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References in Research – Types, Examples and Writing Guide

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References in Research

Definition:

References in research are a list of sources that a researcher has consulted or cited while conducting their study. They are an essential component of any academic work, including research papers, theses, dissertations, and other scholarly publications.

Types of References

There are several types of references used in research, and the type of reference depends on the source of information being cited. The most common types of references include:

References to books typically include the author’s name, title of the book, publisher, publication date, and place of publication.

Example: Smith, J. (2018). The Art of Writing. Penguin Books.

Journal Articles

References to journal articles usually include the author’s name, title of the article, name of the journal, volume and issue number, page numbers, and publication date.

Example: Johnson, T. (2021). The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health. Journal of Psychology, 32(4), 87-94.

Web sources

References to web sources should include the author or organization responsible for the content, the title of the page, the URL, and the date accessed.

Example: World Health Organization. (2020). Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) advice for the public. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease/novel-coronavirus-2019/advice-for-public

Conference Proceedings

References to conference proceedings should include the author’s name, title of the paper, name of the conference, location of the conference, date of the conference, and page numbers.

Example: Chen, S., & Li, J. (2019). The Future of AI in Education. Proceedings of the International Conference on Educational Technology, Beijing, China, July 15-17, pp. 67-78.

References to reports typically include the author or organization responsible for the report, title of the report, publication date, and publisher.

Example: United Nations. (2020). The Sustainable Development Goals Report. United Nations.

Formats of References

Some common Formates of References with their examples are as follows:

APA (American Psychological Association) Style

The APA (American Psychological Association) Style has specific guidelines for formatting references used in academic papers, articles, and books. Here are the different reference formats in APA style with examples:

Author, A. A. (Year of publication). Title of book. Publisher.

Example : Smith, J. K. (2005). The psychology of social interaction. Wiley-Blackwell.

Journal Article

Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year of publication). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume number(issue number), page numbers.

Example : Brown, L. M., Keating, J. G., & Jones, S. M. (2012). The role of social support in coping with stress among African American adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 22(1), 218-233.

Author, A. A. (Year of publication or last update). Title of page. Website name. URL.

Example : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2020, December 11). COVID-19: How to protect yourself and others. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html

Magazine article

Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day of publication). Title of article. Title of Magazine, volume number(issue number), page numbers.

Example : Smith, M. (2019, March 11). The power of positive thinking. Psychology Today, 52(3), 60-65.

Newspaper article:

Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day of publication). Title of article. Title of Newspaper, page numbers.

Example: Johnson, B. (2021, February 15). New study shows benefits of exercise on mental health. The New York Times, A8.

Edited book

Editor, E. E. (Ed.). (Year of publication). Title of book. Publisher.

Example : Thompson, J. P. (Ed.). (2014). Social work in the 21st century. Sage Publications.

Chapter in an edited book:

Author, A. A. (Year of publication). Title of chapter. In E. E. Editor (Ed.), Title of book (pp. page numbers). Publisher.

Example : Johnson, K. S. (2018). The future of social work: Challenges and opportunities. In J. P. Thompson (Ed.), Social work in the 21st century (pp. 105-118). Sage Publications.

MLA (Modern Language Association) Style

The MLA (Modern Language Association) Style is a widely used style for writing academic papers and essays in the humanities. Here are the different reference formats in MLA style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Book. Publisher, Publication year.

Example : Smith, John. The Psychology of Social Interaction. Wiley-Blackwell, 2005.

Journal article

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal, volume number, issue number, Publication year, page numbers.

Example : Brown, Laura M., et al. “The Role of Social Support in Coping with Stress among African American Adolescents.” Journal of Research on Adolescence, vol. 22, no. 1, 2012, pp. 218-233.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Webpage.” Website Name, Publication date, URL.

Example : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “COVID-19: How to Protect Yourself and Others.” CDC, 11 Dec. 2020, https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Magazine, Publication date, page numbers.

Example : Smith, Mary. “The Power of Positive Thinking.” Psychology Today, Mar. 2019, pp. 60-65.

Newspaper article

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Newspaper, Publication date, page numbers.

Example : Johnson, Bob. “New Study Shows Benefits of Exercise on Mental Health.” The New York Times, 15 Feb. 2021, p. A8.

Editor’s Last name, First name, editor. Title of Book. Publisher, Publication year.

Example : Thompson, John P., editor. Social Work in the 21st Century. Sage Publications, 2014.

Chapter in an edited book

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Chapter.” Title of Book, edited by Editor’s First Name Last name, Publisher, Publication year, page numbers.

Example : Johnson, Karen S. “The Future of Social Work: Challenges and Opportunities.” Social Work in the 21st Century, edited by John P. Thompson, Sage Publications, 2014, pp. 105-118.

Chicago Manual of Style

The Chicago Manual of Style is a widely used style for writing academic papers, dissertations, and books in the humanities and social sciences. Here are the different reference formats in Chicago style:

Example : Smith, John K. The Psychology of Social Interaction. Wiley-Blackwell, 2005.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal volume number, no. issue number (Publication year): page numbers.

Example : Brown, Laura M., John G. Keating, and Sarah M. Jones. “The Role of Social Support in Coping with Stress among African American Adolescents.” Journal of Research on Adolescence 22, no. 1 (2012): 218-233.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Webpage.” Website Name. Publication date. URL.

Example : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “COVID-19: How to Protect Yourself and Others.” CDC. December 11, 2020. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Magazine, Publication date.

Example : Smith, Mary. “The Power of Positive Thinking.” Psychology Today, March 2019.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Newspaper, Publication date.

Example : Johnson, Bob. “New Study Shows Benefits of Exercise on Mental Health.” The New York Times, February 15, 2021.

Example : Thompson, John P., ed. Social Work in the 21st Century. Sage Publications, 2014.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Chapter.” In Title of Book, edited by Editor’s First Name Last Name, page numbers. Publisher, Publication year.

Example : Johnson, Karen S. “The Future of Social Work: Challenges and Opportunities.” In Social Work in the 21st Century, edited by John P. Thompson, 105-118. Sage Publications, 2014.

Harvard Style

The Harvard Style, also known as the Author-Date System, is a widely used style for writing academic papers and essays in the social sciences. Here are the different reference formats in Harvard Style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of publication. Title of Book. Place of publication: Publisher.

Example : Smith, John. 2005. The Psychology of Social Interaction. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of publication. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal volume number (issue number): page numbers.

Example: Brown, Laura M., John G. Keating, and Sarah M. Jones. 2012. “The Role of Social Support in Coping with Stress among African American Adolescents.” Journal of Research on Adolescence 22 (1): 218-233.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of publication. “Title of Webpage.” Website Name. URL. Accessed date.

Example : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2020. “COVID-19: How to Protect Yourself and Others.” CDC. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html. Accessed April 1, 2023.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of publication. “Title of Article.” Title of Magazine, month and date of publication.

Example : Smith, Mary. 2019. “The Power of Positive Thinking.” Psychology Today, March 2019.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of publication. “Title of Article.” Title of Newspaper, month and date of publication.

Example : Johnson, Bob. 2021. “New Study Shows Benefits of Exercise on Mental Health.” The New York Times, February 15, 2021.

Editor’s Last name, First name, ed. Year of publication. Title of Book. Place of publication: Publisher.

Example : Thompson, John P., ed. 2014. Social Work in the 21st Century. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of publication. “Title of Chapter.” In Title of Book, edited by Editor’s First Name Last Name, page numbers. Place of publication: Publisher.

Example : Johnson, Karen S. 2014. “The Future of Social Work: Challenges and Opportunities.” In Social Work in the 21st Century, edited by John P. Thompson, 105-118. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Vancouver Style

The Vancouver Style, also known as the Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals, is a widely used style for writing academic papers in the biomedical sciences. Here are the different reference formats in Vancouver Style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Book. Edition number. Place of publication: Publisher; Year of publication.

Example : Smith, John K. The Psychology of Social Interaction. 2nd ed. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell; 2005.

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Article. Abbreviated Journal Title. Year of publication; volume number(issue number):page numbers.

Example : Brown LM, Keating JG, Jones SM. The Role of Social Support in Coping with Stress among African American Adolescents. J Res Adolesc. 2012;22(1):218-233.

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Webpage. Website Name [Internet]. Publication date. [cited date]. Available from: URL.

Example : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. COVID-19: How to Protect Yourself and Others [Internet]. 2020 Dec 11. [cited 2023 Apr 1]. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html.

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Article. Title of Magazine. Year of publication; month and day of publication:page numbers.

Example : Smith M. The Power of Positive Thinking. Psychology Today. 2019 Mar 1:32-35.

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Article. Title of Newspaper. Year of publication; month and day of publication:page numbers.

Example : Johnson B. New Study Shows Benefits of Exercise on Mental Health. The New York Times. 2021 Feb 15:A4.

Editor’s Last name, First name, editor. Title of Book. Edition number. Place of publication: Publisher; Year of publication.

Example: Thompson JP, editor. Social Work in the 21st Century. 1st ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications; 2014.

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Chapter. In: Editor’s Last name, First name, editor. Title of Book. Edition number. Place of publication: Publisher; Year of publication. page numbers.

Example : Johnson KS. The Future of Social Work: Challenges and Opportunities. In: Thompson JP, editor. Social Work in the 21st Century. 1st ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications; 2014. p. 105-118.

Turabian Style

Turabian style is a variation of the Chicago style used in academic writing, particularly in the fields of history and humanities. Here are the different reference formats in Turabian style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Book. Place of publication: Publisher, Year of publication.

Example : Smith, John K. The Psychology of Social Interaction. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2005.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal volume number, no. issue number (Year of publication): page numbers.

Example : Brown, LM, Keating, JG, Jones, SM. “The Role of Social Support in Coping with Stress among African American Adolescents.” J Res Adolesc 22, no. 1 (2012): 218-233.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Webpage.” Name of Website. Publication date. Accessed date. URL.

Example : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “COVID-19: How to Protect Yourself and Others.” CDC. December 11, 2020. Accessed April 1, 2023. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Magazine, Month Day, Year of publication, page numbers.

Example : Smith, M. “The Power of Positive Thinking.” Psychology Today, March 1, 2019, 32-35.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Newspaper, Month Day, Year of publication.

Example : Johnson, B. “New Study Shows Benefits of Exercise on Mental Health.” The New York Times, February 15, 2021.

Editor’s Last name, First name, ed. Title of Book. Place of publication: Publisher, Year of publication.

Example : Thompson, JP, ed. Social Work in the 21st Century. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2014.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Chapter.” In Title of Book, edited by Editor’s Last name, First name, page numbers. Place of publication: Publisher, Year of publication.

