research proposal skills to develop

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11.2 Steps in Developing a Research Proposal

Learning objectives.

• Identify the steps in developing a research proposal.
• Choose a topic and formulate a research question and working thesis.
• Develop a research proposal.

Writing a good research paper takes time, thought, and effort. Although this assignment is challenging, it is manageable. Focusing on one step at a time will help you develop a thoughtful, informative, well-supported research paper.

Your first step is to choose a topic and then to develop research questions, a working thesis, and a written research proposal. Set aside adequate time for this part of the process. Fully exploring ideas will help you build a solid foundation for your paper.

Choosing a Topic

When you choose a topic for a research paper, you are making a major commitment. Your choice will help determine whether you enjoy the lengthy process of research and writing—and whether your final paper fulfills the assignment requirements. If you choose your topic hastily, you may later find it difficult to work with your topic. By taking your time and choosing carefully, you can ensure that this assignment is not only challenging but also rewarding.

Writers understand the importance of choosing a topic that fulfills the assignment requirements and fits the assignment’s purpose and audience. (For more information about purpose and audience, see Chapter 6 “Writing Paragraphs: Separating Ideas and Shaping Content” .) Choosing a topic that interests you is also crucial. You instructor may provide a list of suggested topics or ask that you develop a topic on your own. In either case, try to identify topics that genuinely interest you.

After identifying potential topic ideas, you will need to evaluate your ideas and choose one topic to pursue. Will you be able to find enough information about the topic? Can you develop a paper about this topic that presents and supports your original ideas? Is the topic too broad or too narrow for the scope of the assignment? If so, can you modify it so it is more manageable? You will ask these questions during this preliminary phase of the research process.

Identifying Potential Topics

Sometimes, your instructor may provide a list of suggested topics. If so, you may benefit from identifying several possibilities before committing to one idea. It is important to know how to narrow down your ideas into a concise, manageable thesis. You may also use the list as a starting point to help you identify additional, related topics. Discussing your ideas with your instructor will help ensure that you choose a manageable topic that fits the requirements of the assignment.

In this chapter, you will follow a writer named Jorge, who is studying health care administration, as he prepares a research paper. You will also plan, research, and draft your own research paper.

Jorge was assigned to write a research paper on health and the media for an introductory course in health care. Although a general topic was selected for the students, Jorge had to decide which specific issues interested him. He brainstormed a list of possibilities.

If you are writing a research paper for a specialized course, look back through your notes and course activities. Identify reading assignments and class discussions that especially engaged you. Doing so can help you identify topics to pursue.

• Health Maintenance Organizations (HMOs) in the news
• Sexual education programs
• Hollywood and eating disorders
• Americans’ access to public health information
• Media portrayal of health care reform bill
• Depictions of drugs on television
• The effect of the Internet on mental health
• Popularized diets (such as low-carbohydrate diets)
• Fear of pandemics (bird flu, HINI, SARS)
• Electronic entertainment and obesity
• Advertisements for prescription drugs
• Public education and disease prevention

Set a timer for five minutes. Use brainstorming or idea mapping to create a list of topics you would be interested in researching for a paper about the influence of the Internet on social networking. Do you closely follow the media coverage of a particular website, such as Twitter? Would you like to learn more about a certain industry, such as online dating? Which social networking sites do you and your friends use? List as many ideas related to this topic as you can.

Narrowing Your Topic

Once you have a list of potential topics, you will need to choose one as the focus of your essay. You will also need to narrow your topic. Most writers find that the topics they listed during brainstorming or idea mapping are broad—too broad for the scope of the assignment. Working with an overly broad topic, such as sexual education programs or popularized diets, can be frustrating and overwhelming. Each topic has so many facets that it would be impossible to cover them all in a college research paper. However, more specific choices, such as the pros and cons of sexual education in kids’ television programs or the physical effects of the South Beach diet, are specific enough to write about without being too narrow to sustain an entire research paper.

A good research paper provides focused, in-depth information and analysis. If your topic is too broad, you will find it difficult to do more than skim the surface when you research it and write about it. Narrowing your focus is essential to making your topic manageable. To narrow your focus, explore your topic in writing, conduct preliminary research, and discuss both the topic and the research with others.

Exploring Your Topic in Writing

“How am I supposed to narrow my topic when I haven’t even begun researching yet?” In fact, you may already know more than you realize. Review your list and identify your top two or three topics. Set aside some time to explore each one through freewriting. (For more information about freewriting, see Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” .) Simply taking the time to focus on your topic may yield fresh angles.

Jorge knew that he was especially interested in the topic of diet fads, but he also knew that it was much too broad for his assignment. He used freewriting to explore his thoughts so he could narrow his topic. Read Jorge’s ideas.

Conducting Preliminary Research

Another way writers may focus a topic is to conduct preliminary research . Like freewriting, exploratory reading can help you identify interesting angles. Surfing the web and browsing through newspaper and magazine articles are good ways to start. Find out what people are saying about your topic on blogs and online discussion groups. Discussing your topic with others can also inspire you. Talk about your ideas with your classmates, your friends, or your instructor.

Jorge’s freewriting exercise helped him realize that the assigned topic of health and the media intersected with a few of his interests—diet, nutrition, and obesity. Preliminary online research and discussions with his classmates strengthened his impression that many people are confused or misled by media coverage of these subjects.

Jorge decided to focus his paper on a topic that had garnered a great deal of media attention—low-carbohydrate diets. He wanted to find out whether low-carbohydrate diets were as effective as their proponents claimed.

Writing at Work

At work, you may need to research a topic quickly to find general information. This information can be useful in understanding trends in a given industry or generating competition. For example, a company may research a competitor’s prices and use the information when pricing their own product. You may find it useful to skim a variety of reliable sources and take notes on your findings.

The reliability of online sources varies greatly. In this exploratory phase of your research, you do not need to evaluate sources as closely as you will later. However, use common sense as you refine your paper topic. If you read a fascinating blog comment that gives you a new idea for your paper, be sure to check out other, more reliable sources as well to make sure the idea is worth pursuing.

Review the list of topics you created in Note 11.18 “Exercise 1” and identify two or three topics you would like to explore further. For each of these topics, spend five to ten minutes writing about the topic without stopping. Then review your writing to identify possible areas of focus.

Set aside time to conduct preliminary research about your potential topics. Then choose a topic to pursue for your research paper.

