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India's Diverse Tapestry: an Exploration of Its Physical Features

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Published: Jan 29, 2019

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Introduction, the majestic himalayas, the great indian desert, the deccan plateau and fertile plains.

• Bilham, R. (2004). Plate-tectonic force essential for forming the Tibetan Plateau. Nature, 435(7044), 1062-1065.
• Jain, S. K., & Khare, P. (2009). Ecological significance of Thar Desert: An overview. Annals of Arid Zone, 48(4), 353-365.
• Valdiya, K. S. (2013). The making of India: Geodynamic evolution. Springer Science & Business Media.
• Chitale, V. S., & Behera, M. D. (2010). Large-scale deforestation in the Western Ghats of India: Present status, conservation needs, and implications for sustainable management. Tropical Conservation Science, 3(2), 249-262.
• Kale, V. S., & Rajaguru, S. N. (2011). Geology and geomorphology of India. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.
• Sridhar, A. N. (2009). Ecology of the coast of India. Oxford University Press.
• Misra, D. K., Tewari, R. C., & Venkatesh, B. (2005). Soils of India: Origin and classification. National Book Trust, India.

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• The Outer Himalayas (the Siwalik Range)
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What countries border India?

India shares borders with Pakistan to the northwest; with Nepal, China, and Bhutan to the north; and with Myanmar and Bangladesh to the east. The island country of Sri Lanka is situated some 40 miles (65 kilometres) off the southeast coast of India.

The expansive alluvial plains of the Indus and Ganges (Ganga) river basins in India provided the environment and focus for the rise of two great phases of city life: the civilization of the Indus valley, known as the Indus civilization, during the 3rd millennium BCE; and, during the 1st millennium BCE, that of the Ganges.

The major secular holidays are Independence Day (August 15) and Republic Day (January 26). The most popular religious festivals celebrated over the greater part of India are Vasantpanchami, in honour of Sarasvati, the goddess of learning; Holi, a time when traditional hierarchical relationships are forgotten and celebrants throw coloured water and powder at one another; Dussehra, when the story of the Ramayana is reenacted, and Diwali (Divali), a time for lighting lamps and exchanging gifts.

India , country that occupies the greater part of South Asia . It is made up of 28 states and eight union territories , and its national capital is New Delhi , built in the 20th century just south of the historic hub of Old Delhi to serve as India’s administrative center. Its government is a constitutional republic that represents a highly diverse population consisting of thousands of ethnic groups and hundreds of languages. India became the world’s most populous country in 2023, according to estimates by the United Nations .

It is known from archaeological evidence that a highly sophisticated urbanized culture—the Indus civilization —dominated the northwestern part of the subcontinent from about 2600 to 2000 bce . From that period on, India functioned as a virtually self-contained political and cultural arena, which gave rise to a distinctive tradition that was associated primarily with Hinduism , the roots of which possibly can be traced to the Indus civilization. Other religions, notably Buddhism and Jainism , originated in India—though their presence there is now quite small—and throughout the centuries residents of the subcontinent developed a rich intellectual life in such fields as mathematics, astronomy, architecture, literature, music, and the fine arts.

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Throughout its history, India was intermittently disturbed by incursions from beyond its northern mountain wall. Especially important was the coming of Islam , brought from the northwest by Arab, Turkish, Persian, and other raiders beginning early in the 8th century ce . Eventually, some of those raiders stayed; by the 13th century much of the subcontinent was under Muslim rule, and the number of Muslims steadily increased. Only after the arrival of the Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama in 1498 and the subsequent establishment of European maritime supremacy in the region did India become exposed to major external influences arriving by sea, a process that culminated in the decline of the ruling Muslim elite and absorption of the subcontinent within the British Empire .

Direct administration by the British, which began in 1858, effected a political and economic unification of the subcontinent. When British rule came to an end on August 14-15, 1947, celebrated annually as Independence Day , the subcontinent was partitioned along religious lines into two separate countries—India, with a majority of Hindus, and Pakistan , with a majority of Muslims; the eastern portion of Pakistan later split off to form Bangladesh . Many British institutions stayed in place (such as the parliamentary system of government); English continued to be a widely used lingua franca; and India remained within the Commonwealth . Hindi became the official language (and a number of other local languages achieved official status), while a vibrant English-language intelligentsia thrived .

India remains one of the most ethnically diverse countries in the world. Apart from its many religions and sects, India is home to innumerable castes and tribes, as well as to more than a dozen major and hundreds of minor linguistic groups from several language families unrelated to one another. Religious minorities, including Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, and Jains, still account for a significant proportion of the population. Earnest attempts have been made to instill a spirit of nationhood in so varied a population, but tensions between neighboring groups have remained and at times have resulted in outbreaks of violence. Yet social legislation has done much to alleviate the disabilities previously suffered by formerly “ untouchable ” castes, tribal populations, women, and other traditionally disadvantaged segments of society. At independence, India was blessed with several leaders of world stature, most notably Mohandas Karamchand (Mahatma) Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru , who were able to galvanize the masses at home and bring prestige to India abroad. The country has played an increasing role in global affairs.

Contemporary India’s increasing physical prosperity and cultural dynamism—despite continued domestic challenges and economic inequality—are seen in its well-developed infrastructure and a highly diversified industrial base, in its pool of scientific and engineering personnel (one of the largest in the world), in the pace of its agricultural expansion, and in its rich and vibrant cultural exports of music, literature, and cinema. Though the country’s population remains largely rural, India has three of the most populous and cosmopolitan cities in the world— Mumbai (Bombay), Kolkata (Calcutta), and Delhi . Three other Indian cities— Bengaluru (Bangalore), Chennai (Madras), and Hyderabad —are among the world’s fastest-growing high-technology centers, and most of the world’s major information technology and software companies now have offices in India.

The history section of the articles Pakistan and Bangladesh discuss those countries since their creation.

India’s frontier, which is roughly one-third coastline, abuts six countries. It is bounded to the northwest by Pakistan , to the north by Nepal , China , and Bhutan ; and to the east by Myanmar (Burma). Bangladesh to the east is surrounded by India to the north, east, and west. The island country of Sri Lanka is situated some 40 miles (65 km) off the southeast coast of India across the Palk Strait and Gulf of Mannar .

The land of India—together with Bangladesh and most of Pakistan—forms a well-defined subcontinent, set off from the rest of Asia by the imposing northern mountain rampart of the Himalayas and by adjoining mountain ranges to the west and east. In area, India ranks as the seventh largest country in the world.

Much of India’s territory lies within a large peninsula, surrounded by the Arabian Sea to the west and the Bay of Bengal to the east; Cape Comorin (Kanniyakumari), the southernmost point of the Indian mainland, marks the dividing line between those two bodies of water. India has two union territories composed entirely of islands: Lakshadweep , in the Arabian Sea, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands , which lie between the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea .

It is now generally accepted that India’s geographic position, continental outline, and basic geologic structure resulted from a process of plate tectonics —the shifting of enormous, rigid crustal plates over the Earth’s underlying layer of molten material. India’s landmass, which forms the northwestern portion of the Indian-Australian Plate , began to drift slowly northward toward the much larger Eurasian Plate several hundred million years ago (after the former broke away from the ancient southern-hemispheric supercontinent known as Gondwana , or Gondwanaland). When the two finally collided (approximately 50 million years ago), the northern edge of the Indian-Australian Plate was thrust under the Eurasian Plate at a low angle. The collision reduced the speed of the oncoming plate, but the underthrusting, or subduction, of the plate has continued into contemporary times.

The effects of the collision and continued subduction are numerous and extremely complicated. An important consequence, however, was the slicing off of crustal rock from the top of the underthrusting plate. Those slices were thrown back onto the northern edge of the Indian landmass and came to form much of the Himalayan mountain system. The new mountains—together with vast amounts of sediment eroded from them—were so heavy that the Indian-Australian Plate just south of the range was forced downward, creating a zone of crustal subsidence. Continued rapid erosion of the Himalayas added to the sediment accumulation, which was subsequently carried by mountain streams to fill the subsidence zone and cause it to sink more.

India’s present-day relief features have been superimposed on three basic structural units: the Himalayas in the north, the Deccan (peninsular plateau region) in the south, and the Indo-Gangetic Plain (lying over the subsidence zone) between the two. Further information on the geology of India is found in the article Asia .

Geography Notes

Essay on indian geography.

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Here is an essay on ‘Indian Geography’ for class 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12. Find paragraphs, long and short essay on ‘Indian Geography’ especially written for school and college students.

The natural resources of a country are of primary importance for the economic development. As a matter of fact, natural resources determine the economic life of a nation. England, for example, is an industrial country but she owes her precept position to her coastline, rivers, the proximity of rich coal mines and iron fields, and the temperate climate.

The U. S. A. is both an agricultural as well as industrial country. It possesses the requisites of industrialisation and at the same time its soil at some places is very fertile. Japan, too, is an industrial country because there is no scope for agriculture, and also the nature of the soil is not favourable for agriculture.

Man may grow rich in knowledge and intelligence, however much he may have overcome nature but ultimately he will have to depend on the materials supplied by Mother Nature for the development of his economic life.

The physical factors like topography, soils, geologic formation, climate and the available flora and fauna, are the basic influences which lead to differences in land-use, cropping pattern, settlement and density of population and occurrence of minerals, water and power resources in different parts of the country. In the case of India, a study of agricultural problems should start with an investigation of the physical, edaphic and climatic factors.

In the north lies Himalaya which separates it from China, in north-west lies Pakistan and in the east it is flanked by Myanmar, separated from it by Assam hills. In the south it is bounded by the Arabian Sea in the west and by Bay of Bengal in the east. Sri Lanka lies on its south-eastern tip. In the Arabian Sea stand the Lakshadweep (Laccadive, Amindivi and Minicoy) and in the Bay of Bengal are the Andaman Nicobar Islands.

Essay # 1. Geographical Situation of India :

The Republic of India is a vast country. It lies entirely in the northern hemisphere. The mainland of the country extends between latitudes 8°4′ and 37°6′ north, longitude 68°7′ and 97°25′ east.

It is one of the central and the largest of the three irregular peninsulas of Southern Asia possessing a highly favourable position as regards the rest of the world for purposes of international trade. It measures 3,214 km from north to south and 2,933 km. from east to west. It has land frontier of 15,200 km. and a coastline of about 6,100 km. The total length of the coastline of main land, Lakshadweep Island and Andaman and Nicobar Islands is 7516.6 km. Tropic of Cancer divides it into two unequal halves, the northern half lying in the temperate zone and the southern half in the Torrid Zone.

India has an area of 328.7 million sq. hectares from the snow covered Himalayan heights to tropical rain forest of the south. India’s population as on 1 March, 1991 stood at 846.3 million as against 84.6 million in 1981. Out of the total population, the proportion of rural population was 74.3 per cent as against 82.7 per cent in 1951. India comprises 26 states and 6 union territories.

While India accounts for 16 per cent of the world’s population, it has only a 2.4 per cent share in the land surface of the world. In a relative sense, India’s position in this respect is distinctly unfavourable. In the terms of geographical area, India ranks seventh among the countries of the world after Russia, U. S. A., Canada, China, Brazil and Australia in that order.

India’s area is one-seventh of that of Russia and one-third of that of the U. S. A., Canada or China. But no less important is the fact that, in absolute terms, the geographical area of India is quite large 328.7 million sq. hectare. This is equivalent to two-thirds of the geographical area of Europe, exclusive of Russia. An important feature of the Indian area is that most of it is in the service of man.

In Russia and Canada, on the other hand, vast areas remain buried under perpetual snow. In Australia, there are large areas of desert useless for man. In Brazil, there are vast areas under tropical forests. Even in the U. S. A. more than 2.8 million sq. kms. are included in the western states which are mostly a desert. -This consideration naturally places India in the forefront among the countries of the world.

