisol levels in unstressed mothers decreased to normal levels after delivery, while the levels in mothers with adverse early life experiences remained high for one to three weeks after birth. This finding, Sawa says, suggests a correlation between prolonged post-delivery elevation of cortisol and behavioral changes in postpartum mice who experienced social isolation in adolescence.

If these findings translate to humans, it could mean that a different kind of antidepressant, a glucocorticoid receptor (GR) antagonist, which blocks the effects of elevated cortisol, could be a novel treatment option for PPD. Mifepristone may be one such drug.

"Unfortunately, everyone knows someone who has suffered or currently suffers from PPD, and it has such a huge impact on both mother and baby," says Sawa. "The alternative line of treatment suggested by the mouse study -- where the findings are consistent with those from our observational study in humans -- might enable mothers to be treated at home and avoid separation from their babies, and target a different mechanism for depression that may be specific to PPD."

Plans are underway, Sawa says, to collect precise data on cortisol levels in people with PPD to determine if GR antagonists would be more beneficial than current treatments for some, and later, to conduct clinical trials with alternatives to SSRIs.

Along with Sawa, members of the study team from Johns Hopkins Medicine are Sedona Lockhart, Jennifer Payne, Gary Wand, Daniel Wood and Kun Yang. Team members from the University of Alabama at Birmingham Heersink School of Medicine are study lead author Minae Niwa, Adeel Ahmed, Shin-ichi Kano, Kyohei Kin and Jose Francis-Oliveira.

Funding for this research was provided by National Institutes of Health grants MH-092443, MH-094268, K99MH-094408, MH-105660, MH-107730, DA-040127, and MH-116869; the Brain and Behavior Research Foundation (formerly the National Alliance for Research on Schizophrenia and Depression); and other sources.

Mental Health Research
Teen Health
Personalized Medicine
Alternative Medicine
Mental Health
Adolescence
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Growth hormone deficiency
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Minae Niwa, Sedona Lockhart, Daniel J. Wood, Kun Yang, Jose Francis-Oliveira, Kyohei Kin, Adeel Ahmed, Gary S. Wand, Shin-ichi Kano, Jennifer L. Payne, Akira Sawa. Prolonged HPA axis dysregulation in postpartum depression associated with adverse early life experiences: a cross-species translational study . Nature Mental Health , 2024; DOI: 10.1038/s44220-024-00217-1

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Four SPH students win Research Appreciation Day awards

April 16, 2024 • News

By Sally Crocker

Four HSC School of Public Health students – Brittany Krenek , Allison Cross , Idara Akpan and Nadiya Jiwa – have been recognized with outstanding honors at the university’s 2024 Research Appreciation Day.

Research Appreciation Day ( RAD ) at The University of North Texas Health Science Center is an institutional tradition encompassing medicine, public health and basic science.

The program provides an opportunity for students, faculty and staff to share their research efforts with the campus community and the public.

The program encourages the development of joint research projects and increases the community’s awareness of the outstanding quality and range of research conducted at HSC.

“In acknowledging the impressive array of RAD submissions from students across all our programs, it’s clear that each contribution reflects a noteworthy commitment to research excellence,” said Dr. Dana Litt , SPH RAD coordinator. “Congratulations to all participants for their valuable engagement and dedication.”

Research Appreciation Day at HSC is a time honored tradition that recognizes the work being done to help build healthier communities.

This year’s 31 st Annual Research Appreciation Day was held in March, with more than 250 abstracts submitted and 204 competing for awards.

“This year’s RAD theme celebrates ‘A Scholar’s Journey’. An important part of that journey is publishing and presenting your work to others. The ability to effectively articulate and disseminate your work helps to build upon an advanced knowledge,” said Dr. Shafik Dharamsi , SPH Dean.

“It also positions emerging scholars as active and productive contributors to their fields of study, showcases their expertise, enhances their professional reputation and increases opportunities for collaboration and career development,” he added.