Collaboration

Please share your topic list with a classmate. Select one or two topics on his or her list that you would like to learn more about and return it to him or her. Discuss why you found the topics interesting, and learn which of your topics your classmate selected and why.

A Plan for Research

Your freewriting and preliminary research have helped you choose a focused, manageable topic for your research paper. To work with your topic successfully, you will need to determine what exactly you want to learn about it—and later, what you want to say about it. Before you begin conducting in-depth research, you will further define your focus by developing a research question , a working thesis, and a research proposal.

Formulating a Research Question

In forming a research question, you are setting a goal for your research. Your main research question should be substantial enough to form the guiding principle of your paper—but focused enough to guide your research. A strong research question requires you not only to find information but also to put together different pieces of information, interpret and analyze them, and figure out what you think. As you consider potential research questions, ask yourself whether they would be too hard or too easy to answer.

To determine your research question, review the freewriting you completed earlier. Skim through books, articles, and websites and list the questions you have. (You may wish to use the 5WH strategy to help you formulate questions. See Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” for more information about 5WH questions.) Include simple, factual questions and more complex questions that would require analysis and interpretation. Determine your main question—the primary focus of your paper—and several subquestions that you will need to research to answer your main question.

Here are the research questions Jorge will use to focus his research. Notice that his main research question has no obvious, straightforward answer. Jorge will need to research his subquestions, which address narrower topics, to answer his main question.

Using the topic you selected in Note 11.24 “Exercise 2” , write your main research question and at least four to five subquestions. Check that your main research question is appropriately complex for your assignment.

Constructing a Working ThesIs

A working thesis concisely states a writer’s initial answer to the main research question. It does not merely state a fact or present a subjective opinion. Instead, it expresses a debatable idea or claim that you hope to prove through additional research. Your working thesis is called a working thesis for a reason—it is subject to change. As you learn more about your topic, you may change your thinking in light of your research findings. Let your working thesis serve as a guide to your research, but do not be afraid to modify it based on what you learn.

Jorge began his research with a strong point of view based on his preliminary writing and research. Read his working thesis statement, which presents the point he will argue. Notice how it states Jorge’s tentative answer to his research question.

One way to determine your working thesis is to consider how you would complete sentences such as I believe or My opinion is . However, keep in mind that academic writing generally does not use first-person pronouns. These statements are useful starting points, but formal research papers use an objective voice.

Write a working thesis statement that presents your preliminary answer to the research question you wrote in Note 11.27 “Exercise 3” . Check that your working thesis statement presents an idea or claim that could be supported or refuted by evidence from research.

Creating a Research Proposal

A research proposal is a brief document—no more than one typed page—that summarizes the preliminary work you have completed. Your purpose in writing it is to formalize your plan for research and present it to your instructor for feedback. In your research proposal, you will present your main research question, related subquestions, and working thesis. You will also briefly discuss the value of researching this topic and indicate how you plan to gather information.

When Jorge began drafting his research proposal, he realized that he had already created most of the pieces he needed. However, he knew he also had to explain how his research would be relevant to other future health care professionals. In addition, he wanted to form a general plan for doing the research and identifying potentially useful sources. Read Jorge’s research proposal.

Before you begin a new project at work, you may have to develop a project summary document that states the purpose of the project, explains why it would be a wise use of company resources, and briefly outlines the steps involved in completing the project. This type of document is similar to a research proposal. Both documents define and limit a project, explain its value, discuss how to proceed, and identify what resources you will use.

Writing Your Own Research Proposal

Now you may write your own research proposal, if you have not done so already. Follow the guidelines provided in this lesson.

Key Takeaways

• Developing a research proposal involves the following preliminary steps: identifying potential ideas, choosing ideas to explore further, choosing and narrowing a topic, formulating a research question, and developing a working thesis.
• A good topic for a research paper interests the writer and fulfills the requirements of the assignment.
• Defining and narrowing a topic helps writers conduct focused, in-depth research.
• Writers conduct preliminary research to identify possible topics and research questions and to develop a working thesis.
• A good research question interests readers, is neither too broad nor too narrow, and has no obvious answer.
• A good working thesis expresses a debatable idea or claim that can be supported with evidence from research.
• Writers create a research proposal to present their topic, main research question, subquestions, and working thesis to an instructor for approval or feedback.

Writing for Success Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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• How to Write a Research Proposal | Examples & Templates

How to Write a Research Proposal | Examples & Templates

Published on October 12, 2022 by Shona McCombes and Tegan George. Revised on November 21, 2023.

A research proposal describes what you will investigate, why it’s important, and how you will conduct your research.

The format of a research proposal varies between fields, but most proposals will contain at least these elements:

Introduction

Literature review.

• Research design

Reference list

While the sections may vary, the overall objective is always the same. A research proposal serves as a blueprint and guide for your research plan, helping you get organized and feel confident in the path forward you choose to take.

Table of contents

Research proposal purpose, research proposal examples, research design and methods, contribution to knowledge, research schedule, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research proposals.

Academics often have to write research proposals to get funding for their projects. As a student, you might have to write a research proposal as part of a grad school application , or prior to starting your thesis or dissertation .

In addition to helping you figure out what your research can look like, a proposal can also serve to demonstrate why your project is worth pursuing to a funder, educational institution, or supervisor.

Research proposal length

The length of a research proposal can vary quite a bit. A bachelor’s or master’s thesis proposal can be just a few pages, while proposals for PhD dissertations or research funding are usually much longer and more detailed. Your supervisor can help you determine the best length for your work.

One trick to get started is to think of your proposal’s structure as a shorter version of your thesis or dissertation , only without the results , conclusion and discussion sections.

Download our research proposal template

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See an example

Writing a research proposal can be quite challenging, but a good starting point could be to look at some examples. We’ve included a few for you below.

• Example research proposal #1: “A Conceptual Framework for Scheduling Constraint Management”
• Example research proposal #2: “Medical Students as Mediators of Change in Tobacco Use”

Like your dissertation or thesis, the proposal will usually have a title page that includes:

• The proposed title of your project
• Your supervisor’s name
• Your institution and department

The first part of your proposal is the initial pitch for your project. Make sure it succinctly explains what you want to do and why.

Your introduction should:

• Introduce your topic
• Give necessary background and context
• Outline your  problem statement  and research questions

To guide your introduction , include information about:

• Who could have an interest in the topic (e.g., scientists, policymakers)
• How much is already known about the topic
• What is missing from this current knowledge
• What new insights your research will contribute
• Why you believe this research is worth doing

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As you get started, it’s important to demonstrate that you’re familiar with the most important research on your topic. A strong literature review  shows your reader that your project has a solid foundation in existing knowledge or theory. It also shows that you’re not simply repeating what other people have already done or said, but rather using existing research as a jumping-off point for your own.