India’s-large size carries a few advantages. Firstly, in a country of so large dimensions, a variety of mineral resources are found. Secondly, the large size is associated with a variety of climates, and with this variety of climate goes the variety of crops, viz., she grows from tea to pepper and from saffron to cashewnut. Besides, India’s long coastline has its own economic advantages. In fact, its geographical area is one of its greatest assets.

Essay # 2. Physical Features of India:

Topography of the Land :

Of the total land area of 328.7 million hectares about 35.5 million hectares or 10.7 per cent lies in mountains. Nearly two-third of such mountainous tracts, 22.3 million hectares are found in Jammu and Kashmir. The remaining one-third is distributed in Eastern India i.e. 5.9 million hectares, North-West India i.e. 3.9 million hectares and in North India about 3.2 million hectares. In these mountainous areas, nearly 95% of the land is unsuitable for agriculture.

Hilly tracts comprise of 61 million hectares or 18.6 per cent of all land in India. Of this 21.1 million hectares lie in East India; 13.5 million hectares in Central India, 11.3 million hectares in South India., and 8.0 million hectares in West India.

Plateaus measure 103 million hectares or 27.7 per cent of all land in India. Almost half of the plateaus are found in Central India and the rest is distributed as 12.1 million hectares in North-West India, 11.5 million hectares in South India and 8.3 million hectares in East India.

Plains cover 141.6 million hectares or 43 per cent of the total land in India. These are distributed all over the country and are most suitable for cultivation. However, in these plain areas are also found unsuitable land such as the salt marshes of the Rann of Kutch and the sandy deserts of Western Rajasthan which are not suitable for cultivation.

The mainland comprises three well defined regions:

(1) The great mountain zone of the Himalaya;

(2) The Indo-Gangetic Plain and

(3) The Southern tableland.

(1) The Great Mountain Zone of the Himalaya:

The Himalaya runs for about 2,400 km. from the Pamir knot in the north-west to the border of Assam—with a breadth varying from 240 to 320 km. and covers about 500,000 sq. km. They comprise three parallel ranges interspersed with large plateaus and valleys like those of Kashmir and Kulu which are fertile, extensive and of great scenic beauty. Some of the highest peaks in the world are found in these ranges i.e. Mt. Everest 8,848 metres and Kanchenjunga 8,598metres.

The high altitudes limit travel only to a few passes notably the Jelep La, Natu La and Shipki La. In the east, these ranges are much lower and are known by different names in different parts such as the Patkoi and the Naga Hills North-East and the Jaintia. Khasi and Garo hills in the South West of Assam. These running almost East-West join the chain of Lushai and Arakan hills running North-South.

(2) The Indo-Gangetic Plain:

Between the folded mountains of the north and the stable tableland of the peninsula lies the vast plain drained by three river systems. In the far west are the Bias and Sutlej draining into Arabian Sea; in the east, Ganges and its tributaries (which flow into the Bay of Bengal) and Brahmaputra in the farther east.

The Delhi Ridge divides it into two parts, viz., the Western plain and the Eastern plain. The plain is a part of a great depression which is traceable across Northern Africa, Southern Europe, and Southern Asia. It occupies an area of more than a million sq. km. and covers more than 2,400 km. from East to West with a width of 240 to 320 km.

It is wholly composed of the sediment deposited by the three rivers of northern India and is literally “the dust of mountains.” No rock-bed is disclosed by borings of 165 to 333metres. It is the region of the deepest soil in India with great thickness of clay, loam, silt etc. There is hardly any variation in relief. It is one of the greatest stretches of the flat alluvium and also one of the most densely populated areas on earth.

(3) The Southern Plateau:

This is an elevated plateau separated from the Indo-Gangetic plain by the Vindhya and Satpura ranges, ranging from 500 to 1335metres covering about 16,00,000 sq. km. It is the part of the earth’s outer shell that is composed in great part of generally horizontal rock beds that stand upon a firm and immovable foundation and that have for immense number of years remained so impassive amidst all the cataclysm and revolutions that have again and again changed the face of the earth.

The rocks composing this plateau are the various gneisses and other crystalline rocks and there is a great richness of mineral wealth associated with them. Overlying these rocks is a great thickness of unfossiliferous rocks. The rift valley in which river Narmada flows divides the whole plateau into two irregular parts. The northern is known as the Malwa plateau and the southern as the Deccan tableland.

On the Malwa plateau are to be found large areas of ravines (formed by Chambal and its tributaries) which are quite unfit for cultivation. The soil which this trap yields is reddish to brownish soil, known as the black cotton soil, which represents one of the most fertile soils of India.

The peninsula is flanked by Coast Ranges known as the Western and the Eastern Ghats. The former are much more considerable and form a gigantic and continuous seawall rising over 2440 metres above the sea level. The latter are much less formidable (only 610 metres high) and are broken and discontinuous and interrupted by many broad valleys of the rivers such as the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery all of which flow into the Bay of Bengal.

The rivers of the peninsula are rain-fed and hence they dry up during the summer. Their courses are rapid and abruptly descend from a higher to a lower level and are, therefore, of little use for irrigation. Irrigation is practiced by tanks and reservoirs.

Between the Ghats and the sea are the narrow strips of land on both the sides of the plateau. These have been formed by the wearing down of the oldest tableland into coastal plains. The Western Coastal Plains are very narrow and are 64 km. wide in some places. On this coast the monsoon floods bring enormous silt, and help the growth of large forests and plantation crops.

Coconut, palms, bananas, arecanuts, cashewnuts, mango, pineapples, rubber, rice, spices and cardamoms are largely grown. The shores of these plains have few creeks (i.e. lagoons) and inlets are joined by canals. They serve for good coastal traffic by boats and rafts, and in these fishes are caught.

The Eastern Coastal Plain:

It is wider and the beach is surf-beaten and is intersected by numerous swift-flowing rivers. The lower section of the plain consists of the Deltas of the rivers and is entirely alluvial, while the upper section consists of plains in the courses of the rivers and hence is partly alluvial and partly pene-plain. These plains produce good crops of rice, sugarcane, jute, coconut, mangoes, bananas, spices (like pepper and ginger), cardamom, arecanut, and sago palms.

Essay # 3. Climate of India:

Owing to the great size, position and the diversities of relief there are greater striking contrast of meteorological conditions in different parts of the country than are probably found in any other part of the world. One part of the country lies north of the tropic and the other within it. In the north-west lies the great Thar Desert with an average annual rainfall of less than 12.5 cm.

In the north-east are the Khasi hills with an average of 1150 at Cherapunji. Dras in Kashmir has recorded a minimum temperature of 9°C, while Sri Ganganagar in Rajasthan has several times recorded a maximum temperature of over 50°C. Hill stations in the Himalaya, such as Shimla or Nainital may be shrouded in cloud for days together in August with humidity of 100 per cent; while in December they may be overrun by air of nearly 0 per cent humidity.

The mean maximum temperature at Cochin does not go above 89°F in any month nor the mean minimum below 15°C, while at Ganganagar the mean maximum temperature goes up to 48°C in May and the mean minimum to 8°C in January.

The climate of India is influenced from outside by two adjoining areas. On the north the Himalayan ranges shut it off from the cold climate of Central Asia and give it a ‘continental climate’, the characteristic of which are “the prevalence of land winds, great dryness of air, large diurnal range of temperature and little or no precipitation.” On the south the ocean gives it a ‘hot monsoon climate’ more typical of the tropical than of the temperate zone.

“We always think of India as essentially a tropical country. And rightly so, for the whole area within mountain-wall must, be considered as a unit, with a common type of climate throughout, that of tropical monsoon, the chief features of which are “great uniformity” of temperature and hence small diurnal range of temperature, great dampness of the air and more or less frequent rains during the south-west monsoon period.”

Temperature :

For purposes of climatological studies India may be divided into two parts- Peninsular India and Northern India. The whole of Peninsular India lies within the tropics and has a tropical climate the variations of temperature between summer and winter being small. In winter the temperatures are controlled by the proximity of the Equator and the oceanic influences and it is between 18°C and 22°C.

But in summer the temperature rises over 14°C near the tropics. In the neighbourhood of the oceans the climate is equable and the atmosphere is generally cloudy. In Malabar, the range of temperature is about 15°C and in South-Eastern Tamil Nadu about 3°C. These features are especially observable on the windward coasts and they diminish with increasing distance from the sea.

Although the whole of Northern India lies beyond the tropic of Cancer, here the climate conditions are more complex. The severity of heat or cold and the amount of moisture in the air, however, differ greatly in the different states and during different seasons. Punjab and Western Rajasthan are very cold in winter and extremely hot in summer and air is generally devoid of moisture.

But in West Bengal, Assam, Bihar, and U.P. winter is cold and summer is moderately hot with plenty of moisture in the air. In winter the temperature in Northern India is controlled apart from the slanting rays of the sun in winter, by the anticyclone that covers this area then. The temperatures vary between 12°C and 18°C.

The summer temperatures are largely the effect of (i) direct rays of the sun, (ii) continentally emphasizing land influences far the sea, (iii) anticyclone, which maintains steadily rising temperatures, and (iv) modification by the south-west monsoons. The highest temperatures are to be found in the neighbourhood of M.P., Rajasthan South-West Punjab and Western U.P. Altitude tempers, the heat of low latitudes. Upon the hills it is delightfully cool and refreshing even in mid-summer, but beyond a certain point the excess of cold forbids human habitation.

The climate of India may be broadly described as a tropical monsoon type, India enjoys three well-marked seasons:

(i) A cool dry season, from October to the end of February, when northerly dry trade winds prevail over the greater part of India, the skies are clear, the weather fine and the humidity low so that there is little or no rainfall except in the northern parts where moderate cyclonic storms occasionally occur;

(ii) A hot dry season, from, the beginning of March to middle of June, usually comes suddenly with heavy thunder-storms and dry scorching westerly winds (known as loo); and

(iii) A hot season, from middle of June to end of September, with winds of oceanic origin, high humidity, much cloud and frequent rain.

Monsoon and Rainfall:

The most important feature in meteorology of India is the alternation of seasons known as ‘monsoon’. During winter, the general flow of surface air over the country is from north to south, north-westerly in the Northern plains, northerly in the central parts and north-easterly in the South of the Peninsula and the neighbouring seas. In this season, the air over the country mainly of continental origin and hence, of low humidity and the season is known as the north east monsoon season or winter season.

In the summer months, the general flow of winds is from the opposite direction i.e. from sea to land and the season is one of much humidity, cloud and rain. The direction of winds in the major parts of the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal being south-westerly, the season is named the south-west monsoon seasons or wet summer season.

(i) South-West Monsoon Season (1st June to 30th Sept.):

During this period 74 per cent of the total rainfall is recorded. The monsoon sets in June, spreads almost all over the country by July and August and gradually gets weakened in September. During the period rains are very important because they provide necessary moisture for agricultural operations for sowing of kharif crops which account for more than 80 per cent of the total area sown to crops.

Thus, the setting in of the south-west monsoon marks the beginning of the agricultural operations over a wide area viz., the Arabian Sea Branch and the Bay of Bengal Branch. The former brings rainfall to the southern and western parts of the country, but, as the monsoon advances, it penetrates further into the central and North-West India. The second branch comes slightly later and confines itself to Assam, West Bengal and North-Eastern India.

(ii) The Post-Monsoon Season (1st October to 15th Dec.):

The post- monsoon season begins with October, and extends up to December. It provides only 13 per cent of the annual rainfall. Normally good post-monsoon showers are received in three months in the eastern region comprising Assam, West Bengal, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and parts of Kerala and Maharashtra.

In other parts of the country only light occasional showers are received and the intensity of these showers decreases from east to west. But these light showers are very important for the growing of the late-sown kharif crops, especially in Southern India as well as for the sowing of rabi crops. The rains during this period are of considerable local importance.