Example : Johnson, KS. “The Future of Social Work: Challenges and Opportunities.” In Social Work in the 21st Century, edited by Thompson, JP, 105-118. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2014.

IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) Style

IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) style is commonly used in engineering, computer science, and other technical fields. Here are the different reference formats in IEEE style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Book Title. Place of Publication: Publisher, Year of publication.

Example : Oppenheim, A. V., & Schafer, R. W. Discrete-Time Signal Processing. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2010.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Abbreviated Journal Title, vol. number, no. issue number, pp. page numbers, Month year of publication.

Example: Shannon, C. E. “A Mathematical Theory of Communication.” Bell System Technical Journal, vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 379-423, July 1948.

Conference paper

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Paper.” In Title of Conference Proceedings, Place of Conference, Date of Conference, pp. page numbers, Year of publication.

Example: Gupta, S., & Kumar, P. “An Improved System of Linear Discriminant Analysis for Face Recognition.” In Proceedings of the 2011 International Conference on Computer Science and Network Technology, Harbin, China, Dec. 2011, pp. 144-147.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Webpage.” Name of Website. Date of publication or last update. Accessed date. URL.

Example : National Aeronautics and Space Administration. “Apollo 11.” NASA. July 20, 1969. Accessed April 1, 2023. https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/apollo11.html.

Technical report

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Report.” Name of Institution or Organization, Report number, Year of publication.

Example : Smith, J. R. “Development of a New Solar Panel Technology.” National Renewable Energy Laboratory, NREL/TP-6A20-51645, 2011.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Patent.” Patent number, Issue date.

Example : Suzuki, H. “Method of Producing Carbon Nanotubes.” US Patent 7,151,019, December 19, 2006.

Standard Title. Standard number, Publication date.

Example : IEEE Standard for Floating-Point Arithmetic. IEEE Std 754-2008, August 29, 2008

ACS (American Chemical Society) Style

ACS (American Chemical Society) style is commonly used in chemistry and related fields. Here are the different reference formats in ACS style:

Author’s Last name, First name; Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Article. Abbreviated Journal Title Year, Volume, Page Numbers.

Example : Wang, Y.; Zhao, X.; Cui, Y.; Ma, Y. Facile Preparation of Fe3O4/graphene Composites Using a Hydrothermal Method for High-Performance Lithium Ion Batteries. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2012, 4, 2715-2721.

Author’s Last name, First name. Book Title; Publisher: Place of Publication, Year of Publication.

Example : Carey, F. A. Organic Chemistry; McGraw-Hill: New York, 2008.

Author’s Last name, First name. Chapter Title. In Book Title; Editor’s Last name, First name, Ed.; Publisher: Place of Publication, Year of Publication; Volume number, Chapter number, Page Numbers.

Example : Grossman, R. B. Analytical Chemistry of Aerosols. In Aerosol Measurement: Principles, Techniques, and Applications; Baron, P. A.; Willeke, K., Eds.; Wiley-Interscience: New York, 2001; Chapter 10, pp 395-424.

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Webpage. Website Name, URL (accessed date).

Example : National Institute of Standards and Technology. Atomic Spectra Database. https://www.nist.gov/pml/atomic-spectra-database (accessed April 1, 2023).

Author’s Last name, First name. Patent Number. Patent Date.

Example : Liu, Y.; Huang, H.; Chen, H.; Zhang, W. US Patent 9,999,999, December 31, 2022.

Author’s Last name, First name; Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Article. In Title of Conference Proceedings, Publisher: Place of Publication, Year of Publication; Volume Number, Page Numbers.

Example : Jia, H.; Xu, S.; Wu, Y.; Wu, Z.; Tang, Y.; Huang, X. Fast Adsorption of Organic Pollutants by Graphene Oxide. In Proceedings of the 15th International Conference on Environmental Science and Technology, American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017; Volume 1, pp 223-228.

AMA (American Medical Association) Style

AMA (American Medical Association) style is commonly used in medical and scientific fields. Here are the different reference formats in AMA style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Article Title. Journal Abbreviation. Year; Volume(Issue):Page Numbers.

Example : Jones, R. A.; Smith, B. C. The Role of Vitamin D in Maintaining Bone Health. JAMA. 2019;321(17):1765-1773.

Author’s Last name, First name. Book Title. Edition number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year.

Example : Guyton, A. C.; Hall, J. E. Textbook of Medical Physiology. 13th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders; 2015.

Author’s Last name, First name. Chapter Title. In: Editor’s Last name, First name, ed. Book Title. Edition number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year: Page Numbers.

Example: Rajakumar, K. Vitamin D and Bone Health. In: Holick, M. F., ed. Vitamin D: Physiology, Molecular Biology, and Clinical Applications. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Springer; 2010:211-222.

Author’s Last name, First name. Webpage Title. Website Name. URL. Published date. Updated date. Accessed date.

Example : National Cancer Institute. Breast Cancer Prevention (PDQ®)–Patient Version. National Cancer Institute. https://www.cancer.gov/types/breast/patient/breast-prevention-pdq. Published October 11, 2022. Accessed April 1, 2023.

Author’s Last name, First name. Conference presentation title. In: Conference Title; Conference Date; Place of Conference.

Example : Smith, J. R. Vitamin D and Bone Health: A Meta-Analysis. In: Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the American Society for Bone and Mineral Research; September 20-23, 2022; San Diego, CA.

Thesis or dissertation

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Thesis or Dissertation. Degree level [Doctoral dissertation or Master’s thesis]. University Name; Year.

Example : Wilson, S. A. The Effects of Vitamin D Supplementation on Bone Health in Postmenopausal Women [Doctoral dissertation]. University of California, Los Angeles; 2018.

ASCE (American Society of Civil Engineers) Style

The ASCE (American Society of Civil Engineers) style is commonly used in civil engineering fields. Here are the different reference formats in ASCE style:

Author’s Last name, First name. “Article Title.” Journal Title, volume number, issue number (year): page numbers. DOI or URL (if available).

Example : Smith, J. R. “Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Sustainable Drainage Systems in Urban Areas.” Journal of Environmental Engineering, vol. 146, no. 3 (2020): 04020010. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EE.1943-7870.0001668.

Example : McCuen, R. H. Hydrologic Analysis and Design. 4th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education; 2013.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Chapter Title.” In: Editor’s Last name, First name, ed. Book Title. Edition number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year: page numbers.

Example : Maidment, D. R. “Floodplain Management in the United States.” In: Shroder, J. F., ed. Treatise on Geomorphology. San Diego, CA: Academic Press; 2013: 447-460.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Paper Title.” In: Conference Title; Conference Date; Location. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year: page numbers.

Example: Smith, J. R. “Sustainable Drainage Systems for Urban Areas.” In: Proceedings of the ASCE International Conference on Sustainable Infrastructure; November 6-9, 2019; Los Angeles, CA. Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers; 2019: 156-163.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Report Title.” Report number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year.

Example : U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. “Hurricane Sandy Coastal Risk Reduction Program, New York and New Jersey.” Report No. P-15-001. Washington, DC: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers; 2015.

CSE (Council of Science Editors) Style

The CSE (Council of Science Editors) style is commonly used in the scientific and medical fields. Here are the different reference formats in CSE style:

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. “Article Title.” Journal Title. Year;Volume(Issue):Page numbers.

Example : Smith, J.R. “Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Sustainable Drainage Systems in Urban Areas.” Journal of Environmental Engineering. 2020;146(3):04020010.

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. Book Title. Edition number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year.

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. “Chapter Title.” In: Editor’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial., ed. Book Title. Edition number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year:Page numbers.

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. “Paper Title.” In: Conference Title; Conference Date; Location. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year.

Example : Smith, J.R. “Sustainable Drainage Systems for Urban Areas.” In: Proceedings of the ASCE International Conference on Sustainable Infrastructure; November 6-9, 2019; Los Angeles, CA. Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers; 2019.

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. “Report Title.” Report number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year.

Bluebook Style

The Bluebook style is commonly used in the legal field for citing legal documents and sources. Here are the different reference formats in Bluebook style:

Case citation

Case name, volume source page (Court year).

Example : Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954).

Statute citation

Name of Act, volume source § section number (year).

Example : Clean Air Act, 42 U.S.C. § 7401 (1963).

Regulation citation

Name of regulation, volume source § section number (year).

Example: Clean Air Act, 40 C.F.R. § 52.01 (2019).

Book citation

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. Book Title. Edition number (if applicable). Place of Publication: Publisher; Year.

Example: Smith, J.R. Legal Writing and Analysis. 3rd ed. New York, NY: Aspen Publishers; 2015.

Journal article citation

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. “Article Title.” Journal Title. Volume number (year): first page-last page.

Example: Garcia, C. “The Right to Counsel: An International Comparison.” International Journal of Legal Information. 43 (2015): 63-94.

Website citation

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. “Page Title.” Website Title. URL (accessed month day, year).

Example : United Nations. “Universal Declaration of Human Rights.” United Nations. https://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/ (accessed January 3, 2023).

Oxford Style

The Oxford style, also known as the Oxford referencing system or the documentary-note citation system, is commonly used in the humanities, including literature, history, and philosophy. Here are the different reference formats in Oxford style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Book Title. Place of Publication: Publisher, Year of Publication.

Example : Smith, John. The Art of Writing. New York: Penguin, 2020.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Article Title.” Journal Title volume, no. issue (year): page range.

Example: Garcia, Carlos. “The Role of Ethics in Philosophy.” Philosophy Today 67, no. 3 (2019): 53-68.

Chapter in an edited book citation

Author’s Last name, First name. “Chapter Title.” In Book Title, edited by Editor’s Name, page range. Place of Publication: Publisher, Year of Publication.

Example : Lee, Mary. “Feminism in the 21st Century.” In The Oxford Handbook of Feminism, edited by Jane Smith, 51-69. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Page Title.” Website Title. URL (accessed day month year).

Example : Jones, David. “The Importance of Learning Languages.” Oxford Language Center. https://www.oxfordlanguagecenter.com/importance-of-learning-languages/ (accessed 3 January 2023).

Dissertation or thesis citation

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Dissertation/Thesis.” PhD diss., University Name, Year of Publication.

Example : Brown, Susan. “The Art of Storytelling in American Literature.” PhD diss., University of Oxford, 2020.

Newspaper article citation

Author’s Last name, First name. “Article Title.” Newspaper Title, Month Day, Year.

Example : Robinson, Andrew. “New Developments in Climate Change Research.” The Guardian, September 15, 2022.

AAA (American Anthropological Association) Style

The American Anthropological Association (AAA) style is commonly used in anthropology research papers and journals. Here are the different reference formats in AAA style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. Book Title. Place of Publication: Publisher.