In this section, share exactly how your project will contribute to ongoing conversations in the field by:

• Comparing and contrasting the main theories, methods, and debates
• Examining the strengths and weaknesses of different approaches
• Explaining how will you build on, challenge, or synthesize prior scholarship

Following the literature review, restate your main  objectives . This brings the focus back to your own project. Next, your research design or methodology section will describe your overall approach, and the practical steps you will take to answer your research questions.

To finish your proposal on a strong note, explore the potential implications of your research for your field. Emphasize again what you aim to contribute and why it matters.

For example, your results might have implications for:

• Improving best practices
• Informing policymaking decisions
• Strengthening a theory or model
• Challenging popular or scientific beliefs
• Creating a basis for future research

Last but not least, your research proposal must include correct citations for every source you have used, compiled in a reference list . To create citations quickly and easily, you can use our free APA citation generator .

Some institutions or funders require a detailed timeline of the project, asking you to forecast what you will do at each stage and how long it may take. While not always required, be sure to check the requirements of your project.

Here’s an example schedule to help you get started. You can also download a template at the button below.

Download our research schedule template

If you are applying for research funding, chances are you will have to include a detailed budget. This shows your estimates of how much each part of your project will cost.

Make sure to check what type of costs the funding body will agree to cover. For each item, include:

• Cost : exactly how much money do you need?
• Justification : why is this cost necessary to complete the research?
• Source : how did you calculate the amount?

To determine your budget, think about:

• Travel costs : do you need to go somewhere to collect your data? How will you get there, and how much time will you need? What will you do there (e.g., interviews, archival research)?
• Materials : do you need access to any tools or technologies?
• Help : do you need to hire any research assistants for the project? What will they do, and how much will you pay them?

If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Methodology

• Sampling methods
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

Once you’ve decided on your research objectives , you need to explain them in your paper, at the end of your problem statement .

Keep your research objectives clear and concise, and use appropriate verbs to accurately convey the work that you will carry out for each one.

I will compare …

A research aim is a broad statement indicating the general purpose of your research project. It should appear in your introduction at the end of your problem statement , before your research objectives.

Research objectives are more specific than your research aim. They indicate the specific ways you’ll address the overarching aim.

A PhD, which is short for philosophiae doctor (doctor of philosophy in Latin), is the highest university degree that can be obtained. In a PhD, students spend 3–5 years writing a dissertation , which aims to make a significant, original contribution to current knowledge.

A PhD is intended to prepare students for a career as a researcher, whether that be in academia, the public sector, or the private sector.

A master’s is a 1- or 2-year graduate degree that can prepare you for a variety of careers.

All master’s involve graduate-level coursework. Some are research-intensive and intend to prepare students for further study in a PhD; these usually require their students to write a master’s thesis . Others focus on professional training for a specific career.

Critical thinking refers to the ability to evaluate information and to be aware of biases or assumptions, including your own.

Like information literacy , it involves evaluating arguments, identifying and solving problems in an objective and systematic way, and clearly communicating your ideas.

The best way to remember the difference between a research plan and a research proposal is that they have fundamentally different audiences. A research plan helps you, the researcher, organize your thoughts. On the other hand, a dissertation proposal or research proposal aims to convince others (e.g., a supervisor, a funding body, or a dissertation committee) that your research topic is relevant and worthy of being conducted.

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The goal of a research proposal is twofold: to present and justify the need to study a research problem and to present the practical ways in which the proposed study should be conducted. The design elements and procedures for conducting research are governed by standards of the predominant discipline in which the problem resides, therefore, the guidelines for research proposals are more exacting and less formal than a general project proposal. Research proposals contain extensive literature reviews. They must provide persuasive evidence that a need exists for the proposed study. In addition to providing a rationale, a proposal describes detailed methodology for conducting the research consistent with requirements of the professional or academic field and a statement on anticipated outcomes and benefits derived from the study's completion.

Krathwohl, David R. How to Prepare a Dissertation Proposal: Suggestions for Students in Education and the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2005.

How to Approach Writing a Research Proposal

Your professor may assign the task of writing a research proposal for the following reasons:

• Develop your skills in thinking about and designing a comprehensive research study;
• Learn how to conduct a comprehensive review of the literature to determine that the research problem has not been adequately addressed or has been answered ineffectively and, in so doing, become better at locating pertinent scholarship related to your topic;
• Improve your general research and writing skills;
• Practice identifying the logical steps that must be taken to accomplish one's research goals;
• Critically review, examine, and consider the use of different methods for gathering and analyzing data related to the research problem; and,
• Nurture a sense of inquisitiveness within yourself and to help see yourself as an active participant in the process of conducting scholarly research.

A proposal should contain all the key elements involved in designing a completed research study, with sufficient information that allows readers to assess the validity and usefulness of your proposed study. The only elements missing from a research proposal are the findings of the study and your analysis of those findings. Finally, an effective proposal is judged on the quality of your writing and, therefore, it is important that your proposal is coherent, clear, and compelling.

Regardless of the research problem you are investigating and the methodology you choose, all research proposals must address the following questions:

• What do you plan to accomplish? Be clear and succinct in defining the research problem and what it is you are proposing to investigate.
• Why do you want to do the research? In addition to detailing your research design, you also must conduct a thorough review of the literature and provide convincing evidence that it is a topic worthy of in-depth study. A successful research proposal must answer the "So What?" question.
• How are you going to conduct the research? Be sure that what you propose is doable. If you're having difficulty formulating a research problem to propose investigating, go here for strategies in developing a problem to study.

Common Mistakes to Avoid

• Failure to be concise . A research proposal must be focused and not be "all over the map" or diverge into unrelated tangents without a clear sense of purpose.
• Failure to cite landmark works in your literature review . Proposals should be grounded in foundational research that lays a foundation for understanding the development and scope of the the topic and its relevance.
• Failure to delimit the contextual scope of your research [e.g., time, place, people, etc.]. As with any research paper, your proposed study must inform the reader how and in what ways the study will frame the problem.
• Failure to develop a coherent and persuasive argument for the proposed research . This is critical. In many workplace settings, the research proposal is a formal document intended to argue for why a study should be funded.
• Sloppy or imprecise writing, or poor grammar . Although a research proposal does not represent a completed research study, there is still an expectation that it is well-written and follows the style and rules of good academic writing.
• Too much detail on minor issues, but not enough detail on major issues . Your proposal should focus on only a few key research questions in order to support the argument that the research needs to be conducted. Minor issues, even if valid, can be mentioned but they should not dominate the overall narrative.