(iii) Winter Monsoon Season (15th December to 15th March):

Winter monsoon commences in January and lasts up to the end of February. Though this provides only 3 per cent of the annual rainfall, this is important for the proper growth of Rabi crops in Northern India, especially wheat, barley, gram and pulses in the Punjab, Haryana, U. P., Bihar, M. P., Rajasthan and parts of Assam.

(iv) Pre-Monsoon Season:

Pre-monsoon showers during March to May amount roughly to 10 per cent of the annual rainfall. This period of the year is generally dry over the land mass of northern and Peninsular India where rabi crops are harvested and the irrigated crops are grown.

But the stronger winds near the sea-coast, which increase in strength as the monsoon advances, brings rain to the north-eastern part of the country consisting of Assam, West Bengal, Orissa, Bihar and the North-West Coast of Karnataka and Kerala, and South-East Tamil Nadu. In the North-East region they help the sowing of autumn paddy and maize, while in the southern areas, these rains are beneficial for the sowing of kharif crops like paddy, coffee, sugarcane and some vegetables on land where irrigation facilities are available.

Importance of Rainfall :

The annual average rainfall of India is 120cms. which yields an annual precipitation of 400 million hectare metre, and variations from this normal—as great as + 30cms. and -20cms.—-occurred in 1971 and 1989 respectively. A feature of considerable importance is the variability of monsoon rainfall. The variation ranges from 12.5cms, in the desert areas of Rajasthan to nearly 1100cms. in the hills of Meghalaya.

Generally the variability decreases with increasing rainfall, the variability being largest in the driest parts of the country and least in the wettest regions. The high variability in areas of low rainfall is, however, not such a serious menace to agriculture as the comparatively low variability in areas which have just enough rainfall for agricultural purposes. Any decrease in rainfall in such areas makes it impossible for agricultural operations to be carried on and a famine is the result, as average rainfall diminishes from place to place and as it becomes more concentrated in one season, variations from year to year increases.

When the normal total is under 50 cms., no agriculture is attempted without irrigation, and rainfall fluctuations are expected and planned for. Where the total exceeds 200 cms., there is almost always a surplus of moisture available for growing of crops. 100 cms. of rain is normally adequate but when it fails, famine is threatened. Thus, the most seriously affected, areas are those where the rainfall is between 75 and 125 cms. and this is the famine zone of India. In Rajasthan, Saurashtra, Central India and parts of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu where some rain usually comes but the variation is great, famine descends frequently.

In this area there is enough rain for crops during normal years so that adequate provision of irrigation facilities does not exist. This fact is the source of considerable suffering in times of drought. Long experience with rainfall fluctuations has brought population distribution into close agreement with climatic possibilities but so great is the pressure of people that may have occupied the marginal lands where drought is certain to occur.

In certain areas, notably Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Western U. P., Haryana and Northern Rajasthan irrigation has made the settlers somewhat independent of rainfall changes, but a prolonged failure of monsoon causes rivers and wells (the source of irrigation) to have less water than usual and thus to be less adequate for irrigation.

Characteristic Features of Monsoon Rains :

The monsoon rains in India are often marked by some important variations from the normal, viz.:

(i) The beginning of the rains may be delayed considerably over the whole or a large part of the country,

(ii) It may end much earlier than usual causing damage to kharif crops and also make the sowing of rabi crops difficult or uncertain,

(iii) There may be prolonged breaks of rain lasting over the greater part of July or August, when the summer crops needing plenty of moisture are just growing,

(iv) The rains may persist more than usual in one part of the country and desist from another part,

(v) It is concentrated for a few months—fluctuations in which as regards climate, distribution and timeliness bring misery or prosperity to millions of people. For several months in a year, India is on trial for her life and seldom escapes without a penalty.

(vi) The normal duration of the monsoon varies from two to four months. It begins to withdraw from north-west by mid-September and from south by middle of December.

(vii) Over 80 per cent of India’s annual rainfall is recorded in the monsoon months. The south-west monsoon accounts for 80 per cent of the rainfall of India both seasonally and regionally. Much of the rainfall is caused by the rather fortuitous orientation of mountain barriers, although consecutive phenomena also play an important part.

There is also a small quantity of rain even in other seasons too e.g., south has its ‘mango showers’ in the months of March to May, while ‘spring storms’ bring rain to West Bengal and Assam, then retreating monsoons bring rain to South-East Coast during September to December,

(viii) It is unevenly distributed over the country. The sharp transition from heavy rain to dire scarcity is testified by the old proverb “One horn of cow lies within the rainy zone and one without.”

(ix) It is erratic, sometimes falling in torrents and heavy downpours leading to a considerable run-off. This result in excessive soil leaching and soil erosion.

(x) There are large variations in the amount of rainfall from year to year.

(xi) The variation from the normal is greatest where the rainfall is least. Rajasthan and Gujarat have shown the highest variations while Kerala and West Bengal have shown the least. Droughts frequently occur in the interior districts of Cuddapah, Kurnool, Anantpur in Andhra Pradesh, while at the same time, the adjoining parts of Tamil Nadu may be suffering from deluges and floods,

(xii) The driest tracts of the country have heavy down-pours when compared with the temperate countries, where the average rainfall is less than 0.25 cm. in 24 hours. In India a rainfall of 50 cm. in a day is common; the highest record was round about 86 cm. in a period of 24hrs. in Bihar (at Purnea), and 57 cm. in Andhra Pradesh (at Nellore).

Variability of Rainfall :

A very important aspect of rainfall in India is its variability. Variability from normal, when it is as low as 10 per cent, is serious in areas of modern precipitation where the precipitation is just enough for the crop produced there. It is in such areas that famines occur. In these areas, variability ranges from 20 to 50 per cent (as in the peninsular and north western India).

High variability, over 30 per cent is characteristic of the western section of the continental India where precipitation is moderate to low. Because of this low precipitation land- use is based on irrigation facilities on ‘risk’ basis. Precipitation below the normal in any year, does not take the people unaware; precipitation above the normal is a pleasant surprise.

Low variability below 15 per cent is characteristic of areas of high precipitation as in the North-East and South-West India. Here, precipitation below the normal could be unhelpful because the total quantity increases above the normal and tends to inundate vast areas.

Climatic Regions:

The Census of India-divided India into five clear-cut rainfall regions as given below:

A map of India outlining the areas which have different amounts of rainfall shows that approximately one-third of the total area has a rainfall in excess of 125cms. per year. This quantity is enough for intensive agriculture during the rainy seasons and often leaves a residue in the soil adequate to produce a winter crop such as wheat or grain, sorghum, etc. In addition, the rainfall in this area is more dependable than in areas of lower average precipitation, although there are occasional seasons when the monsoon is feeble even in these moister regions. In such seasons, drought frequently damages crops even though the average rainfall is high.

Moreover, a significant proportion of this area of heavy rainfall is in the Himalayan region where the topography prevents cultivation, except of perennial crops like tea and fruits in certain suitable locations. These regions of heavy to very heavy rainfall also contain some badly eroded areas.

The area having rainfall of 75 cm. to 125 cm. annually covers another one-third of the country. This amount of rainfall is generally adequate for fair to good crops, but less adequate than it would be in the temperate latitudes. Here the monsoon is also somewhat less dependable than in the area with a higher average annual rainfall. Short crops are not infrequent in this area, especially as the lower limit of rainfall is approached. Moreover, in the 75 to 100 cm. portion of this region the soil less frequently retains enough moisture from summer rains to insure a winter crop of any importance.

Another one-third of the country has an annual precipitation of 75 cm. or less. Here the seasonal fluctuations are so frequent that they are more or less regularly expected and when they occur, they causes a great deal of hardship to the people and expense to the government. The yellow belt (having 37.5 cm. or less of rainfall and containing 7 per cent of the land area) has so little rain that a great many people do not live there.

The brown belt (having 37.5 cm. to 75 cm. of rainfall and containing 24 per cent of the land area), where one-fourth of our people living has special hazards, which is a permanent problem for the people and the government. This area of light and highly variable rainfall, although much of it is topographically usable, must remain in an area of relatively low productivity, except where it can be irrigated and not a great deal more of it is irrigable.

On the basis of rainfall, four broad climatic regions may be demarcated:

(a) Practically, the whole of Assam and the West Coast lying at the foot of the Western Ghats and extending from North of Bombay to Trivandrum are areas of heavy rainfall.

(b) The Rajasthan desert extending to Kutch, and the high Ladakh region fall under regions of moderately low rainfall.

(c) A broad belt in the eastern part of the Peninsula merging northward with North India plains and southward with eastern plains falls under regions of moderately high rainfall.

(d) A belt extending from the Punjab plains across the Vindhya Mountains into the western part of the Deccan, widening considerably in the Mysore plateau comes under area of low rainfall.

The normal annual rainfall varies from about 11,680 mm in Assam hills and 7,620—10,160 mm at suitably exposed positions on the crests of the Western Ghats to less than 75 mm in Rajasthan. The following statement shows the areas under assured rainfall region, medium rainfall region and dry region.

Effects of Climate of Agricultural Economy :

Life in India is primarily based on agriculture, which is dependent for its very existence on the monsoons (particularly the south-west monsoons).

This monsoon may be said to be the pivot upon which the whole of Indian economic life swings. In one season, India is deluged with rain and is the scene of most wonderful and rapid growth of vegetation; in another period the same tract becomes dreary, sun-burnt and waste. In fact, if monsoon fails, there is a lockout in agriculture industry, a disaster which calls forth the virtues of patience, fortitude and charitableness.

As winter temperatures are never too low in any parts of the country, the growing period for the crops is prolonged so that two crops are grown. In parts of West Bengal, Assam and the Peninsular Coastal region, owing to availability of sufficient water supply as many as three crops of rice are grown. The summer temperatures are high and rise suddenly hence crops mature earlier. This rapid maturity of crops tends to deteriorate their quality. India is, therefore, not a ‘quality’ producer, but only a ‘quantity’ producer. This applies to winter crops as well as summer crops.

The weather fluctuations and destructive meteorological phenomena which affect crops adversely in India are- floods, droughts, storms, depressions and untimely rains, thunderstorms, hailstorms and dust storms, heat waves, cold waves and frost, excessive or defective insulation, and high winds.

The uniformly high temperatures during monsoon season are of great benefit for the quick growth and maturity of crops like millets, pulses, sesamum, cotton and maize. The hot and moist climate of this period produces an abundant vegetative growth in plants which serve as a fodder for cattle.

As the rainfall is concentrated to only few months, the greater part of the year is dry. This fact discourages the growth of grasslands in India. Whatever grass grows during the rains is scorched during the dry season. Hence, pasturage is poor in India and cattle and other livestock have, therefore, to be stock fed.

The extreme uncertainty and uneven distribution of rainfall in various parts of the country and its compression into one or two months have necessitated the practice of irrigation more universally and on a large scale in India than in any other part of the world. Further, through centuries of experimentation, Indian farmers have developed crop varieties and agricultural practices which fit in with this pattern of precipitation.

Agricultural Regions :

Dr. Cressy has rightly said. “Nowhere else are so many people, so intimately dependent upon rainfall rhythms, the whole prosperity in India is held up with the eccentricity of its seasonal rainfall.”

In determining agricultural and animal husbandry regions of India, factors like rainfall, temperature, altitude, latitude, natural vegetation, soils, crops and live-stock are taken into consideration. When all these factors are taken into account, what strikes one is their uniformity over wide belts of territory embracing many States. It should, however, be noted that transition from one region to another is gradual and it is only in the central areas that the differences emerge in full contrast.

Many authors have also attempted to divide India in specific agricultural regions such as Stamp, Simkins and Spate took geographical factors like topography, climate and density of population. Dr. Chen Hen Seng divided India into 16 regions on the basis of topographical situation, agricultural water supply, crop system, land tenure system, and general economic development.

The National Sample Survey Organization has divided the country, into 25 main agricultural regions with 66 sub-regions by grouping within each state/unions territory districts or parts of districts having similar population density and crop pattern, and having similar altitude above sea level and also having good transport and communication facilities.