Example : Smith, John. 2019. The Anthropology of Food. New York: Routledge.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. “Article Title.” Journal Title volume, no. issue: page range.

Example : Garcia, Carlos. 2021. “The Role of Ethics in Anthropology.” American Anthropologist 123, no. 2: 237-251.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. “Chapter Title.” In Book Title, edited by Editor’s Name, page range. Place of Publication: Publisher.

Example: Lee, Mary. 2018. “Feminism in Anthropology.” In The Oxford Handbook of Feminism, edited by Jane Smith, 51-69. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. “Page Title.” Website Title. URL (accessed day month year).

Example : Jones, David. 2020. “The Importance of Learning Languages.” Oxford Language Center. https://www.oxfordlanguagecenter.com/importance-of-learning-languages/ (accessed January 3, 2023).

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. “Title of Dissertation/Thesis.” PhD diss., University Name.

Example : Brown, Susan. 2022. “The Art of Storytelling in Anthropology.” PhD diss., University of California, Berkeley.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. “Article Title.” Newspaper Title, Month Day.

Example : Robinson, Andrew. 2021. “New Developments in Anthropology Research.” The Guardian, September 15.

AIP (American Institute of Physics) Style

The American Institute of Physics (AIP) style is commonly used in physics research papers and journals. Here are the different reference formats in AIP style:

Example : Johnson, S. D. 2021. “Quantum Computing and Information.” Journal of Applied Physics 129, no. 4: 043102.

Example : Feynman, Richard. 2018. The Feynman Lectures on Physics. New York: Basic Books.

Example : Jones, David. 2020. “The Future of Quantum Computing.” In The Handbook of Physics, edited by John Smith, 125-136. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Conference proceedings citation

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. “Title of Paper.” Proceedings of Conference Name, date and location: page range. Place of Publication: Publisher.

Example : Chen, Wei. 2019. “The Applications of Nanotechnology in Solar Cells.” Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Nanotechnology, July 15-17, Tokyo, Japan: 224-229. New York: AIP Publishing.

Example : American Institute of Physics. 2022. “About AIP Publishing.” AIP Publishing. https://publishing.aip.org/about-aip-publishing/ (accessed January 3, 2023).

Patent citation

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. Patent Number.

Example : Smith, John. 2018. US Patent 9,873,644.

References Writing Guide

Here are some general guidelines for writing references:

• Follow the citation style guidelines: Different disciplines and journals may require different citation styles (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago). It is important to follow the specific guidelines for the citation style required.
• Include all necessary information : Each citation should include enough information for readers to locate the source. For example, a journal article citation should include the author(s), title of the article, journal title, volume number, issue number, page numbers, and publication year.
• Use proper formatting: Citation styles typically have specific formatting requirements for different types of sources. Make sure to follow the proper formatting for each citation.
• Order citations alphabetically: If listing multiple sources, they should be listed alphabetically by the author’s last name.
• Be consistent: Use the same citation style throughout the entire paper or project.
• Check for accuracy: Double-check all citations to ensure accuracy, including correct spelling of author names and publication information.
• Use reputable sources: When selecting sources to cite, choose reputable and authoritative sources. Avoid sources that are biased or unreliable.
• Include all sources: Make sure to include all sources used in the research, including those that were not directly quoted but still informed the work.
• Use online tools : There are online tools available (e.g., citation generators) that can help with formatting and organizing references.

Purpose of References in Research

References in research serve several purposes:

• To give credit to the original authors or sources of information used in the research. It is important to acknowledge the work of others and avoid plagiarism.
• To provide evidence for the claims made in the research. References can support the arguments, hypotheses, or conclusions presented in the research by citing relevant studies, data, or theories.
• To allow readers to find and verify the sources used in the research. References provide the necessary information for readers to locate and access the sources cited in the research, which allows them to evaluate the quality and reliability of the information presented.
• To situate the research within the broader context of the field. References can show how the research builds on or contributes to the existing body of knowledge, and can help readers to identify gaps in the literature that the research seeks to address.

Importance of References in Research

References play an important role in research for several reasons:

• Credibility : By citing authoritative sources, references lend credibility to the research and its claims. They provide evidence that the research is based on a sound foundation of knowledge and has been carefully researched.
• Avoidance of Plagiarism : References help researchers avoid plagiarism by giving credit to the original authors or sources of information. This is important for ethical reasons and also to avoid legal repercussions.
• Reproducibility : References allow others to reproduce the research by providing detailed information on the sources used. This is important for verification of the research and for others to build on the work.
• Context : References provide context for the research by situating it within the broader body of knowledge in the field. They help researchers to understand where their work fits in and how it builds on or contributes to existing knowledge.
• Evaluation : References provide a means for others to evaluate the research by allowing them to assess the quality and reliability of the sources used.

Advantages of References in Research

There are several advantages of including references in research:

• Acknowledgment of Sources: Including references gives credit to the authors or sources of information used in the research. This is important to acknowledge the original work and avoid plagiarism.
• Evidence and Support : References can provide evidence to support the arguments, hypotheses, or conclusions presented in the research. This can add credibility and strength to the research.
• Reproducibility : References provide the necessary information for others to reproduce the research. This is important for the verification of the research and for others to build on the work.
• Context : References can help to situate the research within the broader body of knowledge in the field. This helps researchers to understand where their work fits in and how it builds on or contributes to existing knowledge.
• Evaluation : Including references allows others to evaluate the research by providing a means to assess the quality and reliability of the sources used.
• Ongoing Conversation: References allow researchers to engage in ongoing conversations and debates within their fields. They can show how the research builds on or contributes to the existing body of knowledge.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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• What is Educational Research? + [Types, Scope & Importance]

Education is an integral aspect of every society and in a bid to expand the frontiers of knowledge, educational research must become a priority. Educational research plays a vital role in the overall development of pedagogy, learning programs, and policy formulation. 

Educational research is a spectrum that bothers on multiple fields of knowledge and this means that it draws from different disciplines. As a result of this, the findings of this research are multi-dimensional and can be restricted by the characteristics of the research participants and the research environment. 

What is Educational Research?

Educational research is a type of systematic investigation that applies empirical methods to solving challenges in education. It adopts rigorous and well-defined scientific processes in order to gather and analyze data for problem-solving and knowledge advancement. 

J. W. Best defines educational research as that activity that is directed towards the development of a science of behavior in educational situations. The ultimate aim of such a science is to provide knowledge that will permit the educator to achieve his goals through the most effective methods.

The primary purpose of educational research is to expand the existing body of knowledge by providing solutions to different problems in pedagogy while improving teaching and learning practices. Educational researchers also seek answers to questions bothering on learner motivation, development, and classroom management. 

Characteristics of Education Research  

While educational research can take numerous forms and approaches, several characteristics define its process and approach. Some of them are listed below:

• It sets out to solve a specific problem.
• Educational research adopts primary and secondary research methods in its data collection process . This means that in educational research, the investigator relies on first-hand sources of information and secondary data to arrive at a suitable conclusion. 
• Educational research relies on empirical evidence . This results from its largely scientific approach.
• Educational research is objective and accurate because it measures verifiable information.
• In educational research, the researcher adopts specific methodologies, detailed procedures, and analysis to arrive at the most objective responses
• Educational research findings are useful in the development of principles and theories that provide better insights into pressing issues.
• This research approach combines structured, semi-structured, and unstructured questions to gather verifiable data from respondents.
• Many educational research findings are documented for peer review before their presentation. 
• Educational research is interdisciplinary in nature because it draws from different fields and studies complex factual relations.

Types of Educational Research 

Educational research can be broadly categorized into 3 which are descriptive research , correlational research , and experimental research . Each of these has distinct and overlapping features. 

Descriptive Educational Research

In this type of educational research, the researcher merely seeks to collect data with regards to the status quo or present situation of things. The core of descriptive research lies in defining the state and characteristics of the research subject being understudied. 

Because of its emphasis on the “what” of the situation, descriptive research can be termed an observational research method . In descriptive educational research, the researcher makes use of quantitative research methods including surveys and questionnaires to gather the required data.

Typically, descriptive educational research is the first step in solving a specific problem. Here are a few examples of descriptive research: 

• A reading program to help you understand student literacy levels.
• A study of students’ classroom performance.
• Research to gather data on students’ interests and preferences. 

From these examples, you would notice that the researcher does not need to create a simulation of the natural environment of the research subjects; rather, he or she observes them as they engage in their routines. Also, the researcher is not concerned with creating a causal relationship between the research variables. 

Correlational Educational Research

This is a type of educational research that seeks insights into the statistical relationship between two research variables. In correlational research, the researcher studies two variables intending to establish a connection between them. 

Correlational research can be positive, negative, or non-existent. Positive correlation occurs when an increase in variable A leads to an increase in variable B, while negative correlation occurs when an increase in variable A results in a decrease in variable B. 

When a change in any of the variables does not trigger a succeeding change in the other, then the correlation is non-existent. Also, in correlational educational research, the research does not need to alter the natural environment of the variables; that is, there is no need for external conditioning. 

Examples of educational correlational research include: 

• Research to discover the relationship between students’ behaviors and classroom performance.
• A study into the relationship between students’ social skills and their learning behaviors. 

Experimental Educational Research

Experimental educational research is a research approach that seeks to establish the causal relationship between two variables in the research environment. It adopts quantitative research methods in order to determine the cause and effect in terms of the research variables being studied. 

Experimental educational research typically involves two groups – the control group and the experimental group. The researcher introduces some changes to the experimental group such as a change in environment or a catalyst, while the control group is left in its natural state. 

The introduction of these catalysts allows the researcher to determine the causative factor(s) in the experiment. At the core of experimental educational research lies the formulation of a hypothesis and so, the overall research design relies on statistical analysis to approve or disprove this hypothesis.

Examples of Experimental Educational Research

• A study to determine the best teaching and learning methods in a school.
• A study to understand how extracurricular activities affect the learning process. 

Based on functionality, educational research can be classified into fundamental research , applied research , and action research. The primary purpose of fundamental research is to provide insights into the research variables; that is, to gain more knowledge. Fundamental research does not solve any specific problems. 

Just as the name suggests, applied research is a research approach that seeks to solve specific problems. Findings from applied research are useful in solving practical challenges in the educational sector such as improving teaching methods, modifying learning curricula, and simplifying pedagogy. 

Action research is tailored to solve immediate problems that are specific to a context such as educational challenges in a local primary school. The goal of action research is to proffer solutions that work in this context and to solve general or universal challenges in the educational sector. 