Procter, Margaret. The Academic Proposal.  The Lab Report. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Sanford, Keith. Information for Students: Writing a Research Proposal. Baylor University; Wong, Paul T. P. How to Write a Research Proposal. International Network on Personal Meaning. Trinity Western University; Writing Academic Proposals: Conferences, Articles, and Books. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Writing a Research Proposal. University Library. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

Structure and Writing Style

Beginning the Proposal Process

As with writing most college-level academic papers, research proposals are generally organized the same way throughout most social science disciplines. The text of proposals generally vary in length between ten and thirty-five pages, followed by the list of references. However, before you begin, read the assignment carefully and, if anything seems unclear, ask your professor whether there are any specific requirements for organizing and writing the proposal.

A good place to begin is to ask yourself a series of questions:

• What do I want to study?
• Why is the topic important?
• How is it significant within the subject areas covered in my class?
• What problems will it help solve?
• How does it build upon [and hopefully go beyond] research already conducted on the topic?
• What exactly should I plan to do, and can I get it done in the time available?

In general, a compelling research proposal should document your knowledge of the topic and demonstrate your enthusiasm for conducting the study. Approach it with the intention of leaving your readers feeling like, "Wow, that's an exciting idea and I can’t wait to see how it turns out!"

Most proposals should include the following sections:

I.  Introduction

In the real world of higher education, a research proposal is most often written by scholars seeking grant funding for a research project or it's the first step in getting approval to write a doctoral dissertation. Even if this is just a course assignment, treat your introduction as the initial pitch of an idea based on a thorough examination of the significance of a research problem. After reading the introduction, your readers should not only have an understanding of what you want to do, but they should also be able to gain a sense of your passion for the topic and to be excited about the study's possible outcomes. Note that most proposals do not include an abstract [summary] before the introduction.

Think about your introduction as a narrative written in two to four paragraphs that succinctly answers the following four questions :

• What is the central research problem?
• What is the topic of study related to that research problem?
• What methods should be used to analyze the research problem?
• Answer the "So What?" question by explaining why this is important research, what is its significance, and why should someone reading the proposal care about the outcomes of the proposed study?

II.  Background and Significance

This is where you explain the scope and context of your proposal and describe in detail why it's important. It can be melded into your introduction or you can create a separate section to help with the organization and narrative flow of your proposal. Approach writing this section with the thought that you can’t assume your readers will know as much about the research problem as you do. Note that this section is not an essay going over everything you have learned about the topic; instead, you must choose what is most relevant in explaining the aims of your research.

To that end, while there are no prescribed rules for establishing the significance of your proposed study, you should attempt to address some or all of the following:

• State the research problem and give a more detailed explanation about the purpose of the study than what you stated in the introduction. This is particularly important if the problem is complex or multifaceted .
• Present the rationale of your proposed study and clearly indicate why it is worth doing; be sure to answer the "So What? question [i.e., why should anyone care?].
• Describe the major issues or problems examined by your research. This can be in the form of questions to be addressed. Be sure to note how your proposed study builds on previous assumptions about the research problem.
• Explain the methods you plan to use for conducting your research. Clearly identify the key sources you intend to use and explain how they will contribute to your analysis of the topic.
• Describe the boundaries of your proposed research in order to provide a clear focus. Where appropriate, state not only what you plan to study, but what aspects of the research problem will be excluded from the study.
• If necessary, provide definitions of key concepts, theories, or terms.

III.  Literature Review

Connected to the background and significance of your study is a section of your proposal devoted to a more deliberate review and synthesis of prior studies related to the research problem under investigation . The purpose here is to place your project within the larger whole of what is currently being explored, while at the same time, demonstrating to your readers that your work is original and innovative. Think about what questions other researchers have asked, what methodological approaches they have used, and what is your understanding of their findings and, when stated, their recommendations. Also pay attention to any suggestions for further research.

Since a literature review is information dense, it is crucial that this section is intelligently structured to enable a reader to grasp the key arguments underpinning your proposed study in relation to the arguments put forth by other researchers. A good strategy is to break the literature into "conceptual categories" [themes] rather than systematically or chronologically describing groups of materials one at a time. Note that conceptual categories generally reveal themselves after you have read most of the pertinent literature on your topic so adding new categories is an on-going process of discovery as you review more studies. How do you know you've covered the key conceptual categories underlying the research literature? Generally, you can have confidence that all of the significant conceptual categories have been identified if you start to see repetition in the conclusions or recommendations that are being made.

NOTE: Do not shy away from challenging the conclusions made in prior research as a basis for supporting the need for your proposal. Assess what you believe is missing and state how previous research has failed to adequately examine the issue that your study addresses. Highlighting the problematic conclusions strengthens your proposal. For more information on writing literature reviews, GO HERE .

To help frame your proposal's review of prior research, consider the "five C’s" of writing a literature review:

• Cite , so as to keep the primary focus on the literature pertinent to your research problem.
• Compare the various arguments, theories, methodologies, and findings expressed in the literature: what do the authors agree on? Who applies similar approaches to analyzing the research problem?
• Contrast the various arguments, themes, methodologies, approaches, and controversies expressed in the literature: describe what are the major areas of disagreement, controversy, or debate among scholars?
• Critique the literature: Which arguments are more persuasive, and why? Which approaches, findings, and methodologies seem most reliable, valid, or appropriate, and why? Pay attention to the verbs you use to describe what an author says/does [e.g., asserts, demonstrates, argues, etc.].
• Connect the literature to your own area of research and investigation: how does your own work draw upon, depart from, synthesize, or add a new perspective to what has been said in the literature?

IV.  Research Design and Methods

This section must be well-written and logically organized because you are not actually doing the research, yet, your reader must have confidence that you have a plan worth pursuing . The reader will never have a study outcome from which to evaluate whether your methodological choices were the correct ones. Thus, the objective here is to convince the reader that your overall research design and proposed methods of analysis will correctly address the problem and that the methods will provide the means to effectively interpret the potential results. Your design and methods should be unmistakably tied to the specific aims of your study.