According to Dr. Randhawa, the following regions can be defined:

1. Temperate Himalayan Region:

This region is usually divided into two sub-divisions:

(i) The Eastern Himalayan Region:

This includes Mishmi Hills in Upper Assam, Sikkim and Bhutan. Rainfall is heavier (over 250 cms) in the outer ranges and there are thick forests of sal. This is mainly a tea-growing area. Cultivation of paddy is done in some places.

(ii) Western Himalayan Region:

This includes Kumaon, Garhwal, Simla hills, Kulu and Kangra valleys, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir State. The climate is dry but in northern parts there is more winter rainfall. Horticultural crops—particularly walnuts, almond, apples, cherries, apricots, peaches, pears and plums—occupy a high place. Other cultivated crops are potato, maize and paddy. Goats and sheep are principal domestic animals providing meat and wool. Bee-keeping is also done.

2. Northern Dry (or Wheat) Region:

This comprises the Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, North Gujarat, Western U. P. and parts of West M. P. and Rajasthan. Annual rainfall is less than 75 cms. and in many places even less than 20 cms. The soil is alluvial and sandy. Wheat, barley, gram, maize, jowar, bajra and cotton are the chief crops. Camels are found exclusively in this region. Horses, donkeys, sheep and goats are also common. The cattle in the region are adequately fed as there is comparatively a large area under fodder crops and wheat straw is also available in abundance.

3. Eastern Wet (or Rice) Region:

It includes Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Tripura, Manipur, West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Eastern U. P., Andhra Pradesh, Eastern Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Eastern M. P. Annual rainfall is over 153cms. The soil is mainly alluvial. The crops are rice, jute, sugarcane and tea. The area under fodder crops is the smallest.

Rice being the staple crop, its straw is used as cattle feed. Buffalo is the favorable domestic animal.

4. Western Wet (or Malabar) Region:

It comprises of Kerala, Western Coastal strips, Karnataka and adjoining areas. Annual rainfall is over 253 cms. The soil is lateritic. This region is important from the point of view of plantation crops, but coconut is the predominant crop besides tapioca, cashewnut, arecanut, rubber, spices, black pepper and cardamom. Rice is the main food crop.

5. Southern (Medium Rainfall or Millet) Region:

This comprises of Southern U. P., South Gujarat, M. P., Western Andhra Pradesh, Western Tamil Nadu, Eastern Maharashtra and parts of Karnataka. Rainfall is between 50 cms. and 100 cms. The soil is partly black cotton and partly lateritic. Jowar, bajra, groundnut, castor seed and cotton are the chief crops. There are more sheep in this region than in any other but most of these do not produce good quality wool.

An important classification of the country into 4 macro- agricultural regions, 25 macro-agricultural and 60 micro- agricultural regions has been given by Sengupta and S. Dayuk.

These regions are:

1. The Himalayan Zone:

It covers Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Kumayun Himalaya and its foot hills. Darjeeling district of West Bengal, Assam, Himalayan including Arunachal Pradesh. In this zone, the rainfall varies from 125cms. to 250cms. Much of the mountainous tracts are negative areas from cultivation and settlement point of view. Only 7 per cent of the area is available for cultivation. The leading crops are wheat, maize, rice, buck-wheat, marketing, gardening, particularly seed potatoes, and a host of temperate fruits.

2. The West Zone:

It comprises in most part the North-Eastern Peninsular plateau (plateaus of Chota Nagpur, Northern Orissa, Bastar plateau, Central parts of Madhya Pradesh, upper Mahanadi basin and Kaimur hills), Eastern hills and plateau (Manipur, Mizo hill districts, Garo hills, United Mikir and North Cachar hill districts, Nagaland, Kachar valley, United Khasi and Jaintia Hills).

A relatively small part of it is shared by the alluvial plants-consisting of Ganga Delta and Northern Brahmaputra valley, Jalpaiguri district of West Bengal; Bhagirathi Delta; Orissa coast including Mahanadi Delta, west coast stretching from Surat district to Kanyakumari district (including Cambay coast, North and South Karnataka coast, and North and South Malabar district). The rainfall here is from 100 to 125 cm.

Irrigation is normally not necessary and rice is the predominant crop. Other crops grown are tea, jute, oilseeds, gram millets, wheat, sugarcane, spices, arecanut, banana, jack-fruit and coconut.

3. Sub-Humid Zone:

It embraces the upper and middle Ganga plain (Ganga and Jamuna doabs, tarai region, South Ganga plain, eastern district of U. P. and its contiguous Champaran district of Bihar); a vast stretch of land in Peninsular India from Bundelkhand plateau through the heart of the lava plateau down to the East Coast region (including the plateaus of Bundelkhand, Malwa, South Eastern Maharashtra, Northern and Southern Telangana, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Wardha basin, upper Tapti valley, Malnad and Maidan tract of Karnataka, Northern and Southern Andhra coast, Krishna-Godavari Deltas, and South Eastern Tamil Nadu coast.

The rainfall varies between 75 to 100cms. The proportion of cultivated region reaches a high figure wherever water is available for irrigation. The most intensively cultivated areas are the Ganga plain and the east coast deltas, where proportion of cultivated land to the total area goes to about 70 per cent. Wheat, sugarcane, rice, gram, maize, millets, cotton, groundnut, oilseeds, and tobacco are the main crops.

4. The Dry Zone:

It embraces in the North-West, North and South Punjab plains. Haryana, Western U. P., Rajasthan desert plain and semi-desert plain, Kutch Peninsula of Gujarat, and in the south a long-strip of the peninsular , plateau in the lee of the ghats (including Tapti-Narmada doab area, upper Godawari, Bhima and Krishna basins. Tungabhadra basin and Rayalseema plateau).

The rainfall is about 75cms. a year. Except in the alluvial plains of Punjab and Haryana, the entire dry area suffers from acute shortage of water. Millets, gram, wheat, oilseeds, cotton and groundnut are the main crops.

Essay # 4. Types of Soils in India :

The investigation of Voelcker in 1893 and of Leather in 1898 led to a classification of Indian soils into four major types, viz. – (i) Indo-Gangetic alluvium, (ii) black cotton soils (iii) red soils; and (iv) laterite soils. The Indian Council of Agricultural Research set up an All-India Soil Survey Committee, which reported in 1963. It divided Indian soils in 8 different categories.

Some of which are quite inclusive of a rather wide variety of soil conditions while others have quite uniform and consistent soil characteristic throughout. These eight soil groups are- alluvial, desert, soil saline and alkaline soils, patty and marshy soils, black soils, red soils, laterite soils, and mountain and hill soils.

The soil map prepared by the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, shows 27 broad soil classes in India, according to it, the approximate areas of these classes of soils are:

1. Alluvial Soils:

These soils occupy extensive tracts of land in about 15 lakh sq. km. in northern, North-Western and North-Eastern parts of India and include greater parts of Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, North Western parts of Delhi, Bihar, parts of Assam (central Areas of Lakhimpur, Darang, Sibsagar, Kamrup, Goalpara), parts of Garo Hills.

West Bengal; Orissa; the valley of Narbada and Tapi and in the Mahanadi basin in Balaghat, Durg, Bastar, Raipur and Bilaspur districts in M. P. deltaic areas of Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery in Southern India, and the strips extending along the Eastern and Western coasts of the peninsula (in the river deltas and the Malabar coast respectively). They also occur in Ahmedabad, Vadodara and Kheda districts of Gujarat.

The depth of this soil exceeds 600metres below the ground surface. In North India, these soils are derived mainly from the debris brought down from the Himalaya or from the silt left by the old sea which has now retreated.

Geologically, the alluvium is divided into newer and older alluvium. The former (known as khadir) vary mostly from clayey to sandy loam in texture and are generally acidic in reaction. They are light coloured and of less kankary composition. These soils are deficit in lime, phosphoric acid and humus. The latter (known as Bangar) are more clayey in composition, generally of dark colour and fully kankary.

These soils are red coloured and differ in consistency from drift sand to loam in texture and are generally acidic in reaction. In other places they vary from fine silt to stiff clay. A few occasional pebbles are also present. These soils differ in different parts of the country in physical texture and chemical composition. In north and North-West India it is dry, porous and in some places sandy giving rise to crops not requiring the retention of a great deal of moisture about their roots.

In West Bengal, it becomes more compact, less coarse and moist where rice, sugarcane and jute are largely cultivated; while in the deltas of the peninsular India, it is actually clayey, non-porous and of dark colour. In Assam, these soils are less acidic in reaction, sometimes neutral or slightly alkaline.

Although these soils are rich in potash, phosphoric acid, lime, and organic matter they are deficient in nitrogen and humus contents. These soils are capable of fixing nitrogen very rapidly through leguminous crops. These soils are of marvelous fertility producing under irrigation splendid crops of rice, sugarcane, tobacco, banana, cotton, wheat, jute, maize, oilseeds, vegetables and fruits. The regions of these soils are heavily populated and constitute the “wheat and the rice bowls of India.”

2. The Desert Soil:

They occur under arid and semi-arid conditions and occupy large tracts in Rajasthan, Haryana and South Punjab, lying between the Indus valley and the Aravallis occupying about 1.42 sq. km. The Thar desert alone occupies an area of 1,06,000sq. km. The sands, with which it is covered, are partly derived from the disintegration of adjacent tracts but are largely blown in from the coastal regions of the Rann of Kutch and the Indus valley.

These soils contain high percentage of soluble salts, low loss on ignition, and varying percentage of calcium carbonate and are poor in organic matter, the limiting factor being mainly water. These soils may be reclaimed if proper facilities of irrigation are available.

Very few crops, especially coarse millets, jowar, and bajra are grown for want of water supply and hence population supported by the regions is very small. But Ganganagar district, under the influence of Ganga canal and areas irrigated by Rajasthan canal have now became the leading producers of wheat, gram and cotton.

3. Saline and Alkaline Soils:

These soils occur on about 68,000 sq. km. of area in the drier tracts of north specially of Bihar, U. P., Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan and all over the state of Maharashtra. The soils give rise to saline and alkaline efflorescence. These soils are popularly called Reh, Kallar and Usar.

Large areas, once fertile, have become impregnated with salt with highly deleterious effects on cultivation. The total area of such soils in the country has been estimated to be about 85,000 sq. km. spread along the sea coasts comprising states of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Orissa and Goa.

Texturally, they are sandy to loamy sand. The alkaline soils are deficient in calcium and nitrogen and are highly impervious and have very low water holding capacity. On these soils are produced, a wide variety of crops including rice, wheat, cotton, banana, sugarcane, coconut and tobacco.

4. Peaty and Marshy Soils:

Peaty soils originate in the humid regions as a result of an accumulation of large amounts of organic matter in the soils. These soils cover about 150 sq. km. The soils are generally submerged under water during the monsoon. As soon as the rains cease, the soils are put under paddy cultivation. The soils are black, heavy and highly acidic, and contain 10 to 40 per cent of the organic matter.

On these soils, paddy is grown when water recedes. Marshy soils are found in coastal tracts of Orissa, in the Sundarbans and other places in West Bengal in the central portion of North Bihar, in the Almora district of U. P. and in the South-East coast of Tamilnadu. There are occurrences of muck and very humus soils in low lying situations. They contain about 18 per cent of the organic matter. Both these types of soils are highly saline, rich in organic matter but deficient in phosphate and potash.

5. Foot-Hill or Tarai Soils:

These soils cover about 56,600 sq. km. area in Jammu and Kashmir, U. P. and West Bengal in the submontane tract at the foot of the Himalaya. In U. P., this tract runs as a narrow belt from the district of Dehradun to Deoria. These soils are particularly deficient in phosphate but are inherently rich in nitrogen and organic matter.

In West Bengal, these are mainly sandy, raw humus type and deep black to grey black in colour. The soil is acidic and poor in bases and available plant food material. The soil is generally covered by all grasses and shrubs, under reclaimed conditions good crop of paddy, wheat, soyabean and sugarcane are grown.