Importance of Educational Research

• Educational research plays a crucial role in knowledge advancement across different fields of study. 
• It provides answers to practical educational challenges using scientific methods.
• Findings from educational research; especially applied research, are instrumental in policy reformulation. 
• For the researcher and other parties involved in this research approach, educational research improves learning, knowledge, skills, and understanding.
• Educational research improves teaching and learning methods by empowering you with data to help you teach and lead more strategically and effectively.
• Educational research helps students apply their knowledge to practical situations.

Educational Research Methods 

• Surveys/Questionnaires

A survey is a research method that is used to collect data from a predetermined audience about a specific research context. It usually consists of a set of standardized questions that help you to gain insights into the experiences, thoughts, and behaviors of the audience. 

Surveys can be administered physically using paper forms, face-to-face conversations, telephone conversations, or online forms. Online forms are easier to administer because they help you to collect accurate data and to also reach a larger sample size. Creating your online survey on data-gathering platforms like Formplus allows you to.also analyze survey respondent’s data easily. 

In order to gather accurate data via your survey, you must first identify the research context and the research subjects that would make up your data sample size. Next, you need to choose an online survey tool like Formplus to help you create and administer your survey with little or no hassles. 

An interview is a qualitative data collection method that helps you to gather information from respondents by asking questions in a conversation. It is typically a face-to-face conversation with the research subjects in order to gather insights that will prove useful to the specific research context. 

Interviews can be structured, semi-structured , or unstructured . A structured interview is a type of interview that follows a premeditated sequence; that is, it makes use of a set of standardized questions to gather information from the research subjects. 

An unstructured interview is a type of interview that is fluid; that is, it is non-directive. During a structured interview, the researcher does not make use of a set of predetermined questions rather, he or she spontaneously asks questions to gather relevant data from the respondents. 

A semi-structured interview is the mid-point between structured and unstructured interviews. Here, the researcher makes use of a set of standardized questions yet, he or she still makes inquiries outside these premeditated questions as dedicated by the flow of the conversations in the research context. 

Data from Interviews can be collected using audio recorders, digital cameras, surveys, and questionnaires. 

• Observation

Observation is a method of data collection that entails systematically selecting, watching, listening, reading, touching, and recording behaviors and characteristics of living beings, objects, or phenomena. In the classroom, teachers can adopt this method to understand students’ behaviors in different contexts. 

Observation can be qualitative or quantitative in approach . In quantitative observation, the researcher aims at collecting statistical information from respondents and in qualitative information, the researcher aims at collecting qualitative data from respondents. 

Qualitative observation can further be classified into participant or non-participant observation. In participant observation, the researcher becomes a part of the research environment and interacts with the research subjects to gather info about their behaviors. In non-participant observation, the researcher does not actively take part in the research environment; that is, he or she is a passive observer. 

How to Create Surveys and Questionnaires with Formplus

• On your dashboard, choose the “create new form” button to access the form builder. You can also choose from the available survey templates and modify them to suit your need.
• Save your online survey to access the form customization section. Here, you can change the physical appearance of your form by adding preferred background images and inserting your organization’s logo.
• Formplus has a form analytics dashboard that allows you to view insights from your data collection process such as the total number of form views and form submissions. You can also use the reports summary tool to generate custom graphs and charts from your survey data. 

Steps in Educational Research

Like other types of research, educational research involves several steps. Following these steps allows the researcher to gather objective information and arrive at valid findings that are useful to the research context. 

• Define the research problem clearly. 
• Formulate your hypothesis. A hypothesis is the researcher’s reasonable guess based on the available evidence, which he or she seeks to prove in the course of the research.
• Determine the methodology to be adopted. Educational research methods include interviews, surveys, and questionnaires.
• Collect data from the research subjects using one or more educational research methods. You can collect research data using Formplus forms.
• Analyze and interpret your data to arrive at valid findings. In the Formplus analytics dashboard, you can view important data collection insights and you can also create custom visual reports with the reports summary tool. 
• Create your research report. A research report details the entire process of the systematic investigation plus the research findings. 

Conclusion 

Educational research is crucial to the overall advancement of different fields of study and learning, as a whole. Data in educational research can be gathered via surveys and questionnaires, observation methods, or interviews – structured, unstructured, and semi-structured. 

You can create a survey/questionnaire for educational research with Formplu s. As a top-tier data tool, Formplus makes it easy for you to create your educational research survey in the drag-and-drop form builder, and share this with survey respondents using one or more of the form sharing options. 

Connect to Formplus, Get Started Now - It's Free!

• education research
• educational research types
• examples of educational research
• importance of educational research
• purpose of educational research
• busayo.longe

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Research in Education

• Lit Review - Best Sources
• Books and Dissertations
• Interlibrary Loan
• How-To for Google Scholar
• How-To for ERIC (EBSCO)
• How-To for ERIC (Free)
• How-To for APA PsycInfo
• How-To for OneSearch
• Is it Peer Reviewed?
• Finding the DOI

APA Citations

• Purdue OWL Citing online journal articles and books.
• APA Style Blog Citation advice from APA itself.
• How to Use the New DOI Format in APA Style Sage advice on DOI from APA

Annotated Bibliographies

• Bethel University Library Example of an annotated bibliography in APA style.
• Cornell University One APA and one MLA example.
• Purdue OWL General advice for annotated bibliographies.
• Writing Center at UNC-Chapel Hill Multiple examples. Note - none of the examples include online research articles.

Contact Your Librarian

APA 7th - from APA (American Psychological Association)

• APA 7th Quick Guide
• APA Style Reference Examples From APA : A guide to creating references for a wide-variety of formats.
• APA In-Text Citations From APA : A guide to creating in-text citations for a wide-variety of formats. Advice on paraphrasing, quotations, and plagiarism.
• APA Paper Format From APA: A guide to headings, margins, paragraph indentation, spacing, and title page format,
• APA Sample Papers From APA: A sample professional paper and a sample student paper.

APA 7th - Purdue OWL

• Citing Journal Articles (Purdue OWL)
• Headings - APA 7th (Purdue OWL)
• In-Text Citations - APA 7th - Basics (Purdue OWL)
• In-Text Citations - APA 7th - More than one author (Purdue OWL)
• Sample Paper - APA 7th (Purdue OWL) Both a sample professional paper and a sample student paper are available.
• Tables and Figures - APA 7th (Purdue OWL)

Examples of APA Citations for Journal Articles

Citing journal articles in APA 7th with a Direct Object Identifier (DOI).

(Reminder - find the DOI with CrossRef ).

Alkharusi, H. (2017). Predicting students’ academic achievement: Contributions of perceptions of classroom assessment tasks and motivated learning strategies. Electronic Journal of Research in Education Psychology 14 (40) 515-533. https://doi.org/10.14204/ejrep.40.15177

Kjeldsen, T. H., & Blomhøj, M. (2012). Beyond motivation: History as a method for learning meta-discursive rules in mathematics. Educational Studies in Mathematics , 80 (3), 327-349. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10649-011-9352-z

Weidinger, A. F., Steinmayr, R., & Spinath, B. (2017). Math grades and intrinsic motivation in elementary school: A longitudinal investigation of their association. British Journal of Educational Psychology , 87 (2), 187-204. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12143

For articles without a Direct Object Identifier ( CrossRef does not find a DOI for this article) simply use the web address (URL) associated with the article.

Pourdavood, R. G., Grob, S., Clark, J., & Orr, H. (1999). Discourse and professional growth: Processes, relationships, dilemmas, and hope. School Community Journal , 9 (1), 33-48. http://www.adi.org/journal/ss99/PourdavoodGrobClarkOrrSpring1999.pdf

Examples of APA 7th Citations for Books and Book Chapters

Citing Books and Chapters of Books

APA 7th guidelines:

Treat the authors, date, and title as before (with the title in italics).

APA 7th requires an edition number after the title e.g. (4th ed) but this is not in italics.

APA 7th no longer requires a “place of publication” - just the name of the publisher.

APA 7th - For ebooks only use a DOI if it exists. Only use a URL if:

• the book does not have a DOI 
• the URL is NOT from an academic research database . 

For an entire book in print cite as follows:

Carr, M. (1996). Motivation in mathematics . Hampton Press.

For a chapter from a book in print cite as follows:

Dorfler, W. (1999). Mathematics provides tools for thinking and communicating. In C. Hoyles, C. Morgan, & G. Woodhouse (Eds.), Rethinking the mathematics curriculum (pp. 75-86). Falmer Press. 

For an entire ebook (that does not have a DOI) cite as follows:

Hall, N. C. & Goetz, T. (2013). Emotion, motivation, and self-regulation: A handbook for teachers . Emerald Group Publishing. https://northern-iowau-primo.hosted.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/f/1a1g5a8/01NRTHIOW_ALMA51128858790002841

For a chapter from an ebook that has a DOI cite as follows:

Harackiewicz, J., Tibbetts, Y., Canning, E., & Hyde, J. (2014). Harnessing values to promote motivation in education. In S. Karabenick & T. Urdan (Eds.), Motivational interventions (pp. 71-105). Emerald Group Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1108/s0749-742320140000018002

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• Last Updated: Aug 22, 2023 3:29 PM
• URL: https://guides.lib.uni.edu/education-research

Educational Research

• Library Resources
• MUSC Resources

What is educational research?

Getting started, tools for identifying a problem, planning your literature search, developing a purpose statement, developing research questions.

• Research Design
• Collecting and Analyzing Data
• Report Findings
• Funding Opportunities
• Gratitude in Education

According to Gary Anderson and Nancy Arsenault, there are ten characteristics of educational research (2002) .

• Educational research attempts to solve a problem.
• Research involves gathering new data from primary of first-hand sources or using existing data for a new purpose.
• Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence.
• Research demands accurate observation and description.
• Research generally employs carefully designed procedures and rigorous analysis.
• Research emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles or theories that will help in understanding, prediction and/or control.
• Research requires expertise- familiarity with the field; competence in methodology; technical skill in collecting and analyzing data.
• Research attempts to find an objective, unbiased solution to the problem and takes great pains to validate the procedures employed.
• Research is a deliberate but unhurried activity which is directional but often refines the problem or questions as the research progresses.
• Research is carefully recorded and reported to other persons interested in the problem.

Image was created by Emily Jones and adapted from 2017 blog post by Mansureh Kebritchi.

Fishbone Diagram

(Colorado Department of Education, n.d.) 

• Fishbone Diagram for Educational Research This PDF is a fishbone diagram designed to help you find the root cause of an educational problem. This PDF has been developed by the MUSC Libraries and ITFR to assist you in identifying a problem.

Mind Mapping

Mind mapping can be a helpful tool for brainstorming. Mind mapping can be applied to problems, solutions, or both!