Describe the overall research design by building upon and drawing examples from your review of the literature. Consider not only methods that other researchers have used, but methods of data gathering that have not been used but perhaps could be. Be specific about the methodological approaches you plan to undertake to obtain information, the techniques you would use to analyze the data, and the tests of external validity to which you commit yourself [i.e., the trustworthiness by which you can generalize from your study to other people, places, events, and/or periods of time].

When describing the methods you will use, be sure to cover the following:

• Specify the research process you will undertake and the way you will interpret the results obtained in relation to the research problem. Don't just describe what you intend to achieve from applying the methods you choose, but state how you will spend your time while applying these methods [e.g., coding text from interviews to find statements about the need to change school curriculum; running a regression to determine if there is a relationship between campaign advertising on social media sites and election outcomes in Europe ].
• Keep in mind that the methodology is not just a list of tasks; it is a deliberate argument as to why techniques for gathering information add up to the best way to investigate the research problem. This is an important point because the mere listing of tasks to be performed does not demonstrate that, collectively, they effectively address the research problem. Be sure you clearly explain this.
• Anticipate and acknowledge any potential barriers and pitfalls in carrying out your research design and explain how you plan to address them. No method applied to research in the social and behavioral sciences is perfect, so you need to describe where you believe challenges may exist in obtaining data or accessing information. It's always better to acknowledge this than to have it brought up by your professor!

V.  Preliminary Suppositions and Implications

Just because you don't have to actually conduct the study and analyze the results, doesn't mean you can skip talking about the analytical process and potential implications . The purpose of this section is to argue how and in what ways you believe your research will refine, revise, or extend existing knowledge in the subject area under investigation. Depending on the aims and objectives of your study, describe how the anticipated results will impact future scholarly research, theory, practice, forms of interventions, or policy making. Note that such discussions may have either substantive [a potential new policy], theoretical [a potential new understanding], or methodological [a potential new way of analyzing] significance.   When thinking about the potential implications of your study, ask the following questions:

• What might the results mean in regards to challenging the theoretical framework and underlying assumptions that support the study?
• What suggestions for subsequent research could arise from the potential outcomes of the study?
• What will the results mean to practitioners in the natural settings of their workplace, organization, or community?
• Will the results influence programs, methods, and/or forms of intervention?
• How might the results contribute to the solution of social, economic, or other types of problems?
• Will the results influence policy decisions?
• In what way do individuals or groups benefit should your study be pursued?
• What will be improved or changed as a result of the proposed research?
• How will the results of the study be implemented and what innovations or transformative insights could emerge from the process of implementation?

NOTE:   This section should not delve into idle speculation, opinion, or be formulated on the basis of unclear evidence . The purpose is to reflect upon gaps or understudied areas of the current literature and describe how your proposed research contributes to a new understanding of the research problem should the study be implemented as designed.

ANOTHER NOTE : This section is also where you describe any potential limitations to your proposed study. While it is impossible to highlight all potential limitations because the study has yet to be conducted, you still must tell the reader where and in what form impediments may arise and how you plan to address them.

VI.  Conclusion

The conclusion reiterates the importance or significance of your proposal and provides a brief summary of the entire study . This section should be only one or two paragraphs long, emphasizing why the research problem is worth investigating, why your research study is unique, and how it should advance existing knowledge.

Someone reading this section should come away with an understanding of:

• Why the study should be done;
• The specific purpose of the study and the research questions it attempts to answer;
• The decision for why the research design and methods used where chosen over other options;
• The potential implications emerging from your proposed study of the research problem; and
• A sense of how your study fits within the broader scholarship about the research problem.

VII.  Citations

As with any scholarly research paper, you must cite the sources you used . In a standard research proposal, this section can take two forms, so consult with your professor about which one is preferred.

• References -- a list of only the sources you actually used in creating your proposal.
• Bibliography -- a list of everything you used in creating your proposal, along with additional citations to any key sources relevant to understanding the research problem.

In either case, this section should testify to the fact that you did enough preparatory work to ensure the project will complement and not just duplicate the efforts of other researchers. It demonstrates to the reader that you have a thorough understanding of prior research on the topic.

Most proposal formats have you start a new page and use the heading "References" or "Bibliography" centered at the top of the page. Cited works should always use a standard format that follows the writing style advised by the discipline of your course [e.g., education=APA; history=Chicago] or that is preferred by your professor. This section normally does not count towards the total page length of your research proposal.

Develop a Research Proposal: Writing the Proposal. Office of Library Information Services. Baltimore County Public Schools; Heath, M. Teresa Pereira and Caroline Tynan. “Crafting a Research Proposal.” The Marketing Review 10 (Summer 2010): 147-168; Jones, Mark. “Writing a Research Proposal.” In MasterClass in Geography Education: Transforming Teaching and Learning . Graham Butt, editor. (New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2015), pp. 113-127; Juni, Muhamad Hanafiah. “Writing a Research Proposal.” International Journal of Public Health and Clinical Sciences 1 (September/October 2014): 229-240; Krathwohl, David R. How to Prepare a Dissertation Proposal: Suggestions for Students in Education and the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2005; Procter, Margaret. The Academic Proposal. The Lab Report. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Punch, Keith and Wayne McGowan. "Developing and Writing a Research Proposal." In From Postgraduate to Social Scientist: A Guide to Key Skills . Nigel Gilbert, ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2006), 59-81; Wong, Paul T. P. How to Write a Research Proposal. International Network on Personal Meaning. Trinity Western University; Writing Academic Proposals: Conferences , Articles, and Books. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Writing a Research Proposal. University Library. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

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Blog Business How to Write a Research Proposal: A Step-by-Step

How to Write a Research Proposal: A Step-by-Step

Written by: Danesh Ramuthi Nov 29, 2023

A research proposal is a structured outline for a planned study on a specific topic. It serves as a roadmap, guiding researchers through the process of converting their research idea into a feasible project. 

The aim of a research proposal is multifold: it articulates the research problem, establishes a theoretical framework, outlines the research methodology and highlights the potential significance of the study. Importantly, it’s a critical tool for scholars seeking grant funding or approval for their research projects.

Crafting a good research proposal requires not only understanding your research topic and methodological approaches but also the ability to present your ideas clearly and persuasively. Explore Venngage’s Proposal Maker and Research Proposals Templates to begin your journey in writing a compelling research proposal.

What to include in a research proposal?

In a research proposal, include a clear statement of your research question or problem, along with an explanation of its significance. This should be followed by a literature review that situates your proposed study within the context of existing research. 