Each school at HSC chooses their own categories and RAD award winners. The School of Public Health selected three research winners, as well as one awardee for community engaged research, based on their poster presentations.

This year’s School of Public Health winners were:

First Place Research Award Winner: PhD student Brittany Krenek , for her presentation on “Is there a relationship between religious affiliation and adherence to recommended cervical cancer screening guidelines?”

Second Place Research Award Winner: PhD student Allison Cross , for her presentation on “Examination of Pregaming: associations with drinking cognitions, alcohol use and negative consequences at the daily-level among adolescents and young adults”

Third Place Research Award Winner: PhD student Idara Akpan , for her presentation on “Exploring the association between patient-centered communication and awareness of human papillomavirus vaccine: a cross-sectional study”

Community Engaged Research Award Winner: Master of Public Health student Nadiya Jiwa , for her presentation on “Factors associated with the acceptability of Lopinavir/Ritonavir formulations among children living with HIV/AIDS attending care and treatment clinics in Mbeya and Mwanza, Tanzania”

“By sharing your research findings,” Dr. Dharamsi noted, “you contribute to the collective growth of knowledge in your field. Disseminating research findings ensures that the outcomes of scholarly work are not only confined to academic circles but are accessible to a broader audience, particularly practitioners, policy makers and the general public … because ultimately the most important goal of your scholarly work is to improve the quality and conditions of life in society.”

To view the virtual awards ceremony, click here .