• Coggle- Mind Mapping Chrome Extension Coggle is an online tool for creating and sharing mindmaps. It works online in your browser: there's nothing to download or install.
• Canva- Free Mind Map Maker With Canva’s free online Mind Map maker, you can easily create a beautiful Mind Map design. Our team of amazing designers have created professional templates that you can quickly edit and customize.

Other Tools:

• Lean Six Sigma Tools A website describing Lean Six Sigma Tools; also contains helpful resources

Searching the literature is necessary when conducting research. Literature helps you understand the information available on the topic, but to also helps ensure you will not be "reinventing the wheel". 

• Planning Literature Searches Worksheet This worksheet was developed to assist you in planning a literature search

Purpose statements provide direction and focus for your research study (Creswell, 2015).

Characteristics of a good research purpose statement (Anderson & Aresenault, 2002): 

• The problem can be stated clearly and concisely.
• The problem generates research questions.
• It is grounded in theory.
• It relates to one or more academic fields of study.
• It has a base in the research literature.
• It has potential significance/ importance.
• It is do-able within the time frame, budget.
• Sufficient data are available or can be obtained.
• The researcher’s methodological strengths can be applied to the problem.
• The problem is new; it is not already answered sufficiently.

Example: The purpose of this study is to determine ____________________________________________________

Research questions help narrow the purpose and should be developed before determining study design and methods (Creswell, 2015).

Apply the FINER criteria for developing a good research question (Hulley et al, 2013):

Examples: 

• What are the students' attitudes towards a flipped classroom?
• How does flipping the classroom impact student performance on exams?
• Anderson, G., & Aresenault N. (2002).  Fundamentals of educational research.  2 nd  ed. Philadelphia, PA: Taylor & Francis Inc.
• Colorado Department of Education. (n.d.) Root cause analysis toolkit . Retrieved from https://www.cde.state.co.us/sites/default/files/documents/uip/downloads/rootcauseanalysis_trainingmaterials/rca2.0combinedpacket.pdf
• Cresswell, J. (2015).  Educational research: planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research.  5th ed. Boston, MA: Pearson Education.
• Hulley et al. (2013).  Designing clinical research.  Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott, Williams, & Wilkins.
• Kebritchi, M. (2017). How to identify an appropriate research problem. Retrieved from https://research.phoenix.edu/blog/how-identify-appropriate-research-problem
• Tuckman, B.W. & Harper, B.E. (2012). Conducting educational research . Plymouth, UK: Rowan & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.
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• Next: Research Design >>
• Last Updated: Jun 27, 2024 12:33 PM
• URL: https://musc.libguides.com/researcheducation

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*Education*

• Find Articles

Reference Sources

• Workshop Links

These reference books provide a general overview of topics in education.

Dictionaries & Thesauri

Dictionaries in specialized areas give definitions of terms and phrases used within the field. Thesauri can provide alternative terms, narrower and broader terms, as well as the controlled subject terms used within the field. These can be very useful in crafting the language of your search before you start using the indexes & databases. You can search "education and dictionaries" as subject keywords in 1Search to find similar items. Some examples in the Valley Library include:

• Dictionary of multicultural education . Ref LC1099.D53 1997.
• A glossary of special education . Ref LC3986.G7 G551 1988
• Greenwood dictionary of education . Ref LB15.G68 2003.
• The Language of Learning: A Guide to Education Terms . Ref LB15 .M32 1997 A classic in the field of education; 33,000 entries and cross-references, covering technical and professional terms and concepts from the whole range of education and some related fields.
• Learning theories A to Z . Ref LB15.L4695 2002.

Encyclopedias

These can range from a single volume to many volumes. They contain short to lengthy articles about the topics within the field or subfield. They often provide bibliographies on the topic for further reading. A suggested search in 1Search is "education* and encyclopedia" as title keywords. Some examples include:

• Concise encyclopedia of special education . Ref LC4007.E53 2002
• Deskbook encyclopedia of American school law . Ref KF4114.D46 2002
• Encyclopedia of cognitive science . 4 vols. Ref BF311.E53 2003 An excellent overview of this broad field, defining it as "the scientific study of minds and brains, be they real, artificial, human or animal."
• Encyclopedia of early childhood education . Ref LB1139.25 .E53 1992 Brings together many perspectives on all aspects of early childhood education, the issues of child advocacy, and reflections on the changes affecting the development of the field. Includes references.
• Encyclopedia of Education. electronic resource Lengthy, comprehensive essays, of the institutions, people, processes, roles, and philosophies inherent in teaching practices. The work duly recognizes the increased importance of technology and economic forces, especially globalization. Be sure to browse and select the appropriate publication title, Encyclopedia of Education , when you get to the search screen.
• Encyclopedia of educational research . 4 vols. Ref LB15 .E48 1992 Summarizes relevant research on education theory and practice. This edition contains 257 signed articles with extensive indexes to acronyms, proper names, and specific topics. There is a special appendix titled "Doing Library Research in Education". Older editions provide retrospective coverage of the research literature.
• The Encyclopedia of higher education . 4 vols. Ref LB15 .E49 1992 More than 300 well-written, informative articles on current international knowledge about higher education. Comprehensive author & subject indexes provided in the 4th volume.
• Encyclopedia of mathematics education . Ref QA11.E665 2001
• World education encyclopedia: A survey of educational systems worldwide . 2nd ed. 3 vols. Ref LB15.W87 2002.

Handbooks & Directories

Typically handbooks provide an overview and suggest strategies and resources for doing research or finding information in the field. Directories usually provide lists of contact information. You can search "education and handbooks" or "education and directories" as subject keywords in 1Search to find these. Some examples include:

• American community colleges: a guide . Ref L901.A53 1995
• Cabell's directory of publishing opportunities in educational curriculum and methods . Ref Z286.E3 C332
• Directory of distance learning opportunities: K-12 . Ref LC5805.D515 2003
• Early childhood curriculum resource handbook: a practical guide for teaching early childhood (pre-K-3) . LB1139.4 .E175 1993
• Education for action: undergraduate and graduate programs that focus on social change . Ref H62 .E328 2001
• Educator's desk reference: a sourcebook of educational information and research . Ref LB1028.27.U6 F74 2002
• Educators resource directory. L901 .E443 Quick guide to education-related contacts including associations, publishers of educational materials and media, grants and financial aid opportunities, conferences and trade shows. An electronic version is available through the catalog although not as usable as the print version.
• A guide to journals in psychology and education . BF76.8.L65 1990
• Handbook of educational psychology. LB1051 .H2354 1996
• Handbook of gifted education . LC3993.9 .H35 1997
• Handbook of research on the education of young children. LB1119 .H25 1993
• Handbook of research on multicultural education . LC1099.3 .H35 1995
• The handbook of school psychology. LB1051 .H2356 1999
• Handbook of the sociology of education. LC191 .H254 2000
• Higher education service-learning sourcebook . Ref LC220.5 .C73 2002
• International handbook of mathematics education . Ref QA11.I67 2 pts. 1996
• Provides enrollment figures by grade, racial & ethnic populations, student-teacher ratio, etc for each U.S. school or district.
• Patterson's American education . L901 .P3 A guide to secondary and post-secondary schools (including private religious schools) in the U.S. and territories. Latest edition in Reference.
• Research-doctorate programs in the United States : continuity and change. Ref Q180 .N334 1995. Reports the results of an extensive study of 3,634 programs at 274 institutions in 41 disciplines within subject areas. This book updates and expands upon the widely used An Assessment of Research-Doctorate Programs in the United States , published in 1982
• Teacher education programs in the United States: a guide . LB1715.T424 2004
• The teacher educator's handbook : building a knowledge base for the preparation of teachers . LB1737.5.U5 T43 1996

Biographical Information

• Biographical dictionary of American educators . 3 vols. (1978) Ref LA2311 .B54 Biographical data on 1,665 U.S. educators from colonial times to 1976 (had to have retired or died by 1975 to be included). Efforts have been made to include women and minority educators. Useful appendices include important dates in U.S. education
• Directory of American scholars . 5 vols. (1999) Ref LA2311 .C15 With a focus on scholarship, this set profiles thousands ofU.S. & Canadian scholars who were active in teaching, research & publishing
• The National faculty directory . 3 vols. (2004) L901 .N34 Provides an alphabetical list of more than 615,000 members of teaching faculty at about 3,600 U.S. colleges & universities and about 240 Canadian institutions using English-language instructional materials. Latest edition in Reference.
• Who's who in American education . (1997) LA2311 .W47 Includes basic biographical data as well as writings and creative works, awards & fellowships, professional and association memberships, and addresses. Indexes by specialty. Latest edition in reference.

Yearbooks and Literature Reviews

These works typically review the research literature and topical developments for a year's time. These can be a good starting point for finding a research topic. Some examples include:

• Review of research in education . LB1028 .R43 Covers 1990-1999 Attempts to synthesize current research on selected topics. Its main purpose is to help improve theoretical work in education by examining what has been done and what still needs to be done. Articles on learning and instruction predominate.
• Review of educational research . L11 .R4 Covers 1931-present. Journal devoted to critical state-of-the-art essays; each issue contains 4-5 articles, some reporting original research but most presenting analyses of current educational research literature. Broad scope.
• Educational media and technology yearbook . LB1028.3 .E37 Covers 1985-2001 Covers previous year's trends and issues in the field of educational media and technology. Also serves as reporter for the seven major professional associations in N. America in the field. Reference section lists more than 200 professional organizations and associations in N. America and graduate programs in educational computing. Latest edition in Refence. 2000 edition available online.
• The Yearbook of education law. LB2514 .Y4 Covers 1988-2006 Provides bias-free summaries of state appellate court cases and federal trial and appellate court cases affecting the operation, management, and governance of elementary and secondary schools as well as post-secondary institutions. A subject index and table of cases end each volume.
• Digest of education statistics . L112 .A45 (annual) Contains information on a variety of subjects within the field of education statistics, including the number of schools and colleges, enrollments, teachers, graduates, educational attainment, finances, Federal funds for education, libraries, international education, and research and development. The most current edition is available online: Digest of Education Statistics .
• The atlas of American higher education . G1201.E68 F6 1993 (maps reference area) Unlike the traditional portrayal of data in the form of statistics, tables, and charts this visual approach provides the reader with a clear, concise understanding of higher education in this country and furnishes an overview of current trends. Clearly showing the influence of the fifty separate and distinct systems that make up American higher education, the Atlas presents dozens of maps on such topics as enrollment; students and faculty; cultural diversity; specialized institutions; two-year colleges; outcomes of higher education; student costs and student aid; and financing of higher education, as well as general background and summary chapters. It includes both public and private, two- and four-year institutions.
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Educational Research

Sample references, book references.