Your proposal should also outline the research methodology, detailing how you plan to conduct your study, including data collection and analysis methods.

Additionally, include a theoretical framework that guides your research approach, a timeline or research schedule, and a budget if applicable. It’s important to also address the anticipated outcomes and potential implications of your study. A well-structured research proposal will clearly communicate your research objectives, methods and significance to the readers.

How to format a research proposal?

Formatting a research proposal involves adhering to a structured outline to ensure clarity and coherence. While specific requirements may vary, a standard research proposal typically includes the following elements:

• Title Page: Must include the title of your research proposal, your name and affiliations. The title should be concise and descriptive of your proposed research.
• Abstract: A brief summary of your proposal, usually not exceeding 250 words. It should highlight the research question, methodology and the potential impact of the study.
• Introduction: Introduces your research question or problem, explains its significance, and states the objectives of your study.
• Literature review: Here, you contextualize your research within existing scholarship, demonstrating your knowledge of the field and how your research will contribute to it.
• Methodology: Outline your research methods, including how you will collect and analyze data. This section should be detailed enough to show the feasibility and thoughtfulness of your approach.
• Timeline: Provide an estimated schedule for your research, breaking down the process into stages with a realistic timeline for each.
• Budget (if applicable): If your research requires funding, include a detailed budget outlining expected cost.
• References/Bibliography: List all sources referenced in your proposal in a consistent citation style.

How to write a research proposal in 11 steps?

Writing a research proposal template in structured steps ensures a comprehensive and coherent presentation of your research project. Let’s look at the explanation for each of the steps here:  

Step 1: Title and Abstract Step 2: Introduction Step 3: Research objectives Step 4: Literature review Step 5: Methodology Step 6: Timeline Step 7: Resources Step 8: Ethical considerations Step 9: Expected outcomes and significance Step 10: References Step 11: Appendices

Step 1: title and abstract.

Select a concise, descriptive title and write an abstract summarizing your research question, objectives, methodology and expected outcomes​​. The abstract should include your research question, the objectives you aim to achieve, the methodology you plan to employ and the anticipated outcomes. 

Step 2: Introduction

In this section, introduce the topic of your research, emphasizing its significance and relevance to the field. Articulate the research problem or question in clear terms and provide background context, which should include an overview of previous research in the field.

Step 3: Research objectives

Here, you’ll need to outline specific, clear and achievable objectives that align with your research problem. These objectives should be well-defined, focused and measurable, serving as the guiding pillars for your study. They help in establishing what you intend to accomplish through your research and provide a clear direction for your investigation.

Step 4: Literature review

In this part, conduct a thorough review of existing literature related to your research topic. This involves a detailed summary of key findings and major contributions from previous research. Identify existing gaps in the literature and articulate how your research aims to fill these gaps. The literature review not only shows your grasp of the subject matter but also how your research will contribute new insights or perspectives to the field.

Step 5: Methodology

Describe the design of your research and the methodologies you will employ. This should include detailed information on data collection methods, instruments to be used and analysis techniques. Justify the appropriateness of these methods for your research​​.

Step 6: Timeline

Construct a detailed timeline that maps out the major milestones and activities of your research project. Break the entire research process into smaller, manageable tasks and assign realistic time frames to each. This timeline should cover everything from the initial research phase to the final submission, including periods for data collection, analysis and report writing. 

It helps in ensuring your project stays on track and demonstrates to reviewers that you have a well-thought-out plan for completing your research efficiently.

Step 7: Resources

Identify all the resources that will be required for your research, such as specific databases, laboratory equipment, software or funding. Provide details on how these resources will be accessed or acquired. 

If your research requires funding, explain how it will be utilized effectively to support various aspects of the project. 

Step 8: Ethical considerations

Address any ethical issues that may arise during your research. This is particularly important for research involving human subjects. Describe the measures you will take to ensure ethical standards are maintained, such as obtaining informed consent, ensuring participant privacy, and adhering to data protection regulations. 

Here, in this section you should reassure reviewers that you are committed to conducting your research responsibly and ethically.

Step 9: Expected outcomes and significance

Articulate the expected outcomes or results of your research. Explain the potential impact and significance of these outcomes, whether in advancing academic knowledge, influencing policy or addressing specific societal or practical issues. 

Step 10: References

Compile a comprehensive list of all the references cited in your proposal. Adhere to a consistent citation style (like APA or MLA) throughout your document. The reference section not only gives credit to the original authors of your sourced information but also strengthens the credibility of your proposal.

Step 11: Appendices

Include additional supporting materials that are pertinent to your research proposal. This can be survey questionnaires, interview guides, detailed data analysis plans or any supplementary information that supports the main text. 

Appendices provide further depth to your proposal, showcasing the thoroughness of your preparation.

Research proposal FAQs

1. how long should a research proposal be.

The length of a research proposal can vary depending on the requirements of the academic institution, funding body or specific guidelines provided. Generally, research proposals range from 500 to 1500 words or about one to a few pages long. It’s important to provide enough detail to clearly convey your research idea, objectives and methodology, while being concise. Always check

2. Why is the research plan pivotal to a research project?

The research plan is pivotal to a research project because it acts as a blueprint, guiding every phase of the study. It outlines the objectives, methodology, timeline and expected outcomes, providing a structured approach and ensuring that the research is systematically conducted. 

A well-crafted plan helps in identifying potential challenges, allocating resources efficiently and maintaining focus on the research goals. It is also essential for communicating the project’s feasibility and importance to stakeholders, such as funding bodies or academic supervisors.

Mastering how to write a research proposal is an essential skill for any scholar, whether in social and behavioral sciences, academic writing or any field requiring scholarly research. From this article, you have learned key components, from the literature review to the research design, helping you develop a persuasive and well-structured proposal.

Remember, a good research proposal not only highlights your proposed research and methodology but also demonstrates its relevance and potential impact.

For additional support, consider utilizing Venngage’s Proposal Maker and Research Proposals Templates , valuable tools in crafting a compelling proposal that stands out.

Whether it’s for grant funding, a research paper or a dissertation proposal, these resources can assist in transforming your research idea into a successful submission.

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How to write a good research proposal (in 9 steps)

A good research proposal is one of the keys to academic success. For bachelor’s and master’s students, the quality of a research proposal often determines whether the master’s program= can be completed or not. For PhD students, a research proposal is often the first step to securing a university position. This step-by-step manual guides you through the main stages of proposal writing.