6. Mountain and Hill Soils:

These soils cover about 13,300 sq. km. mainly in Jammu and Kashmir, H. P., Punjab, U. P., Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, Tripura, Manipur, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland, etc. Most of these soils are low in lime and are acidic. In areas of good rainfall, these are rich in humus and very fertile for the cultivation of plantation crops like tea, and temperate fruits. They may also be used for growing paddy.

7. Black Soils:

These soils may be of various kinds such as deep black, medium black, shallow black or chestnut. They cover an area of about 546,000 sq. km. These soils are found in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Gujarat, M. P. and some parts of Tamil Nadu, Southern Rajasthan and in U. P.

The black soils extend in depth even up to 3metres, and more. Their chief characteristics are their high fertility, highly argillaceous character, and comparative richness in lime, high proportion of magnesium carbonate, ferrous-oxide and aluminium oxide. They contain sufficient quantities of potash and phosphoric acid.

These soils are highly retentive of moisture and extremely compact and tenacious when wet and rich in chemical properties. They are generally rich in iron, lime, calcium and magnesium carbonates, and alumina but are poor in phosphorus, nitrogen and organic matter. The potash content is available. In general, this soil is clayey and fine textured with dark colour.

Since the content of water soluble salts is high, these soils are unsuitable for heavy irrigation. Because of retentivity of moisture, fineness and chemical matters (especially lime), these soils are endowed with inexhaustible fertility. Both kharif and rabi crops are grown over it. Cotton, wheat, chillies, linseed, jowar, Virginia tobacco, castor, safflower, and millets are the chief crops. Vegetables of different kinds and citrus fruits can also be grown successfully.

8. Red Soils:

Such soils comprise practically the whole of Tamil Nadu, parts of Karnataka, South-East Maharashtra, north-east Andhra Pradesh, Goa and strip of the tract running along the eastern parts of M. P. to Chota Nagpur and Orissa.

In north, its area extends into and includes the greater part of the Santhal Pargana in Bihar, the Birbhum, Bankura districts of West Bengal, Mirzapur, Jhansi, Banda and Hamirpur districts of U. P., northern portion of M. P., the Aravallis and the eastern half of Rajasthan; southern part of Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur and Tripura covering in all about 5.18 lakh sq. km. of area.

The red soils differ greatly in consistency, colour, depth and fertility. On the uplands, they are thin, poor and gravelly, sandy, or stony and porous, light coloured soils on which food crops like bajra can be grown. But on the lower plains and valleys they are rich, deep dark coloured fertile loam on which, under irrigation can be produced excellent crops like cotton, wheat, pulses, millets, groundnut, sugarcane, potatoes, and fruits. Since these soils are airy, they need irrigation for cultivation.

9. Laterite and Lateritic Soils:

These occur most extensively and cover an area of about 248,000 sq. km. They are well developed on the summits of the basaltic hills and plateaus of M. P., West Bengal, Eastern Ghat region of Orissa, South Maharashtra, Karnataka and parts of Assam, Meghalaya, and in Santhal Parganas of Bihar. These soils are generally poor in nitrogen, potash and potassium and organic matter but are responsive to nitrogen and phosphate manuring and hence, produce good crops.

10. Red and Yellow Soils:

These soils are spread over 198,000 sq. km. of area in M. P., Rajasthan and Tripura. These soils are poor in phosphorus, humus are somewhat acid. They differ in fertility and produce a number of crops under irrigation, and are suitable for paddy, sugarcane, wheat and cotton.

Conclusion :

It will be observed that the soils of India offer a distinct contrast to those of many other countries, in as much as they are very old, fully matured, and so not in many cases show pedogenic processes and the close relationship between the soil and its rocky substratum. The weathered materials in most cases have been transported to great distances by various agencies. The majority of the soils in India are of ancient alluvial origin.

An examination of these shows that although the nature and composition reflect to some extent the composition of the original rocks from which they are derived, they are the result to a considerable extent of the climate, particularly the amount and seasonal distribution of rainfall. Other soils mostly of the Peninsula, are diluvial and these remain in the areas where they are formed and thus there is no mixing of different rock materials. The fertility of these soils depends upon the chemical constituents of the rocks from which they are derived.

In the midst of varying features two characteristics are to be found common to almost all soils. Firstly, their comparative dryness. This absence of moisture in the lands makes the supply of water an absolute necessity in Indian agriculture. Second, a major proportion of soils is deficient in nitrogen and organic matter. The phosphate deficiency is comparatively less marked while potash deficiency is rare.

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• India Essay

Essay on India

India is the largest democratic country. It is a big country divided into 29 states and 7 union territories. These states and union territories have been created so that the government can run the country more easily. India also has many different kinds of physical features in different parts of the country that are spread over its states and union territories. India is a very diverse country as well, which means that the people around the country are different in many ways. Even though India is such a diverse place, it is united as one country. 

Political Divisions

India is the seventh-largest country and has the second-largest population in the world. Here is the map of India showing 29 states and 7 union territories. These political divisions are made so that the government can run the country more easily. Though we live in different states, everyone is an Indian first.

[Image will be uploaded soon]

Physical Features

The Indian subcontinent has many different physical features shared with its neighbours that are also in the subcontinent – Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh. The physical features of India form six different natural regions. 

The Northern Mountains

The Northern Plains

The Great Indian Desert

The Southern Plateau

The Coastal Plains

The Island Regions

The Northern Mountains: These are the Himalayas, the highest mountain range in the world. They form a natural boundary between India and a large part of Asia. Two neighbouring countries, Nepal and Bhutan are situated in these mountains. 

The Northern Plains: They are located to the south of the Himalayas. They extend into Pakistan in the west. Bangladesh is situated on the eastern part of the plains. 

The Great Indian Desert: The western part of India is a desert with less rainfall. This desert is called the Thar Desert. 

The Southern Plateau: This plateau region lies to the south of the Great Northern Plains and is called the Deccan Plateau. The Vindhya and Satpura ranges in the north, the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats surround the Deccan Plateau. 

The Coastal Plains: The Eastern coastal plain lies between the Bay of Bengal and the Eastern Ghats. The western coastal plain lies between the Arabian Sea and the Western Ghats.

The Island Regions: The island regions of India are two archipelagos on either side of Peninsula India. The Lakshadweep Islands are in the Arabian Sea and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are in the Bay of Bengal. 

The Rivers of India

The Indian subcontinent has many rivers. Some important rivers are the Indus, Ganga, Yamuna, Brahmaputra, Sutlej, the Narmada and Tapi rivers. 

These physical features and rivers link the people of India.

National Symbols

The National Flag of India is in the tricolour of deep saffron at the top, white in the middle and dark green at the bottom in equal proportions. The saffron stands for courage, sacrifice and the spirit of renunciation, the white for purity and the truth and the green for faith and fertility. In the centre of the white band, there is a wheel of law in the Sarnath Lion Capital.

The National Emblem of India is a replica of the Lion of Sarnath and symbolizes India’s reaffirmation of its ancient commitment to world peace and goodwill. 

The National Anthem of India is Jana Gana Mana and the National song is Vande Mataram.

The National Animal of India is Tiger, which symbolizes grace, strength and power.

The National Bird of India is Peacock, which symbolizes beauty, majesty and pride. 

The National Flower of India is Lotus, which symbolizes purity, wealth, richness, knowledge and serenity.

The National Tree of India is the Great Banyan Tree and because of its characteristics and longevity, the tree is considered immortal and sacred. It is an integral part of the myths and legends in India.

The National Fruit is Mango and it is the most cultivated fruit of the tropical world. 

Indian food is diverse. The geography of a region influences the food that people eat. The staple food of people is what grows in their regions. In North India, the staple food is Wheat. In East and South India, the staple food is Rice. In West India, the staple food is Millet. Daals are eaten in almost the entire country and prepared in different ways. 

Indians speak different languages. The Constitution of India mentions 22 languages. However, India has around 800 languages. Hindi is the official language of India. 

India is a country of many different religions and each has different festivals. Some important festivals are Baisakhi, Diwali, Eid, Ganesh Chaturthi, Dussehra and Christmas. 

Unity in Diversity

The people of India, their foods, festivals and languages – all these make India a very diverse country. However, there are also things that unite the people of India:

The National symbols like the Indian flag and the National Anthem.

The Constitution of India, which was written in the early years of our Independence. It unites the Indians because it has rules and laws that are the same for all people. 

The Constitution says that all Indians are equal in the eyes of the law.

All Indians who are over the age of 18 and have registered as voters can vote in elections.

FAQs on India Essay

Q1. Describe the National Flag of India.

Ans. The National Flag of India is in the tricolour of deep saffron at the top, white in the middle and dark green at the bottom in equal proportions. The saffron stands for courage, sacrifice and the spirit of renunciation, the white, for purity and the truth and the green for faith and fertility. In the centre of the white band, there is a wheel of law in the Sarnath Lion Capital.

Q2. What is the population of India?

Ans. The population of India is 1 billion 325 million. India has the second-largest population in the world.

Q3. What are the important Festivals Celebrated in India?

Ans. Some of the important festivals celebrated in India are Diwali, Dussehra, Eid and Christmas.

Q4. Why is India called the largest Democratic Country?

Ans. India is the largest democratic country because the citizens of India have the right to elect their representatives who form and run the government.

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Physical features of India | Let’s explore India in its truest sense

India is diverse, with varying topography and climate across the country. from the gigantic himalayan range to the astounding thar desert, this peninsular country is the ultimate hub of biodiversity and breathtakingly beautiful landscapes. continue reading to learn about the physical features of india., table of contents, physical features of india | all you need to know about the beauty of india, what are the best physical features of india, the himalayan mountain range , the northern plains, indian desert, peninsular plateau, coastal plains and islands, rivers , sanctuaries, key takeaways .

India is the seventh-largest country and the second-most populous country in the world in 2022. With over a billion people, India is home to nearly 17% of the global population. It is also considered one of the fastest-growing economies in the world.

The physical features of India include a diverse landscape that includes northern plains , deserts, hills, mountains, and forests. The Himalayas run along its northern border and form a natural barrier between India and China. The Hindu Kush separates India from Afghanistan to its northwest.

India also has several national parks and wildlife sanctuaries, including-

• Bandhavgarh National Park, Madhya Pradesh 
• Kanha National Park,  Madhya Pradesh
• Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala 
• Kaziranga National Park, Assam 
• Gir Forest National Park, Gujarat  
• Kutch Wildlife Sanctuary, Gujrat 

The mountain ranges, plains, valleys, rivers, and islands all make up the physical features of India. Let us understand them in great detail.

The Himalayan mountain range is one of the world’s most majestic and awe-inspiring physical features in India . The mountains are home to many beautiful plants and animals but can also be dangerous.

The Himalayas are home to some of the tallest mountains in the world: Mount Everest, Kanchenjunga, and Nanda Devi. They are also home to some of the most deadly animals on Earth: bears, tigers, and leopards.

The Himalayas were named after the Hindu god Himalaya by British explorer George Everest. The mountains run from Afghanistan through Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, and Tibet before ending in Myanmar (Burma).

The Northern Plains , also known as the Indo-Gangetic Plain, covers most of northern India. The plain extends from the Himalayas north to the Vindhya Range in central India. This area is also home to many cities with high populations, such as New Delhi and Lucknow, and is one of the oldest physical features of India .

The Indo-Gangetic Northern Plain is an important agricultural area because it has heavy rainfall during the monsoon season (July through September). As a result, the soil here is rich with nutrients that help crops grow quickly and produce abundant yields yearly without requiring much additional investment from farmers or other stakeholders involved in agricultural production processes (such as seed companies).

The Indian Desert is the world’s 17th largest desert, covering about one-third of India’s land mass. The desert is home to many types of wildlife, including camels, wolves, jackals, and foxes. But it is also home to one of the unique plants on Earth: the baobab tree.