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SSM - Qualitative Research in Health is a peer-reviewed, open access journal that publishes international and interdisciplinary qualitative research, methodological, and theoretical contributions related to medical care, illness, disease, health, and wellbeing from across the globe. SSM - Qualitative Research in Health is edited by Stefan Timmermans, a Senior Editor at Social Science & Medicine.
SSM
SSM - Health Systems specialises in publishing interdisciplinary social science research that focuses on improving health systems and resources, broadly defined to include health systems and social care and support systems that impact on health and well-being of populations around the world. SSM - Health Systems shares the same general approach to manuscripts as its companion title, Social ...
Social Science Contributions to Public Health
Social science research plays a vital role in understanding and addressing complex issues within the field of public health. While medical advancements and analysis of disease data contribute significantly to healthcare improvements, social science research, including the use of qualitative methods, brings a unique perspective that focuses on the human dimensions of health. By examining ...
Welcome to Discover Social Science and Health
On behalf of the entire editorial team, I am pleased to inaugurate Discover Social Science and Health ( DSSH ), which will showcase research that bridges the social and biomedical sciences. The launch of this new journal is especially appropriate in the midst of the COVID-19 pandemic, which has vividly revealed, to lay-person and scientist ...
Showcasing the contribution of social sciences to health policy and
This Special Issue represents a critical response to the frequent silencing of qualitative social science research approaches in mainstream public health journals, particularly in those that inform the field of health policy and systems research (HPSR), and the study of equity in health [1,2,3].The issue is presented by SHAPES, a thematic working group of Health Systems Global (a membership ...
The evolution of social health research topics: A data-driven analysis
We expect that a model of social health research could be organized based on two perspectives (see Fig. 1): social health at a micro level, examining the quality of social relationships and the capacity to manage social life in individuals; social health at a macro level, referring to social cohesion and resilience capacity in the society.Physical and mental health as individual determinants ...
Building the Field of Health Policy and Systems Research: Social ...
Introduction. The first paper in this series on building the field of Health Policy and Systems Research (HPSR) in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) [1] outlined the scope and questions of the field and highlighted the key challenges and opportunities it is currently facing. This paper examines more closely one key challenge, the risk of ...
Social Science Research Council (SSRC)
The Social Science Research Council fosters innovative research, nurtures new generations of social scientists, deepens how inquiry is practiced within and across disciplines, and mobilizes necessary knowledge on important public issues. ... Health/Well-Being Menu Toggle. RELATED PROGRAMS. Measure of America - Online knowledge platforms and ...
Building the Field of Health Policy and Systems Research ...
PLoS Medicine Series on HPSR. Following the First Global Symposium on Health Systems Research in Montreux in November 2010, PLoS Medicine commissioned three articles on the state-of-the-art in Health Policy and Systems Research (HPSR). Three Policy Forum articles, authored by a diverse group of global health academics, critically examine the current challenges to the field and lay out what is ...
Social Science & Health PhD
Our aim is to better understand and improve human health and wellbeing via the study of social, behavioural, economic, cultural and environmental influences on health and the appl
Social Science Research Topics for Global Health and Wellbeing
Social Science Research Topics for Global Health and Wellbeing. Published: February 02, 2024. Open Philanthropy strives to help others as much as we can with the resources available to us. To find the best opportunities to help others, we rely heavily on scientific and social scientific research. In some cases, we would find it helpful to have ...
Home • Global Health Social Science
Global Health Social Science is an open access collaborative forum for anyone working in global health and using qualitative and participatory research methods. We aim to provide a space to facilitate dialogue, share new resources and reflect on practice. You can read more about this space here.
Impact of public health guidance is focus of new NSF partnership with
The partnership will leverage the unique capabilities of NSF and SSRC through their diverse connections to the research community and public health organizations. "Fundamental social and behavioral science has the power to help every American live a healthier and more prosperous life," says NSF Social and Economic Sciences Division Director ...
Journal of Health and Social Sciences
Journal of Health and Social Sciences (abbreviation title "J Health Soc Sci", subtitle: "The Italian Journal for Interdisciplinary Health and Social Development") is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal related to medicine and public health. Areas of interest include any aspect of health from a wide range of medical sciences.
PDF Social Science in Health
It is, therefore, imperative to integrate social science research into epidemic preparedness, response and recovery to address the broad range of issues that can lead to improvement in people's health, food security and livelihoods and mitigate AMR in humans, animals, and the environment. A One Health social science approach utilizing ...
A modified action framework to develop and evaluate academic-policy
The last 20 years of empirical research on government utilization of academic social science research: a state-of-the-art literature review. Adm Soc. 2023;28:00953997231172923. ... Health and Social Care Workforce Research Unit, The Policy Institute, Virginia Woolf Building, Kings College London, 22 Kingsway, London, WC2B 6LE, UK.
Dr. Jane M. Simoni selected as Associate Director for Behavioral and
She will join NIH on July 30, 2023, to lead OBSSR's efforts to advance and coordinate behavioral and social sciences research at NIH, working closely with NIH Institutes and Centers. ... Dr. Simoni brings more than 25 years of experience in research focused on health disparities and resilience among populations that have been socially ...
Teen stress may raise risk of postpartum depression in adults
Funding for this research was provided by National Institutes of Health grants MH-092443, MH-094268, K99MH-094408, MH-105660, MH-107730, DA-040127, and MH-116869; the Brain and Behavior Research ...
Four SPH students win Research Appreciation Day awards
By Sally Crocker Four HSC School of Public Health students - Brittany Krenek, Allison Cross, Idara Akpan and Nadiya Jiwa - have been recognized with outstanding honors at the university's 2024 Research Appreciation Day. Research Appreciation Day (RAD) at The University of North Texas Health Science Center is an institutional tradition encompassing medicine, public health […]
2024 Fortin Foundation Bass Connections Showcase
Program for Advanced Research in the Social Sciences (PARISS) Master in Interdisciplinary Data Science (MIDS) Open Source Pedagogy, Research + Innovation (OSPRI) Social Science Research Lab; Data. Triangle Research Data Center (TRDC) Protected Analytics Computing Environment (PACE) Projects. Community. Health Disparities. COVID-19. Education ...
Meet the Institutes
The Boniuk Institute fosters religious literacy through research and education. Full Potential. The Doerr Institute for New Leaders looks forward to a new era. Rice's new and established institutes seek solutions to research challenges in science, the humanities, engineering, religion, public health, social policy and, especially, the environment.