Disclosure: This post may contain affiliate links, which means I may earn a small commission if you make a purchase using the links below at no additional cost to you . I only recommend products or services that I truly believe can benefit my audience. As always, my opinions are my own.

1. Find a topic for your research proposal

Writing a master’s thesis takes a minimum of several weeks. In the case of PhD dissertations, it takes years. That is a long time! You don’t want to be stuck with a topic that you don’t care about.

How to find a research topic? Start broadly: Which courses did you enjoy? What issues discussed during seminars or lectures did you like? What inspired you during your education? And which readings did you appreciate?

2. Develop your research idea

Once you pinpoint your general topic of interest, you need to develop your idea.

Remember that a good research proposal is not written in a day.

And third, don’t forget: a good proposal aims to establish a convincing framework that will guide your future research. Not to provide all the answers already. You need to show that you have a feasible idea.

3. Conduct a literature review for your research proposal

Look at what has been published in the last 5 years, not before. You don’t want to be outdated.

4. Define a research gap and research question

Asking yourself these questions helps you to formulate your research question. In your research question, be as specific as possible.

5. Establish a theoretical framework for your research proposal

It is not only accepted but often encouraged to make use of existing theories. Or maybe you can combine two different theories to establish your framework.

6. Specify an empirical focus for your research proposal

Maybe your empirical investigation will have geographic boundaries (like focusing on one city, or one country). Or maybe it focuses on one group of people (such as the elderly, CEOs, doctors, you name it).

7. Emphasise the scientific and societal relevance of your research proposal

Do the grandparent test: Explain what you want to do to your grandparents (or any other person for that matter). Explain why it matters. Do your grandparents understand what you say? If so, well done. If not, try again.

8. Develop a methodology in your research proposal

The methodology is a system of methods that you will use to implement your research. A methodology explains how you plan to answer your research question.

9. Illustrate your research timeline in your research proposal

Don’t underestimate the value of a good timeline. Inevitably throughout your thesis process, you will feel lost at some point. A good timeline will bring you back on track.

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Home » How To Write A Research Proposal – Step-by-Step [Template]

How To Write A Research Proposal – Step-by-Step [Template]

Table of Contents

How To Write a Research Proposal

Writing a Research proposal involves several steps to ensure a well-structured and comprehensive document. Here is an explanation of each step:

1. Title and Abstract

• Choose a concise and descriptive title that reflects the essence of your research.
• Write an abstract summarizing your research question, objectives, methodology, and expected outcomes. It should provide a brief overview of your proposal.

2. Introduction:

• Provide an introduction to your research topic, highlighting its significance and relevance.
• Clearly state the research problem or question you aim to address.
• Discuss the background and context of the study, including previous research in the field.

3. Research Objectives

• Outline the specific objectives or aims of your research. These objectives should be clear, achievable, and aligned with the research problem.

4. Literature Review:

• Conduct a comprehensive review of relevant literature and studies related to your research topic.
• Summarize key findings, identify gaps, and highlight how your research will contribute to the existing knowledge.

5. Methodology:

• Describe the research design and methodology you plan to employ to address your research objectives.
• Explain the data collection methods, instruments, and analysis techniques you will use.
• Justify why the chosen methods are appropriate and suitable for your research.

6. Timeline:

• Create a timeline or schedule that outlines the major milestones and activities of your research project.
• Break down the research process into smaller tasks and estimate the time required for each task.

7. Resources:

• Identify the resources needed for your research, such as access to specific databases, equipment, or funding.
• Explain how you will acquire or utilize these resources to carry out your research effectively.

8. Ethical Considerations:

• Discuss any ethical issues that may arise during your research and explain how you plan to address them.
• If your research involves human subjects, explain how you will ensure their informed consent and privacy.

9. Expected Outcomes and Significance:

• Clearly state the expected outcomes or results of your research.
• Highlight the potential impact and significance of your research in advancing knowledge or addressing practical issues.

10. References:

• Provide a list of all the references cited in your proposal, following a consistent citation style (e.g., APA, MLA).

11. Appendices:

• Include any additional supporting materials, such as survey questionnaires, interview guides, or data analysis plans.

Research Proposal Format

The format of a research proposal may vary depending on the specific requirements of the institution or funding agency. However, the following is a commonly used format for a research proposal:

1. Title Page:

• Include the title of your research proposal, your name, your affiliation or institution, and the date.

2. Abstract:

• Provide a brief summary of your research proposal, highlighting the research problem, objectives, methodology, and expected outcomes.

3. Introduction:

• Introduce the research topic and provide background information.
• State the research problem or question you aim to address.
• Explain the significance and relevance of the research.
• Review relevant literature and studies related to your research topic.
• Summarize key findings and identify gaps in the existing knowledge.
• Explain how your research will contribute to filling those gaps.

5. Research Objectives:

• Clearly state the specific objectives or aims of your research.
• Ensure that the objectives are clear, focused, and aligned with the research problem.

6. Methodology:

• Describe the research design and methodology you plan to use.
• Explain the data collection methods, instruments, and analysis techniques.
• Justify why the chosen methods are appropriate for your research.

7. Timeline:

8. Resources:

• Explain how you will acquire or utilize these resources effectively.

9. Ethical Considerations:

• If applicable, explain how you will ensure informed consent and protect the privacy of research participants.

10. Expected Outcomes and Significance:

11. References:

12. Appendices:

Research Proposal Template

Here’s a template for a research proposal:

1. Introduction:

2. Literature Review:

3. Research Objectives:

4. Methodology:

5. Timeline:

6. Resources:

7. Ethical Considerations:

8. Expected Outcomes and Significance:

9. References:

10. Appendices:

Research Proposal Sample

Title: The Impact of Online Education on Student Learning Outcomes: A Comparative Study

1. Introduction

Online education has gained significant prominence in recent years, especially due to the COVID-19 pandemic. This research proposal aims to investigate the impact of online education on student learning outcomes by comparing them with traditional face-to-face instruction. The study will explore various aspects of online education, such as instructional methods, student engagement, and academic performance, to provide insights into the effectiveness of online learning.

2. Objectives

The main objectives of this research are as follows:

• To compare student learning outcomes between online and traditional face-to-face education.
• To examine the factors influencing student engagement in online learning environments.
• To assess the effectiveness of different instructional methods employed in online education.
• To identify challenges and opportunities associated with online education and suggest recommendations for improvement.