The baobab tree has a thick trunk that can grow over 75 feet tall and just as wide at its base. The tree stores water inside its trunk for long periods to survive without rain or other water sources. It also has deep roots that extend down into the ground, where they find moisture deep below the surface where other trees cannot reach it.

The Peninsular Plateau region in India is the most notable feature. Consisting of a vast, flat tableland with a central spine running north and south, it contains most of the country’s people and natural resources. The plateau map is bordered by the Aravalli Hills to the west, the Thar Desert to the north, and the Eastern Ghats to the east.

The plateau map contains fertile plains and large rivers like the Narmada, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, Tapti, and Mahanadi. These rivers flow north to south into peninsular India’s many lakes and estuaries.

India’s coastal plains and islands are among the most beautiful places in the world. The coasts are dotted with hundreds of islands, most of which are uninhabited. As a result, the beaches are some of the cleanest in the world and are often visited by tourists who want to escape it all. The Andaman Islands in the islands in the Bay of Bengal and the Lakshadweep Islands are the most well-known islands in India.

India being an agro-based country, rivers hold utmost importance. It plays a significant role as a physical feature of the country, given its contribution to biodiversity.  Ganga, Yamuna, Saraswati, Godavari, and Kaveri are some of the most prominent rivers in India.

Sanctuaries, on the other hand, provide shelter to animals like tigers and leopards, which are endangered species. In addition, sanctuaries are also popular tourist spots where people from all over the world come to visit them and see these beautiful animals in their natural habitat.

The physical features of India are among the best salient features of world physical geography, making it rich in terms of natural resources . With a long coastline, beautiful beaches, deserts, jungles, wildlife reserves, and glaciers, India is one of the world’s most diverse countries. For more insightful blogs like so, visit the iSchoolConnect website now!

Was this blog informative? If so, please share your thoughts in the comments below.  Click here  to reach out to us for more information on the different physical features of India. We would be happy to assist you with your queries! 

Liked this blog? Read: Famous personalities of India

Q1. What are physical features?

Answer – India is a land of diverse physical features. India has something for everyone, from its sandy beaches to the snow-capped Himalayas and coastal plains and islands.

Q2. Why are the physical features of India considered as important?

Answer – The physical features of India are considered essential because they directly impact the country’s economic growth. It helps in trade, agriculture, and other mining activities.

Q3. Which is the newest physical feature of India?

Answer – The Himalayas and the northern plains are the most recent landforms in India.

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• Geography /

NCERT Class 9 Geography Chapter 2 Physical Features of India (Free PDF)

• Updated on  
• Nov 10, 2023

One of the essential topics in the class 9 Geography syllabus is ‘The Physical Features of India.’ It includes the careful study of the geological structure of the country as displayed in the physical features of the Indian map. The study highlights the underlying geological structure of India and also looks into the fact of what makes the country so diverse and different. In this blog, we have highlighted the physical features of India Class 9 to help in your revision!

This Blog Includes:

Physical divisions of india, parallel ranges of the himalayas, regional classification of the himalayas.

• The Northern Plains

The Central Highlands

The deccan plateau.

• The Indian Desert
• The Coastal Plains
• The Islands

Important Questions of Chapter 2 Physical Features of India

Extra questions of chapter 2 physical features of india.

Revise CBSE Notes Class 6 Geography

Introduction to the NCERT Class 9 Geography Chapter 2: Physical Features of India

India is not only a culturally but also a geographically diverse country. The country has mountains,  plains, and plateaus to islands and deserts, and the physical features of India are very vast and diverse. If we see the formations of the physical features of the country we can also understand the ‘Theory of Plate Tectonics’. The theory states that the movement of these plates resulted in folding and faulting in continental rocks and volcanic activity. This occurred due to 3 types of plate movements:

The physical features of India can be divided into geological and physiological divisions. While the former consists of the Peninsular Block, Indo Ganga-Brahmaputra plain, and the Himalayas. The Physiographic Divisions have 6 major divisions:

• The Himalayan Mountains
• The Peninsular Plateau

Also Read: NCERT Class 6 Geography: Chapter 6 Our Country – India

The Himalayas are mountain barriers that stretch over the borders of northern India. These are some of the most rugged and loftiest mountains of the world and are one of the major landforms of the earth . The Himalayas form an arc that covers a distance of 2,400 Km.

The Himalayas primarily consist of three parallel ranges that are further divided into:

• Great or Inner Himalayas or the ‘Himadri’: Perennially snowbound, the Great Himalayas have the loftiest peaks. The Himadri has an average height of 6,000 meters and consists of all the major Himalayan Peaks. It is one of the most prominent physical features of India.  
• Himachal or Lesser Himalaya: The more rugged part of the mountain range that is also called the lesser Himalaya or Himachal. This area of Himachal is widely known for its beautiful hill stations. These ranges have an average height of 3700 to 4500 meters. Pir Panjal is the longest range. 
• Outer Himalayan Range or Shiwaliks: These are comparatively lower ranges, with altitudes varying from 900 to 1,100 meters. They comprise the unconsolidated sediments that get brought down by rivers from the Himadri ranges.
• Duns: The longitudinal valley lying between the lesser Himalayas and the Shiwaliks is known as Duns. Dehra Dun, Kotli Dun, and Patli Dun are some of the well-known Duns. 

Check out Himalaya ka Paryayvachi Shabd

The Himalayas are also divided on the basis of regions from west to east:

• The part of the Himalayas lying between the Indus and Satluj has been traditionally known as Punjab Himalaya but it is also known regionally as Kashmir and Himachal Himalaya from west to east respectively. 
• . The part of the Himalayas lying between the Satluj and Kali rivers is known as Kumaon Himalayas. 
• The Kali and Tista rivers demarcate the Nepal Himalayas and the part lying between Tista and Dihang rivers is known as Assam Himalayas. 
• The Brahmaputra marks the easternmost boundary of the Himalayas.

The three major river systems, the Indus, the Brahmaputra, and the Ganga have resulted in the formation of the northern plain. Spreading over 7 lakh sq. km, it is a vast area of alluvial soil.

The northern plain is divided into the following 3 sections:

• The Western part of the Northern Plain is referred to as the Punjab Plains. 
• The Indus and its tributaries–the Jhelum, the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas, and the Satluj originate in the Himalayas.
• The Ganga plain extends between the Ghaggar and Teesta rivers. 
• It is spread over the states of North India, Haryana, Delhi, U.P., Bihar, partly Jharkhand, and West Bengal to its East, particularly in Assam lies the Brahmaputra plain.

The physical features of India, in context to the northern plans, have been given a rundown below: 

The Peninsular Plateau defines the physical features of India. It is mainly composed of old igneous, crystalline, and metamorphic rocks and is also one of the oldest land masses. The three major divisions of the Plateaus are the Central Highlands, the Deccan Plateau, and the NE Plateau. 

Spreading over the major area of the Malwa Plateau, The Central Highlands lie next to the north of the Narmada River. If you look closely at the physical features of the Indian map, you will find that these highlands are narrower in the east and broader in the west.

The Deccan Plateau forms a broad base of a triangular landmass that falls to the south of the Narmada River. The Satpura range, the Kaimur hills, and the Maikal range form its eastern extensions as can be seen in the physical features of the India map. Furthermore, the slope moves gently eastwards. 

Also called Meghalaya/Karbi-Anglong Plateau/N-central Chachar Hills, this is the extension of the main peninsular plateau.

Quick Fact: The point at which the Eastern and Western ghats meet, it is called the Deccan Trap. Bering is volcanic in nature, it has black soil and igneous rocks. 

• The entire expanse of the Indian desert lies in the western margins of the Aravali hills (demarcated in the physical features of the India map).
• It is covered in sandy plains and dunes, this region receives rainfall below 150 mm every year.
• Hence, there is minimal vegetation cover. The largest river that flows here is Luni. 

The coastal plains are narrow stretches of land across the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal. As seen on the physical features of India map, the Coastal Plains in the southern part are broadly divided into, The Konkan, The Kannada Plain, and the Malabar coast. On the eastern side, across the Bay of Bengal, the plains are further classified into Northern Circar and the Coromandel Coast. Tabulated below are some of the major differences between the western and eastern coastal plains:

India mainly comprises two major Island groups, the Lakshadweep Islands in the Arabian Sea and The Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The Andaman Island groups include 204 smaller islands. Furthermore, the A&N islands are divided by 10-degree channels. 

The group of islands are further divided into two sections:

• Andaman in the North
• Nicobar in the South

These islands are close to the equator, have thick forest covers and experience an equatorial climate

• There is a great diversity of flora and fauna in this group of islands. 
• These islands lie close to the equator and experience an equatorial climate.
• This island group has a great diversity of flora and fauna. thick forest cover.

Download NCERT Solutions Class 8 Geography Chapter 1 Resources (Free PDF)

1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below.

(i) A landmass bounded by the sea on three sides is referred to as

(c) Peninsula

(d) None of the above

Answer:  (c)

(ii) Mountain ranges in the eastern part of India forming its boundary with Myanmar are collectively called

(a) Himachal

(b) Uttarakhand

(c) Purvachal

(iii) The western coastal strip, south of Goa is referred to as

(a) Coromandel

(d) Northern Circar

(iv) The highest peak in the Eastern Ghats is

(a) Anai Mudi

(b) Kanchenjunga

(c) Mahendragiri

Answer:  C

2. Answer the following questions briefly.

(i) What is the bhabar?

The northern plains are generally described as flatlands, with no variations in their relief. However, that is not true. These vast plains also have diverse relief features. According to the variations in relief features, the northern plains can be divided into four regions. The rivers, after descending from the mountains, deposit pebbles in a narrow belt of about 8 to 16 km in width lying parallel to the slopes of the Shiwaliks. This region is known as bhabar.

(ii) Name the three major divisions of the Himalayas from north to south.

• The northernmost range is known as The Great or Inner Himalayas or Himadri.
• Himachal or Lesser Himalaya.
• Outer Himalayas or Shiwaliks.

(iii) Which plateau lies between the Aravali and the Vindhya ranges?

The Malwa plateau lies between Aravali and Vindhya ranges.

(iv) Name the island group of India having a coral origin.

The Lakshadweep Islands is the island group of India having a coral origin.

3. Distinguish between

(i) Bhangar and Khadar

• Lies above flood plains of the river.
• Older alluvium or old soil and forms the largest part of the northern plains.
• It is a newer, younger deposit of flood plains. It is renewed every year.

(ii) the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats

The Western Ghats

• Lie parallel to the Western Coast.
• They are continuous and can be crossed through passes only.
• The Western Ghats’ average elevation is 900 – 1600 metres.
• The Western Ghats cause orographic rain by facing the rain-bearing moist winds to rise along the western slopes of the Ghats.
• The height of the Western Ghats progressively increases from north to south.

The Eastern Ghats

• Lies parallel to the Eastern Coast.
• They are discontinuous and irregular.
• The Eastern Ghats are dissected by rivers flowing into the Bay of Bengal.
• The Eastern Ghats average elevation is 600 metres.

4. Which are the major physiographic divisions of India? Contrast the relief of the Himalayan region with that of the Peninsular plateau

The major physiographic divisions of India are

Contrast the relief of Himalayan region and Peninsular Plateau

Geologically, the Peninsular Plateau constitutes one of the ancient landmasses on the earth’s surface. It was supposed to be one of the most stable land blocks. The Himalayas are the most recent landforms. From the viewpoint of geology, Himalayan mountains form an unstable zone. The whole mountain system of Himalaya represents a very youthful topography with high peaks, deep valleys and fast-flowing rivers. The northern plains are formed of alluvial deposits. The peninsular plateau is composed of igneous and metamorphic rocks with gently rising hills and wide valleys.