A reference for a basic book with one author:

Author, A.A. (1967). Title of book . Location: Publisher.

Gast, L.E. (2012). Mastering approaches to diversity in social work . Philadelphia: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

A chapter in an edited book:

Author, A.A., & Author, B.B. (1995). Title of chapter or entry. In A. Editor, B. Editor, & C. Editor (Eds.), Title of book (pp. xxx-xxx). Location: Publisher.

  Example:

Kayser, K. & Johnson, J.K. (2008). Divorce. In Mizrahi, T. & Davis, T.E. (Eds.), The encyclopedia of social work (pp. 76-85).   New York: National Association of Social Workers.

Website with Authors Identified

Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of document . Retrieved from http://Web address

Website with No Authors

When there is no author for a web page, the title moves to the first position of the reference entry.

Example of a website without an author:

National Institute of Mental Health. (2010). Retrieved from http://www.nimh.nih.gov/index.shtml

Journal References

A basic journal reference:

Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year). Title of article. Title of Periodical, xx , x-xx.

An electronic journal with a DOI

Author, A.A., Author, B.B., & Author, C.C. (year). Title of article. Title of Periodical , xx , x-xx. doi:xx.xxxxxxxxxx  

Edwards, H.R. & Hoefer, R. (2010). Are social work advocacy groups using web 2.0 effectively? Journal of Policy Practice , 9 , 220-229. doi:10.1080/15588742.2010.489037

What is a DOI?

A DOI (digital object identifier) is an article identification number provides a permanent url for an electronic resource. You can usually find the DOI   located on the first page of the electronic journal article, near the copyright notice.

Can't find the DOI of an electronic journal? Cite like this:

Author, A.A. (year) Title of article. Title of Periodical, x , xx-xx. Retrieved from: http://www.xxxx.ccc

Newspaper Articles

Print newspaper article:

Author, A. (1983, September 30). Title of article. Newspaper Title , pp. A1, A4.

Online newspaper article:

Author, A.A. (2009, December 11). Title of article. Newspaper Title . Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com

Wu, J.Q. (2010, August 22). Controlling emotion key to this game.  The Boston Globe. Retrieved from http://www.boston.com

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• Subjects: Education
• Tags: education , education_databases , educational_research , research_in_education , researching_education

Reference management. Clean and simple.

How to format your references using the Educational Research citation style

This is a short guide how to format citations and the bibliography in a manuscript for Educational Research. For a complete guide how to prepare your manuscript refer to the journal's instructions to authors .

• Using reference management software

Typically you don't format your citations and bibliography by hand. The easiest way is to use a reference manager:

• Journal articles

Those examples are references to articles in scholarly journals and how they are supposed to appear in your bibliography.

Not all journals organize their published articles in volumes and issues, so these fields are optional. Some electronic journals do not provide a page range, but instead list an article identifier. In a case like this it's safe to use the article identifier instead of the page range.

• Books and book chapters

Here are examples of references for authored and edited books as well as book chapters.

Sometimes references to web sites should appear directly in the text rather than in the bibliography. Refer to the Instructions to authors for Educational Research .

This example shows the general structure used for government reports, technical reports, and scientific reports. If you can't locate the report number then it might be better to cite the report as a book. For reports it is usually not individual people that are credited as authors, but a governmental department or agency like "U. S. Food and Drug Administration" or "National Cancer Institute".

• Theses and dissertations

Theses including Ph.D. dissertations, Master's theses or Bachelor theses follow the basic format outlined below.

• News paper articles

Unlike scholarly journals, news papers do not usually have a volume and issue number. Instead, the full date and page number is required for a correct reference.

• In-text citations

References should be cited in the text by name and year in parentheses :

Here are examples of in-text citations with multiple authors:

• Two authors: (Burghardt and Ajtai 2012)
• Three authors: (Zhang, Keleshian, and Sachs 2001)
• 4 or more authors: (Wang et al. 2017)
• About the journal

• Other styles
• Integration, the VLSI Journal
• Environment and Planning B, Planning & Design

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• > Effective Teaching and Successful Learning
• > References

Book contents

• Frontmatter
• Introduction
• 1 Main Features of Scientific Research on Education
• 2 Important Types of Scientific Research on Education
• 3 Main Features of Evidence-based Research on Education
• 4 Meta-Analyses on Education
• 5 A Synthesis of Over 800 Meta-Analyses Relating to Achievement
• 6 Scaffolding Effective Teaching and Successful Learning
• 7 Planning and Starting the Lesson
• 8 Presenting Knowledge and Skills – Assertive Questioning
• 9 Guided and Independent Practice
• 10 Cooperative and Project-based Learning
• 11 Feedback – Reciprocal and Informative
• Concluding Remarks: Standards Need More Evidence

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 June 2016

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• Inez De Florio , Universität Kassel, Germany
• Book: Effective Teaching and Successful Learning
• Online publication: 05 June 2016
• Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781316285596.015

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Microsoft 365 Life Hacks > Presentations > How to add citations to your presentation

How to add citations to your presentation

When you craft a formal presentation, you often have to conduct research. Any books, journals, and other forms of media used should be properly cited for your personal reference as well as for your audience. Learn how to create citations in a presentation to appropriately credit different works.

Why should you provide citations?

Information referenced from another source must be clearly cited. Proper citations serve as a roadmap for research, help track ideas, and establish credibility. Citations give credit to the original works and provide transparency for readers and their audience regarding the source.

Readers can access your sources and develop a deeper understanding of your research. They can also explore research from your respective discipline or industry. Additionally, researchers utilize citations to align their work with established experts and bolster the validity of their claims. Without citations, audiences may assume your idea is original, resulting in plagiarism. Acknowledging the intellectual contributions of others with proper citation fosters academic integrity and supports the advancement of ideas amongst scholars and researchers.

How to source citations in a presentations

To source citations effectively in presentations, consider the following:

• Identify your sources: Begin by identifying all the sources you have used in your research, including books, articles, websites, and any other relevant materials. Note the authors, publication dates, publisher, and other relevant information for citations.
• Include in-text citations: Incorporate in-text citations throughout your presentation slides to indicate when you are referencing external sources. This helps your audience understand the basis of your arguments and provides transparency regarding the origin of the information presented.
• Provide a reference list: At the end of your presentation, include a reference list that provides full bibliographic information for each source cited. This allows your audience to locate the original works for further reading and verification. Ensure your reference list adheres to the citation style used with your citations.
• Use visual aids: Consider using visual aids , such as infographics or posters , to display citations alongside the corresponding content. This helps reinforce the connection between the information presented and its original source.

Alternatively, you can also provide the references verbally throughout the presentation. This allows the audience to follow along with your presentation and directly reference sources as you present. If you are creating a presentation for a class, follow the instructions or preferences of your instructor. By doing so, you can ensure your citations are understood and appropriate for your audience.

Citations are a critical component of an effective presentation. Citations provide a roadmap for your research, credit the appropriate authors, and foster academic integrity. They’re easy to include in a presentation as in-text citations on your slides and as a reference list. Include citations to make sure you presentation credits the appropriate authors and strengthens its validity. For more help with preparing sources, research, and crafting presentations, learn more presentation tips .

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More From Forbes

Chatgpt is biased against resumes mentioning disability, research shows.

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(Photo by MARCO BERTORELLO / AFP) (Photo by MARCO BERTORELLO/AFP via Getty Images)

The practice of recruiters deploying artificial intelligence to scan and sort candidate resumes has become fairly common over the past few years. AI makes such tasks, previously undertaken by HR staff, more streamlined and efficient by being able to summarize large quantities of data, highlight desirable traits and spotlight red flags.

At the same time, numerous organizations representing the disability community have warned of the potential of the technology to discriminate against and exclude job seekers with disabilities due to superficial variations in how their resumes may appear when contrasted with the general population.

Now, researchers at the University of Washington have identified a fascinating new layer to these exclusionary dynamics by interrogating OpenAI’s ChatGPT on how references to disability influence how it ranks job candidate resumes.

To begin their investigation , researchers from UW’s Paul G. Allen School of Computer Science & Engineering used one of the study authors’ publicly available CVs as a control. The team then modified the control CV to create six variations with each one citing different disability-related credentials ranging from scholarships and awards to memberships on a diversity, equity and inclusion panel or student organization. Running ChatGPT’s GPT-4 model 10 times over to rank the modified CVs against the original version for a real-life “student researcher” job listing at a large software company – the results proved both eye-opening and deflating.

In virtually any other sphere, awards and participation in panels should be recognized as a net positive but due to their association with disability in this experiment across 60 trials, ChatGPT only ranked the disability-modified CVs ahead of the control one quarter of the time. This is in spite of the fact that, aside from the disability-related modifications, all other parts of the CV remained identical to the original.

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Of course, the beauty of a large language model like GPT-4 is the capacity for users to engage in human-like back-and-forth conversations with the chat interface and ask it more about how it reached its conclusions. In this experiment, ChatGPT appeared to make several discriminatory suppositions such as that an autism leadership award was likely to have “less emphasis on leadership roles.” It also determined that a candidate with depression had “additional focus on DEI and personal challenges,” which “detract from the core technical and research-oriented aspects of the role” even though no such challenges were explicitly detailed.

Explaining the uneasy relationship between AI algorithms and disability during a recent interview, Ariana Aboulafia the Center for Democracy and Technology’s Policy Counsel for Disability Rights in Technology says, “Algorithms and algorithmic systems are based on pattern recognition and a lot of folks with disabilities exist outside of a pattern.”

She continues, “These algorithmic systems may, to a certain extent, be inherently incompatible with creating an output that's not discriminatory against people with disabilities.”

Commenting on the UW project specifically, the project’s lead author Kate Glazko said, “Ranking resumes with AI is starting to proliferate, yet there’s not much research behind whether it’s safe and effective…. For a disabled job seeker, there’s always this question when you submit a resume of whether you should include disability credentials. I think disabled people consider that even when humans are the reviewers.

“People need to be aware of the system’s biases when using AI for these real-world tasks,” added Glazko.

The human touch

Nevertheless, the UW research did offer a glimmer of hope. The researchers were able to make the disability-related activity-modified CVs rank higher by using GPT-4’s editor function which allows users to add further customizations to the tool. In this instance, they asked GPT-4 to not exhibit ableist bias and to work with disability justice and DEI principles. With this tweak, bias for all but one of the disabilities tested improved with depression being the exception. CVs associated with deafness, blindness, cerebral palsy, autism and the general term “disability" all improved but only three ranked higher than resumes that didn't mention disability. Overall, this system ranked the disability-modified CVs higher than the control CV 37 times out of 60 after GPT-4 was instructed to be more inclusive.