5. Give an account of the Northern Plains of India.

The Northern Plains are the most recent landforms. The northern plains are formed of alluvial deposits. The northern plain has been formed by the interplay of the three major river systems, namely — the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra, along with their tributaries. This plain is formed of alluvial soil. The deposition of alluvium in a vast basin lying at the foothills of the Himalaya over millions of years formed this fertile plain. It spreads over an area of 7 lakh sq. km. The plain being about 2400 km long and 240 to 320 km broad, is a densely populated physiographic division. With a rich soil cover combined with an adequate water supply and favourable climate, it is agriculturally a productive part of India. The Northern Plain is broadly divided into three sections. The Western part of the Northern Plain is referred to as the Punjab Plains. Formed by the Indus and its tributaries, the larger part of this plain lies in Pakistan. The Indus and its tributaries — the Jhelum, the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas and the Satluj all originate in the Himalaya. This section of the plain is dominated by the doabs. The Ganga plain extends between Ghaggar and Teesta rivers. It is spread over the northern states of Haryana, Delhi, U.P., Bihar and partly Jharkhand. The Ganga plains also extend towards Bengal to it’s east. Further east, in Assam lies the Brahmaputra plain. The northern plains are generally described as flatlands with no variations in their relief. However, this is not exactly true. These vast plains also have diverse relief features. According to the variations in relief features, the Northern plains can be divided into four regions. The rivers, after descending from the mountains, deposit pebbles in a narrow belt of about 8 to 16 km in width lying parallel to the slopes of the Shiwaliks. This region is known as bhabar. All the streams disappear in this bhabar belt. South of this belt, the streams and rivers re-emerge and create a wet, swampy and marshy region known as terai. This was once a thickly forested region, full of wildlife.

6. Write short notes on the following.

(i) The Indian Desert

The Indian desert lies towards the western margins of the Aravali Hills. It is an undulating sandy plain covered with sand dunes. This region receives very low rainfall. The average rainfall is below 150 mm per year. It has an arid climate with low vegetation cover. Streams appear during the rainy season. Soon after they disappear into the sand as they do not have enough water to reach the sea. Luni is the only large river in this region.

(ii) The Central Highlands

Central Highlands and the Deccan Plateau. The part of the Peninsular plateau lying to the north of the Narmada river, covering a major area of the Malwa plateau, is known as the Central Highlands. The Central Highlands are wider in the west but narrower in the east. The eastward extensions of this plateau are locally known as the Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand. The Chotanagpur plateau marks the further eastward extension, drained by the Damodar river.

(iii) The Island groups of India

Lakshadweep Islands

The Lakshadweep group of islands is composed of small coral islands. Earlier they were known as Laccadive, Minicoy and Amindive. In 1973, these were re-named as Lakshadweep. It covers a small area of 32 sq km. The Kavaratti Island is the administrative headquarters of Lakshadweep. This island group has a great diversity of flora and fauna. The Pitti island, which is uninhabited, has a bird sanctuary.

Andaman and Nicobar Islands

The elongated chain of islands located in the Bay of Bengal extends from north to south. These are the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. They are bigger in size and are more numerous and scattered. The entire group of islands is divided into two broad categories – The Andaman in the north and the Nicobar in the south. It is believed that these islands are an elevated portion of submarine mountains. These island groups are of great strategic importance for the country. There is a great diversity of flora and fauna in this group of islands too. These islands lie close to the equator and experience an equatorial climate, and have thick forest cover.

Due to the physical features of India being so diverse, there is a need to revise and test your knowledge as well! Thus, these are a few questions which you could practice:

• Which is the most fertile part of the northern plains?
• Which part of the Himalayas lies between Indus and Satluj?
• Where does the Brahmaputra plain lie?
• Where is Lake Chilika located?
• The Malabar coast is also referred to: _________
• What is the outermost range of the Himalayas called?
• Which is the highest peak of the Western Ghats.
• The Nicobar lie in the:
• What does the core of the Himadri consist of?
• The Jhelum is a tributary of: ___________
• Punjab Himalayas
• The state of Assam
• Eastern Coast
• Southern Stretch

📌   Explore Class 7 Geography Notes

The 6 physical features of India are mentioned below. The Himalayan mountains. Indian Desert. The Northern Plains. Peninsular plateau. Coastal Plains. Islands.

The Indus, the Brahmaputra, and the Ganga are the three major rivers of the northern plain.

Shiwalik is the outermost range of the Himalayas.

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• CBSE Notes For Class 9
• Class 9 Social Science Notes
• Class 9 Geography Notes
• Chapter 2 Physical Features Of India

CBSE Notes Class 9 Geography Chapter 2 - Physical Features of India

India has all the major physical features of the earth, i.e., mountains, plains, deserts, plateaus and islands. The land of India displays great physical variation. Geologically, the Peninsular Plateau constitutes one of the ancient land masses on the earth’s surface. The Himalayas and the Northern Plains are the most recent landforms. The northern plains are formed of alluvial deposits. The CBSE Notes Class 9  Geography Chapter 2 on the Physical Features of India will provide you with more insight into these topics. You can also use these for revision during the exam. These CBSE Class 9 Social Science Notes are concise and provide you with a brief description of the entire chapter.

• Chapter 1 India Size And Location
• Chapter 3 Drainage
• Chapter 4 Climate
• Chapter 5 Natural Vegetation And Wildlife
• Chapter 6 Population

CBSE Notes Class 9 Geography Chapter 2 – Physical Features of India

Major physiographic divisions.

The physical features of India are grouped under the following physiographic divisions:

The Himalayan Mountains

• The Northern Plains

The Peninsular Plateau

The indian desert, the coastal plains, the islands.

Let’s discuss each of them in detail.

Himalayan mountains are stretched over the northern borders of India. This mountain ranges run in a west-east direction from the Indus to the Brahmaputra. The Himalayas consists of 3 parallel ranges in their longitudinal extent.

• The northernmost range is known as the Great or Inner Himalayas or the Himadri . It is the most continuous range consisting of the loftiest peaks with an average height of 6,000 metres.
• The folds of the Great Himalayas are asymmetrical in nature. The core of this part of the Himalayas is composed of granite.
• The range lying to the south of the Himadri forms the most rugged mountain system and is known as Himachal or lesser Himalaya .
• Pir Panjal range forms the longest and the most important range.
• The outermost range of the Himalayas is called the Shiwaliks . These ranges are composed of unconsolidated sediments.
• The longitudinal valley lying between the lesser Himalayas and the Shiwaliks is known as Duns . Dehradun, Kotli Dun and Patli Dun are some of the well-known Duns.

The Himalayas have also been divided on the basis of regions from west to east.

• The part of the Himalayas lying between Indus and Satluj has been traditionally known as Punjab Himalaya but it is also known regionally as Kashmir and Himachal Himalaya from west to east, respectively.
• The part of the Himalayas lying between the Satluj and the Kali rivers is known as Kumaon Himalayas .
• The Kali and Teesta rivers divide the Nepal Himalayas and the part lying between Teesta and Dihang rivers is known as Assam Himalayas .
• The Brahmaputra marks the easternmost boundary of the Himalayas.
• Beyond the Dihang gorge, the Himalayas bend sharply to the south and spread along the eastern boundary of India, which is known as the Purvachal or the Eastern hills and mountains . The Purvachal comprises the Patkai Hills, the Naga Hills, the Manipur Hills and the Mizo Hills.

The Northern Plain

The northern plain has been formed by the interplay of the 3 major river systems – the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra along with their tributaries. It spreads over an area of 7 lahks sq. km.

The Northern Plain is broadly divided into 3 sections, as mentioned below:

• The Western part of the Northern Plain is referred to as the Punjab Plains . This plain is formed by the Indus and its tributaries – the Jhelum, the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas and the Satluj.
• The Ganga plain extends between Ghaggar and Teesta rivers. It is spread over the states of North India, Haryana, Delhi, U.P., Bihar, partly Jharkhand and West Bengal.
• Brahmaputra Plain lies in the state of Assam.

According to the variations in elevation points, the Northern plains can be divided into 4 regions.

• The rivers, after descending from the mountains, deposit pebbles in a narrow belt of about 8 to 16 km in width, lying parallel to the slopes of the Shiwaliks, which is known as Bhabar . All the streams disappear in this Bhabar belt.
• The streams and rivers re-emerge and create a wet, swampy and marshy region known as terai .
• The largest part of the northern plain is formed of older alluvium. It lies above the floodplains of the rivers and presents a terrace-like feature which is known as Bhangar .
• The soil in the Bhangar region contains calcareous deposits and is known as Kankar . The newer, younger deposits of the floodplains are called Khadar .

The Peninsular Plateau is a tableland composed of old crystalline, igneous and metamorphic rocks. It was formed due to the breaking and drifting of the Gondwana land. One of the distinct features of the Peninsular Plateau is the black soil area known as Deccan Trap .

This plateau consists of 2 divisions:

• The Central Highlands: The part of the Peninsular plateau lying to the north of the Narmada River, covering a major area of the Malwa plateau, is known as the Central Highlands. The eastward extensions of this plateau are locally known as the Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand .
• The Deccan Plateau: It is a triangular landmass that lies to the south of the river Narmada. An extension of the Plateau is also visible in the northeast, which is known as the Meghalaya, Karbi-Anglong Plateau and North Cachar Hills.

The Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats mark the western and the eastern edges of the Deccan Plateau, respectively.

The Indian desert lies towards the western margins of the Aravali Hills.

• It is a sandy plain covered with sand dunes.
• This region receives very low rainfall, below 150 mm per year.
• It has a dry climate with low vegetation cover.

A coastal plain is a flat, low-lying piece of land next to the ocean. To the east and west of the peninsular plateau, 2 narrow strips of plain lands are found, which are respectively called Eastern Coastal Plain and Western Coastal Plain.

Eastern Coastal Plain

The Eastern Coastal Plains is a wide stretch of landmass lying between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal. In the northern part, it is referred to as the Northern Circar , while the southern part is known as the Coromandel Coast . Large rivers, such as the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri, have formed an extensive delta on this coast. Lake Chilika is an important feature along the eastern coast.

Western Coastal Plain

The western coast is sandwiched between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea. It is a narrow plain and consists of 3 sections, as mentioned below:

• The northern part of the coast is called the Konkan (Mumbai – Goa)
• The central stretch is called the Kannad Plain
• The southern stretch is referred to as the Malabar coast

An island is a piece of sub-continental land that is surrounded by water. Lakshadweep Islands group is composed of small coral islands which were earlier known as Laccadive, Minicoy and Amindive.

The entire group of islands is divided into 2 broad categories:

• The Andaman in the north
• The Nicobar in the south

These islands lie close to the equator and experience an equatorial climate, and have thick forest cover.

The diverse physical features of India have immense future possibilities for development because of the following reasons.

• The mountains are the major sources of water and forest wealth.
• The northern plains are the granaries of the country. They provide the base for early civilisations.
• The plateau is a storehouse of minerals, which has played a crucial role in the industrialisation of India.
• The coastal region and island groups provide sites for fishing and port activities.

We hope CBSE Notes for Class 9 Geography helped you in your studies. Keep Learning and stay tuned for more updates on CBSE and NCERT. Download the BYJU’S App and subscribe to the YouTube channel to access interactive Maths and Science videos.

Frequently Asked Questions on CBSE Class 9 Geography Notes Chapter 2 Physical Features of India

What are the physical features present.

Physical features include landforms, bodies of water, climate, natural vegetation and soil.

What is a peninsula?

A peninsula is a piece of land that is almost entirely surrounded by water but is connected to the mainland on one side.

Where is the Brahmaputra plain located?

Brahmaputra basin spans the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, West Bengal, Meghalaya, Nagaland and the whole of Sikkim in India.

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UPSC Essays Simplified: Structure and Flow of a good essay– the third step

How to build a 'structure and flow' in a good essay our expert takes you through the third stage of writing an essay in upsc essentials' new series. don't miss the essay exercise towards the end of the article..

How to write essays for UPSC Civil Services Exams?   This is one of the most popular questions among aspirants. In UPSC Essentials’ special series  UPSC Essays Simplified , we take you through various steps of writing a good essay. While there is no set formula or fixed criteria prescribed,  Manas Srivastava  talks to  Ravi Kapoor , our expert, in this new series who guides the aspirants with a simplified framework on how to write a good essay. Don’t miss  ‘The Essay Exercise’  towards the end of the article.

Ravi Kapoor focuses on the following steps of pre-writing and writing stages which will help aspirants to write a ‘good essay’.

Today, we will focus on Step 3. 

About our Expert:   Ravi Kapoor IRS (R) , has now ditched his coveted rank of deputy commissioner and has offered free quality mentorship to UPSC aspirants, drawing upon his ten years of experience to create customised and productive curriculum. Through a free mentorship programme, he integrates tailored educational materials, psychological principles, visual learning techniques, and a strong emphasis on mental well-being into his teaching skills granting aspirants a chance to learn from his expertise.

How to have a ‘Structure and Flow’ in a good essay?

Everyone knows that an essay should be broken down into an introduction, body and conclusion. But what is written inside these 3 components and HOW it is written makes the difference between an essay fetching average or excellent scores.

Structuring and flow refer to the organisation of the essay and your ideas therein.

A good structure is a way of organising information that fits well with the essay topic and the ideas you wish to present in your arguments such that the reader can make sense of the entire write-up without much effort.

Good flow refers to how your arguments and counterarguments connect from one to another such that the reader finds it logically connected and easy to comprehend.

An essay without these elements will appear to be disorganized, jargoned, hard to comprehend and overall, complicated.

Contrary to popular belief, flow and structure are not subjective writing skills that are inborn in good writers but can be learned and improved upon. What follows is a series of structuring techniques that will help you choose the best one for any essay topic you may encounter.

What are different types of structures? 

1. 2 side face-off:.

This is the oldest trick in the book. While writing the body of the essay, you divide it into arguments and counterarguments. In other words, you compare one side of the debate with the other.

For example:

“Thinking is like a game; it does not begin unless there is an opposite team”

The body of the essay can be divided into 2 parts- one agreeing with the statement and one disagreeing with it as follows:

Thinking is reciprocal as thought builds on other thoughts. The Socratic method, championed by Socrates, is a testament to this idea. Socrates would go around Athens spreading knowledge by asking questions and inciting dialogue which would lead the conversationist to the point of realization about something new and profound.

Similarly, when Einstein said he was standing on the shoulders of giants, he meant that his theory of relativity was built using many ideas developed by mathematicians and physicists who came before him.

The reciprocal nature of thought helps to improve it by allowing dissent and counterarguments much like a game of chess. An example is the Case study pioneered by Harvard Business School wherein one case is debated upon in detail considering various strategies before arriving at the optimal one.

While dissent and opposition can lead to many a good idea, there are more ways for thought to develop into ideas within human consciousness. Human cognition is too complex to be restricted to one mode of thinking. A Case in point is intuitive or creative thinking that can arise spontaneously without the interlocking of two human intelligences.

For instance, creative geniuses often hit upon their best ideas out of the blue in ‘Eureka’ moments that seem to arise from within the subconscious mind without the presence of an opponent.

Another example is ‘thought-experiments’ used by philosophers that are designed to be introspective exercises that one engages with, with oneself. Thought experiments are indispensable tools for philosophers and physicists to offer insight into a profound problem of logic and metaphysics.

2.Dimensional analysis:

It has become fashionable to break the essay topic into various dimensions such as Social, Cultural, Historical, Economic etc. But this is not a one-size-fits-all method and may or may not work with every essay topic.

“Education is what remains after one has forgotten what one has learned in the school…”

While this topic can be written about based on various dimensions such as economic, historical, social etc, it is not necessarily the best structure for it.

Instead, a better way to present the information in this essay topic would have a mix of chronology and analysis in the following way-

We are blank slates when we are born onto which society and culture leave their imprint. Through childhood and adolescence, the education system seeks to put us through a treadmill of learning, hoping for a fully functional human to emerge at the end. Sadly, the world that awaits a young adult after school is often very different from what the education system has imparted.

Memorization, exams, grades and NCERT books amount to nothing in a world driven by start-ups, ChatGPT and Social Media influencers…. Please note that the dimensions such as social, cultural and historical factors can also be mentioned in the body of the essay as supporting content ideas.

In most essay topics, these dimensions are best used to describe the reasons and impact of an issue or debate instead of as just a structure.

3. Timeline and Chronology

Some essay topics are uniquely suited for a chronological structure wherein you take the reader through a historical journey or evolution such as :

“History is a series of victories won by the scientific man over the romantic man”

This topic is about the ancient debate between rationality and idealism. To write well about it, you would have to trace the through major historical intellectual movements such as the Scientific Revolution, the Dark Ages, the Renaissance, etc. While doing so, you could mention how each stage was relevant for rational thinking versus idealism with relevant examples.

While you do so chronologically, remember to also present a balanced approach in your arguments- On every stage, you can mention how rational thinking and idealism have been in a tight relationship, but both have been an integral part of human consciousness representing creativity and logic. You may also mention how this to and fro has enriched human civilisation and led to the development of science and art.

4. Anecdotes and stories

Many students like to start their essays with an anecdote- a personal story or an imaginary one about characters highlighting the debate presented in the essay topic. While this is not a bad strategy, it requires a fair amount of creative writing ability to pull off properly. It is also important to mention that anecdotes are not the most suitable vehicle to comprehensively deal with the essay topic as not all arguments can easily fit into a personal story.

An example of a good use of anecdotal structure is:

“Not all who wander are lost”

About 2000 years ago, a wandering prince changed the world by questioning the most profound and radical assumptions about human existence. Prince Siddhartha was bathed in luxury and wanted for nothing. But when we saw the naked reality of the world and all its suffering, he could not silence his mind to the questions that we take for granted- why is there suffering and death? If suffering is inevitable then what is the point of life? Is there peace to be found or are we doomed to suffer in this life?

He wandered for years in search of answers, as lost as a soul can be. But in the end, it was his wandering that changed the world forever. When he became the Buddha, he not only found himself but saved millions of others from being lost themselves….

Anecdotes can make for good hooks or introductions to an essay but may not serve well to cover the entire body of the essay.

The Essay Exercise

Important points to note: 

• You can choose which type of structure to use- there is no single best choice.
• You may use more than 1 type of structure.
• You may use structures for introduction, body and conclusion.

Subscribe  to our  UPSC newsletter  and stay updated with the news cues from the past week.

The UPSC articles of  Indian Express  is now on Telegram.  Join our Telegram channel-  Indian Express  UPSC Hub and stay updated with the latest Updates. For your answers, queries and suggestions write at  manas.srivastava@ indianexpress.com .

Manas Srivastava is currently working as Deputy Copy Editor with The Indian Express (digital) and majorly writes for UPSC-related projects leading a unique initiative known as UPSC Essentials. In the past, Manas has represented India at the G-20 Youth Summit in Mexico. He is a former member of the Youth Council, GOI. A two-time topper/gold medallist in History (both in graduation and post-graduation) from Delhi University, he has mentored and taught UPSC aspirants for more than four years. His diverse role in The Indian Express consists of writing, editing, anchoring/ hosting, interviewing experts, and curating and simplifying news for the benefit of students. He hosts the YouTube talk show called ‘Art and Culture with Devdutt Pattanaik’ and a LIVE series on Instagram and YouTube called ‘You Ask We Answer’.His talks on ‘How to read a newspaper’ focus on newspaper reading as an essential habit for students. His articles and videos aim at finding solutions to the general queries of students and hence he believes in being students' editor, preparing them not just for any exam but helping them to become informed citizens. This is where he makes his teaching profession meet journalism. He is also currently working on a monthly magazine for UPSC Aspirants. He is a recipient of the Dip Chand Memorial Award, the Lala Ram Mohan Prize and Prof. Papiya Ghosh Memorial Prize for academic excellence. He was also awarded the University’s Post-Graduate Scholarship for pursuing M.A. in History where he chose to specialise in Ancient India due to his keen interest in Archaeology. He has also successfully completed a Certificate course on Women’s Studies by the Women’s Studies Development Centre, DU. As a part of N.S.S in the past, Manas has worked with national and international organisations and has shown keen interest and active participation in Social Service. He has led and been a part of projects involving areas such as gender sensitisation, persons with disability, helping slum dwellers, environment, adopting our heritage programme. He has also presented a case study on ‘Psychological stress among students’ at ICSQCC- Sri Lanka. As a compere for seminars and other events he likes to keep his orating hobby alive. His interests also lie in International Relations, Governance, Social issues, Essays and poetry. ... Read More

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Incredible India Essay for Students and Children

500+ words essay on incredible india.

India represents “Unity in Diversity” . Our country is a mixture of cultures, regions, traditions, diversity in food, languages, etc. Our people of India are so polite, understanding and helping in nature. The national bird of India is Peacock and is very beautiful. India is so incredible and is full of colors and has the tiger as its national animal, hockey as its national game, etc. the national language or mother tongue of our country is Hindi. Indians are also so talented and have shown very high growth. The I.T. sector of our country shows accelerating growth due to intelligent software engineers.

India As a Country

India is the seventh-largest country by its geographical area and is located in South Asia. The beauty surrounds our country from each and every aspect. India is also known by two other names Bharat and Hindustan and the people of India are known as Indians. The national anthem of our country is “ Jan Gan Man ” and the national song of our country is “Sare Jahan Se Achcha”.

India is a Democratic country where people themselves choose their leader and live with freedom i.e. they can do anything they wish to within the limits of the law. If any citizen of India tries to harm any other person, there are also rules and regulations to punish him in order to make him realize his mistake.

Our country is also incredible because of its beautiful mountains, lakes, forests , seas, oceans, etc. Many foreigners each year visit India to see the beauty of our country that is its rich historical temples, its traditions, its language, its heritage, etc.

Different Regions of India

North region.

North Region consists of the most incredible thing in the world that is The Himalayas which is the highest mountain in the world. This region also consists of the beautiful Kashmir covered with mountains. It consists of Uttar Pradesh which is mainly known as the land of Krishna, land of Rama, etc. This region also consists of one of the wonders of the world i.e. Taj Mahal which people come to visit across the world.

Southern Region

This is the “Land of Nawabs”. It is famous for its festivals, food, and languages. The place is famous for its rice dishes. This region consists of cities like Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka, etc.

East Region

East part of  India consists of West Bengal, Jharkhand, Bihar, Odisha,  etc. The capital of West Bengal, Kolkata is the largest city of this section and is the metropolitan city and is the third’s largest city in the country. Kolkata is known for its sweetness and festival.

West Region

The West part of the country is really incredible as it is covered with sands and deserts. Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Maharashtra are the three most amazing places in this region. The culture, the language, the traditions and the clothes of this region are incredible and you will love to visit this region.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Indian Culture and Religion

India’s culture is among the world’s oldest; civilization in India began about 4,500 years ago. India has 29 states with different culture and civilizations and one of the most populated countries in the world. The Indian culture, often labeled as a mixture of several various cultures.

India gave birth to Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, and other religions. They are now collectively known as Indian religions. Today, Hinduism and Buddhism are the third and fourth-largest religions respectively of the world. Although India is a secular Hindu-majority country, it has a large Muslim population.

India, being a multi-cultural, multi-ethnic and multi-religious society, celebrates holidays and festivals of various religions. Major festivals include Diwali, Durga puja, Holi, Ganesh puja, Navratri, Rath yatra, etc are there round the year.

Indian food is a cosmopolitan cuisine that has so many ingredients. It is as diverse as India. Indian recipes use numerous ingredients, deploy a wide range of food preparation styles, cooking techniques, and culinary presentation. Thus the tastes of same food like salads, sauces, vegetables, meat, desserts vary from region to region.

We are proud of our cultural distinctiveness. We are proud to be the inhabitants of India. It is our duty to maintain its unique feature. We have to think beyond the petty interests and work for the broader goals of bringing prosperity and progress in society.

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