This suggests that awareness amongst recruiters of the limitations of AI and having tools that can be trained and customized on DEI principles can be part of what remains a complex challenge when it comes to enhancing inclusivity in AI.

Another aspect is growing our understanding of this new and emerging area through more specific research as Senior research author and Allen School professor Jennifer Mankhoff explained:

“It is so important that we study and document these biases,” Mankoff said. “We’ve learned a lot from and will hopefully contribute back to a larger conversation — not only regarding disability but also other minoritized identities — around making sure technology is implemented and deployed in ways that are equitable and fair.”

Aboulafia firmly agrees. Emphasizing that, “There’s always questions of multiple marginalization. So, it’s important to recognize that a straight cisgender, white disabled man is unlikely to have the same experiences with systems and technology as a disabled queer woman of color.”

Aboulafia is a huge exponent of codesigning with the disability community for both building out data sets and auditing tools but acknowledges the limitation that each individual with a disability “can only really speak out to their own lived experience.”

“It can be useful to include people with a disability rights or disability justice background,” Aboulafia says.

“There are just as many ways to be disabled as there are people with disabilities and so having a background in disability rights and justice and coming at things from that framework can help a lot with more cross-disability advocacy.”

Despite being unfathomably complex under the hood, generative AI at its front end is becoming more human-like. Maximizing its potential would appear to be, in large part, about asking it the right questions. Building a more disability-inclusive AI future may be less about talking to computers but simply liaising with the right humans at the right time and taking a moment to truly listen to what they have to say.

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SDSU professor recognized for research that promotes equity in STEM education

Daniel Reinholz receives award from the Mathematical Association of America for research in undergraduate math education

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The Mathematical Association of America (MAA) has awarded San Diego State University mathematics professor Daniel Reinholz the 2024 Annie and John Selden Prize. The award, which has been around for 20 years, celebrates Reinholz for publishing an impressive body of research in undergraduate mathematics education, as well as for adopting innovative strategies for promoting equity in classroom settings.

"I am humbled and honored to receive this recognition,” Reinholz said. “To me, this accomplishment speaks to the dedication and resilience of our community. We are committed to improving mathematics education so that more students can experience the joy, beauty, and wonder of our discipline.”

One way Reinholz’s research approaches have addressed racial and gender inequities in classroom participation is the free, open source Equity QUantified In Participation (EQUIP) classroom observation tool.

Co-created with University of Washington associate professor Niral Shah , EQUIP identifies patterns in student participation, taking into account teaching methods and social markers such as race and gender. The tool then generates instant analytics highlighting subtle classroom inequities, which teachers can use to improve their practices. This customizable platform is used by more than 3,000 researchers and educators, from primary schools to universities.

Reinholz is a faculty member of SDSU’s Center for Research in Mathematics and Science Education (CRMSE) and, last fall published the book, “Equitable and Engaging Mathematics Teaching: A Guide to Disrupting Hierarchies in the Classroom” (2023, MAA Press).

“The moment the book was released into the public, it became clear to me that it has the potential to make an impact in a very different way than writing journal articles,” Reinholz said. “It has been a joy to see how others are using it and how it is opening up conversations around equitable mathematics that otherwise might not arise.”

The book further exemplifies Reinholz’s advocacy of equity in STEM education and culminates decades of mathematics education research and ideas. The book is available for purchase as a hard copy on Amazon . 

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** To Earn CME/CE Credit, please make sure you are signed in. **

Continuing Education (CE) credits are a great way to make sure that your skills are sharp and up to date, no matter when you took your certification test. Many journals include articles with exams or quizzes you can take for CE credits. CINAHL  allows you to search for articles with CE credits by topic or journal. To get started:

Go to CINAHLeducation , CINAHL's CEU management system. If this is your first time using the system, you'll need to sign up for a free account. Once you've signed up for an account, CINAHLeducation will help you navigate the CE module and track your earned CE hours, using the menu on the top:

If you have any questions about CINAHL or CE credits, contact a librarian.

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It ensures efficiency, confidence, and continuous updates, enabling clinicians to excel in their field, and stay current with latest trends.

ClinicalKey facilitates quick confirmation of diagnosis and treatment, while also fostering critical thinking and research skills.

• Nursing Reference Center Plus Nursing Reference Center is the premier evidence-based information resource designed specifically for nurses. With Nursing Reference Center Plus, nurses can get answers to questions quickly, strengthen their nursing skills, read full-text journal articles and get access to videos, images and new topics also covering nursing management and leadership.

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STEM Integration in Primary Schools: Theory, Implementation and Impact

• Published: 20 June 2023
• Volume 21 , pages 1–9, ( 2023 )

Cite this article

• Zhi Hong Wan 1 ,
• Lyn English 2 ,
• Winnie Wing Mui So 1 &
• Karen Skilling   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0619-4083 3  

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Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

STEM can be simply a collective name for four primary disciplines of Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics. However, when the term STEM is used for addressing education policy and curriculum, it typically refers to an integrative approach to teaching and learning (Bybee, 2010 ; English, 2017 ; Kelley & Knowles, 2016 ; Skilling, 2019 ; Wan et al.,  2021a ). Integration in STEM education has been emphasized in government policies worldwide to differentiate the current trend of STEM education from traditional discipline-based STEM education (Cheng & So, 2020 ; Hoeg & Bencze, 2017 ; Wan et al., 2022 ).

Although the significance of promoting integrative STEM education has been widely recognized and a considerable number of studies have been conducted in recent years, the research on the integration in STEM education as a distinct field of study is still in its embryonic stages (English, 2016 ; Honey et al., 2014 ; Perignat & Katz-Buonincontro, 2019 ). For example, the meaning and epistemic underpinning of the integration in STEM education is under discussion and development. Some scholars (e.g. Moore et al., 2014 ) propose that integrated STEM education requires an effort to combine some or all of the four STEM disciplines in one lesson to reflect the connections between the disciplines and real-world problems while others argue that total integration might not be necessary (Kloser et al., 2018 ). The integration between a STEM discipline and one or more other disciplines (outside STEM) can also represent integrated STEM (Sanders, 2009 ). For example, Erduran ( 2020 ) called for a closer examination of the foundation of STEM integration by exploring the commonalities and differences in STEM practice and epistemologies. As for the implementation of integrative STEM education, a major concern is inequitable disciplinary representation (Zhan et al., 2021 ). As alerted by English ( 2017 ) and Stohlmann ( 2019 ), science often receives the main focus in the practices of carrying out integrative STEM learning. On the contrary, at a school level, engineering is considered a silent member of STEM education (English, 2017 ) and a recent study by Park et al. ( 2020 ) found that mathematics is underrepresented in the four STEM disciplines when scrutinizing science education standards documents published in the USA, Korea and Taiwan.

Another concern for implementing integrative STEM education is how to consider the relationship between disciplinary and cross-disciplinary STEM education. Although boundary crossing is a key issue, the existing school curricula are normally disciplinary-based. Given the constraints in time and teaching resources for school teachers, to successfully implement integrative STEM education in schools, efforts should be made to restructure the existing curriculum system to achieve a balance between disciplinary and cross-disciplinary STEM learning. Supporting students by making connections explicit is important because it may be difficult for students to connect knowledge and skills across disciplines when they are weak in the relevant knowledge and skills in the individual disciplines (Honey et al., 2014 ). Until now, existing studies on implementing integrative STEM education normally focus on a specific strategy, such as robotic programming (e.g. Lamptey et al., 2021 ), project-based learning (e.g. Han et al.,  2015 ; Kang & Kim, 2014 ) and environmental inquiry (e.g. Helvaci & Helvaci, 2019 ). There is still a lack of theoretical discussion and empirical research adopting a holistic perspective for STEM curriculum design.

The impacts of integrative STEM learning may be the most frequently studied area in the literature. A good number of studies have investigated the effects on motivation and engagement (e.g. Bedar & Al-Shboul, 2020 ; Gallant et al., 2020 ; Julià & Antolí, 2019 ; Master et al., 2017 ; Zhou et al., 2019 ) and career interest (e.g. Duran et al., 2014 ; Friedman et al., 2017 ; Han, 2017 ; Lamptey et al., 2021 ; Mohr-Schroeder et al., 2014 ). However, several researchers have lamented (e.g. Barrett et al., 2014 ; Honey et al., 2014 ) that the effectiveness of integrated STEM education in developing knowledge of core content is relatively under-researched. The study of the impacts on higher-order thinking skills is also scarce although they have been highlighted as significant goals of STEM education. Yet, models for integration beyond STEM content areas have been proposed. For example, Thibaut et al. ( 2018 ) developed a framework where STEM content was one of five aspects: the other four being different approaches to learning (problem-centred learning, inquiry-based learning, design-based learning and cooperative learning). Latterly, Skilling ( 2020 ) adapted the framework of Thibaut et al. ( 2018 ) to include three types of engagement and underlying motivational factors, which were reported by the secondary students involved in a Robot Construction Project. The student participants reported the benefits of developing self-regulation strategies, as well as affective factors such as interest, valuing, positive attitudes and benefits of collaborative learning settings. However, comparison between different integrative learning activities and ways of working in terms of their impacts on both generic skills and subject core content warrants more research (Wan et al., 2021b ). The lack of investigating both the short-term and long-term effects (English, 2016 ) and comparing the effects of different integrative strategies in terms of different learning outcomes will also comprise our future endeavors to generate a holistic curriculum design for STEM education and prepare programs to train teachers to implement it in the authentic classroom.

The above paragraphs illustrate that, on the one hand, the vision of integrative STEM education is extremely meaningful and significant; on the other, successfully realizing the integration in authentic STEM classrooms is complex and challenging. Many theoretical and practical issues have yet to be explored. Considering the complexity of STEM integration, this special issue constrained its scope within primary schools. This decision was also based on three major reasons. Firstly, compared with the secondary curriculum, the primary curriculum is normally more integrated. Therefore, there will be more opportunities to incorporate integrative STEM learning activities into the existing primary curriculum structure (Irish Department of Education [IDoE], 2020 ). Secondly, most primary teachers are generalist teachers. Compared with secondary teachers who are specialists in one discipline, primary teachers might get more accustomed to implementing cross-disciplinary curriculum than secondary teachers and at the same time are more limited in the disciplinary STEM content knowledge (Lesseig et al., 2016 ; Park et al., 2017 ; Ring et al., 2017 ). Therefore, it is still a challenge to develop primary teachers’ professional competency to design and implement integrated STEM learning activities. Thirdly, the necessity of early implementation of integrative STEM teaching and learning has been commonly emphasized (e.g. Bybee & Fuchs, 2006 ; English & Moore, 2018 ). Young students are naturally curious, creative and collaborative, which are the same dispositions needed for integrative learning (Banko et al., 2013 ). Moreover, students’ foundational STEM abilities and dispositions are formed in their primary education, which is crucial for their development of such abilities and dispositions in the later stages (Nadelson et al., 2013 ). Of course, there are also challenges in conducting STEM learning with primary students, such as their STEM knowledge and skills, self-learning ability and capacity to integrate and apply knowledge and skills from different disciplines. Given these strengths and challenges, it is meaningful to have a platform to encourage in-depth investigation into STEM integration in such a special context.

Given the gaps discussed in the preceding paragraph, this special issue was accepted by the International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education. A total of eight papers are finally included in it. Among these papers, one is a review of teaching approaches for STEM integration in pre- and primary school, four investigated the process and outcomes of primary students during integrated STEM learning and the other three explored primary STEM teachers.

Overview of the Eight Studies

This special issue starts with the review paper by Larkin and Lowrie, which synthesized 60 peer-reviewed English journal articles between 2000 and 2022 that reported empirical research conducted in schools. Three key questions guided this review, i.e. the level of integration reflected in the studies, the role of engineering in STEM integration and teaching approaches adopted in STEM activities. Driven by the process of reviewing research, they added two new levels of integration (i.e. intradisciplinary and quasidisciplinary) into Vasquez et al.’s ( 2013 ) original 4-level framework of STEM integration (i.e. disciplinary, multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary). It was found that STEM integration in most of the reviewed studies was at the intradisciplinary, quasidisciplinary, disciplinary and multidisciplinary levels. At the same time, 25 studies had incorporated engineering elements in STEM learning and students were not provided with an opportunity to have agency in integrated STEM learning carried out in about half of these studies.

Modelling, inquiry and design are three major kinds of learning activities used to realize STEM integration, and various combinations among them can be found when they are implemented in the classroom. The second paper by English is an example of the combination between modelling and inquiry. Fifty grade 6 Australian students were required to independently investigate the factors influencing the inundation distance of the Tsunami using a specially designed water tub. The students worked in groups, gave group reports and were not given prior instruction on how to do the activity. The analysis of the qualitative data (including audio and video recording of small group interaction and whole class discussion) indicated that (i) students applied mathematics, science and statistical knowledge to justify their inundation predictions; (ii) the most common representation was a vertical bar graph; (iii) students were generally able to identify and explain the variation and covariation in their models and (iv) students could apply their learning from the investigation and their prior knowledge about tsunamis to make suggestions.

The third paper by Lin and Chen provides an example of combining modelling with design. This study engaged 24 Taiwan upper primary students in 4-round activities of designing highway routes, lasting more than 5 h. The analysis of students’ modelling practice revealed that with the increase in the complexity of the modelling activities, the levels of students’ modelling practice rose from the single factor level to the relational level. The difference in modelling practice between students with higher and lower spatial abilities decreased in the later stages of the modelling curriculum. The interview and observation data indicated that low-spatial ability students benefited from hands-on practices and digital tools during the modelling selection phase while high-spatial ability students benefited from analogies and experimental thinking during the model construction phase.

The fourth and fifth papers feature design-based STEM learning. Wan, So and Zhan adopted a pretest-and-posttest design to investigate the impacts of a 6-month design-based STEM learning event on STEM creativity and epistemic beliefs of 155 Hong Kong upper primary students. In this event, the application of information technologies was required. The findings indicate a significant increase in the fluency and flexibility dimensions of STEM creativity and a significant decrease in the source, certainty and justification dimensions of epistemic beliefs. Regression analysis of the pretest, posttest and change data revealed negative correlations between STEM creativity and the source, certainty and justification dimensions of epistemic beliefs. Significant and positive correlations were found between STEM creativity and the complexity dimension of epistemic beliefs.

In addition to investigating the overall impacts of design-based STEM learning, the fifth paper by Chiu, Ismailov, Zhou, Xia, Au and Chai compared the community-engaged (CE) STEM design projects with the non-CE STEM design projects. The subjects were 141 Primary 6 Hong Kong students. For the CE group, communication with the community was a required step for each phase of design-based STEM learning, including empathizing, defining, ideating, prototyping and testing. ANCONA results revealed that both groups had significant impacts on STEM interest and STEM identity; however, the CE groups had a more statistically significant influence. Moreover, this study adopted the self-determined theory to explain the impacts of CE STEM design projects on STEM interest and identity in terms of needs satisfaction. Survey data and interviews with students showed that CE STEM design projects brought about better needs satisfaction, which in turn positively predicted higher STEM interest and identity.

Teachers are one of the key elements determining the implementation of integrated STEM education. The last three papers of this special issue dealt with this topic. The sixth paper by O’Dwyer, Hourigan, Leavy and Corry adopted Bandura’s ( 1977 ) theory about the sources of efficacy as the analytic lens to analyze the impact of a 3-phase STEM professional development program on the efficacy of 17 Ireland primary teachers in STEM education. Both survey data and interviews with teachers indicated the positive impacts of this professional development program on teacher efficacy. An in-depth analysis of the interviews with teachers, principals and facilitators illustrated how the features of the 3 phases (i.e. science, STEM and peer-teach) of the program respectively influence the 4 sources of teacher efficacy in STEM teaching (i.e. performance accomplishment, emotional arousal, vicarious experiences and verbal persuasion).

Teaching integrated STEM always means a cross-boundary adventure for a teacher since few teachers have been trained to teach the four STEM disciplines. Therefore, teachers’ adaptive expertise may be a critical factor influencing teachers’ attitudes towards integrated STEM teaching and their subsequent practice. Saleh, Ibrahim and Afari, in the seventh paper, conducted a multivariate regression analysis to investigate the relationship between 91 Bahrain preservice science teachers’ adaptive expertise and their attitude towards integrated STEM teaching. Both correlation and regression analysis results indicated a significant relationship between teachers’ adaptive expertise and their self-efficacy, perceived relevance and anxiety related to integrated STEM teaching.

Rather than focusing on the integration of all four STEM disciplines, the final paper by Zhu, Tian and Wang investigated how 453 Chinese primary science and mathematics teachers’ views and practice of integrating mathematics and science (IMS) in the classroom. The survey and interview results indicated that although they had sometimes implemented the IMS, they did not provide a complete picture of different ways of realizing the IMS. Lack of resources, school support and time were the major challenges that they perceived for IMS.

Directions for Future Research and Practice of Integrated STEM Education in Primary Schools

Considerable diversity can be found in the eight papers included in this special issue. The authors are from a number of regions of the world (including Australia, Ireland, Bahrein, Hong Kong, Taiwan and Mainland China) and reflect that integrated STEM education is a worldwide trend in education reform. Both literature review and empirical research are included. Among the seven empirical studies, the participants of the research include both students and teachers. One study adopted qualitative methods (e.g. observation and document analysis), two employed quantitative methods (featured by statistical analysis of survey and test data) and the other four used mixed methods. Based on summarizing their major contributions, this section will discuss the directions for future research and practice of integrated STEM education in primary schools.

Although the study of the epistemic underpinning of the integration in primary STEM education is missing in this special issue, driven by their efforts to synthesize different types of integration embedded in 60 empirical studies, the first paper by Larkin and Lowrie expanded the commonly used four-level framework of STEM integration proposed by Vasquez et al. ( 2013 ). Of course, the example (an engineering design approach to teaching STEM without identifying any disciplines) provided by Larkin and Lowrie about quasidiciplinary integration may be an example of an implicit way to realize STEM integration since engineering design may require students to apply mathematical, science, technological knowledge even if teachers had not explicitly asked them to do. In fact, when learning activities become more unstructured, such as authentic problem-solving, it is increasingly difficult to anticipate the specific subject knowledge and skills that will be applied or further learned in the learning process. Given this consideration, the differentiation between explicit and implicit STEM integration may be needed in the future analysis of STEM learning observed in the classroom and reported in the papers. It may also be necessary to adopt a multidimensional (rather than unidimensional) framework to conceptualize STEM integration in further research.

The second paper by English and the third paper by Lin and Chen provided two vivid examples to illustrate how modelling-based STEM learning could be implemented in the combination of inquiry and design in different contexts. Both studies indicated that even primary students could successfully engage in cross-disciplinary STEM learning. Although developing primary students’ modelling experiences can significantly influence their later learning in mathematics, science, engineering, geography and technology, research on modelling-based STEM learning is still scarce in the literature. It is meaningful to investigate its impacts on different learning outcomes and design a series of interrelated modelling activities for students so as to more systematically realize STEM integration through experiencing the modelling process and using modelling to solve problems.

The investigation of the impacts of different types of STEM learning activities on students is another way to consolidate the theoretical foundation of STEM education. The fourth paper by Wan, So and Zhan filled one research gap, i.e. the impacts of STEM learning on STEM creativity and epistemic beliefs. The fifth paper by Chiu, Ismailov, Zhou, Xia, Au and Chai provides a good example of how to adopt the quasi-experimental design to investigate the role played by a specific design element of a specific STEM learning strategy. In further research, a stricter experiment design is needed to draw more vigorous conclusions on the impacts of STEM learning on students’ higher-order thinking and STEM identity. Efforts will also be made to compare different STEM learning strategies in terms of both general skills and the subject core content. This can be done by either experimental research or meta-analysis of existing studies. The study of the long-term effects of STEM learning is still lacking in the literature.

The findings of the seventh paper by Saleh, Ibrahim and Afari and the eighth paper by Zhu, Tiam and Wang indicated primary teachers had positive attitudes towards integrated STEM teaching, which supports the hypothesis raised in the background section that primary teachers might get more accustomed to implementing the cross-disciplinary curriculum. Of course, to facilitate teachers to more efficiently implement integrated STEM activities to their students, effective professional development is especially needed to develop their competency in designing specific integrated STEM activities, connecting disciplinary STEM learning with cross-disciplinary STEM learning, and formatively assessing students’ learning, assessment literacy in STEM context. The extended professional development model generated in the sixth paper by O’Dwyer, Hourigan, Leavy and Corry provided a from-theory-to-practice framework for the future design of professional development programs for STEM teachers. More importantly, their research may inspire researchers on how to incorporate a mature theory to systematically plan, monitor, reflect on and investigate professional development programs for primary STEM teachers for different objectives.

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Wan, Z.H., English, L., So, W.W.M. et al. STEM Integration in Primary Schools: Theory, Implementation and Impact. Int J of Sci and Math Educ 21 (Suppl 1), 1–9 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-023-10401-x

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Received : 31 May 2023

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-023-10401-x

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