3. Methodology

3.1 Study Design

This research will utilize a mixed-methods approach to gather both quantitative and qualitative data. The study will include the following components:

3.2 Participants

The research will involve undergraduate students from two universities, one offering online education and the other providing face-to-face instruction. A total of 500 students (250 from each university) will be selected randomly to participate in the study.

3.3 Data Collection

The research will employ the following data collection methods:

• Quantitative: Pre- and post-assessments will be conducted to measure students’ learning outcomes. Data on student demographics and academic performance will also be collected from university records.
• Qualitative: Focus group discussions and individual interviews will be conducted with students to gather their perceptions and experiences regarding online education.

3.4 Data Analysis

Quantitative data will be analyzed using statistical software, employing descriptive statistics, t-tests, and regression analysis. Qualitative data will be transcribed, coded, and analyzed thematically to identify recurring patterns and themes.

4. Ethical Considerations

The study will adhere to ethical guidelines, ensuring the privacy and confidentiality of participants. Informed consent will be obtained, and participants will have the right to withdraw from the study at any time.

5. Significance and Expected Outcomes

This research will contribute to the existing literature by providing empirical evidence on the impact of online education on student learning outcomes. The findings will help educational institutions and policymakers make informed decisions about incorporating online learning methods and improving the quality of online education. Moreover, the study will identify potential challenges and opportunities related to online education and offer recommendations for enhancing student engagement and overall learning outcomes.

6. Timeline

The proposed research will be conducted over a period of 12 months, including data collection, analysis, and report writing.

The estimated budget for this research includes expenses related to data collection, software licenses, participant compensation, and research assistance. A detailed budget breakdown will be provided in the final research plan.

8. Conclusion

This research proposal aims to investigate the impact of online education on student learning outcomes through a comparative study with traditional face-to-face instruction. By exploring various dimensions of online education, this research will provide valuable insights into the effectiveness and challenges associated with online learning. The findings will contribute to the ongoing discourse on educational practices and help shape future strategies for maximizing student learning outcomes in online education settings.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: Writing a Research Proposal

• Purpose of Guide
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• The Research Problem/Question
• Academic Writing Style
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Evaluating Sources
• Reading Research Effectively
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
• Is it Peer-Reviewed?
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism [linked guide]
• Annotated Bibliography
• Grading Someone Else's Paper

The goal of a research proposal is to present and justify the need to study a research problem and to present the practical ways in which the proposed study should be conducted. The design elements and procedures for conducting the research are governed by standards within the predominant discipline in which the problem resides, so guidelines for research proposals are more exacting and less formal than a general project proposal. Research proposals contain extensive literature reviews. They must provide persuasive evidence that a need exists for the proposed study. In addition to providing a rationale, a proposal describes detailed methodology for conducting the research consistent with requirements of the professional or academic field and a statement on anticipated outcomes and/or benefits derived from the study's completion.

Krathwohl, David R. How to Prepare a Dissertation Proposal: Suggestions for Students in Education and the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2005.

How to Approach Writing a Research Proposal

Your professor may assign the task of writing a research proposal for the following reasons:

• Develop your skills in thinking about and designing a comprehensive research study;
• Learn how to conduct a comprehensive review of the literature to ensure a research problem has not already been answered [or you may determine the problem has been answered ineffectively] and, in so doing, become better at locating scholarship related to your topic;
• Improve your general research and writing skills;
• Practice identifying the logical steps that must be taken to accomplish one's research goals;
• Critically review, examine, and consider the use of different methods for gathering and analyzing data related to the research problem; and,
• Nurture a sense of inquisitiveness within yourself and to help see yourself as an active participant in the process of doing scholarly research.

A proposal should contain all the key elements involved in designing a completed research study, with sufficient information that allows readers to assess the validity and usefulness of your proposed study. The only elements missing from a research proposal are the findings of the study and your analysis of those results. Finally, an effective proposal is judged on the quality of your writing and, therefore, it is important that your writing is coherent, clear, and compelling.

Regardless of the research problem you are investigating and the methodology you choose, all research proposals must address the following questions:

• What do you plan to accomplish? Be clear and succinct in defining the research problem and what it is you are proposing to research.
• Why do you want to do it? In addition to detailing your research design, you also must conduct a thorough review of the literature and provide convincing evidence that it is a topic worthy of study. Be sure to answer the "So What?" question.
• How are you going to do it? Be sure that what you propose is doable. If you're having trouble formulating a research problem to propose investigating, go here .

Common Mistakes to Avoid

• Failure to be concise; being "all over the map" without a clear sense of purpose.
• Failure to cite landmark works in your literature review.
• Failure to delimit the contextual boundaries of your research [e.g., time, place, people, etc.].
• Failure to develop a coherent and persuasive argument for the proposed research.
• Failure to stay focused on the research problem; going off on unrelated tangents.
• Sloppy or imprecise writing, or poor grammar.
• Too much detail on minor issues, but not enough detail on major issues.

Procter, Margaret. The Academic Proposal .  The Lab Report. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Sanford, Keith. Information for Students: Writing a Research Proposal . Baylor University; Wong, Paul T. P. How to Write a Research Proposal . International Network on Personal Meaning. Trinity Western University; Writing Academic Proposals: Conferences, Articles, and Books . The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Writing a Research Proposal . University Library. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

Structure and Writing Style

Beginning the Proposal Process

As with writing a regular academic paper, research proposals are generally organized the same way throughout most social science disciplines. Proposals vary between ten and twenty-five pages in length. However, before you begin, read the assignment carefully and, if anything seems unclear, ask your professor whether there are any specific requirements for organizing and writing the proposal.

A good place to begin is to ask yourself a series of questions:

• What do I want to study?
• Why is the topic important?
• How is it significant within the subject areas covered in my class?
• What problems will it help solve?
• How does it build upon [and hopefully go beyond] research already conducted on the topic?
• What exactly should I plan to do, and can I get it done in the time available?

In general, a compelling research proposal should document your knowledge of the topic and demonstrate your enthusiasm for conducting the study. Approach it with the intention of leaving your readers feeling like--"Wow, that's an exciting idea and I can’t wait to see how it turns out!"

In general your proposal should include the following sections:

I.  Introduction

In the real world of higher education, a research proposal is most often written by scholars seeking grant funding for a research project or it's the first step in getting approval to write a doctoral dissertation. Even if this is just a course assignment, treat your introduction as the initial pitch of an idea or a thorough examination of the significance of a research problem. After reading the introduction, your readers should not only have an understanding of what you want to do, but they should also be able to gain a sense of your passion for the topic and be excited about the study's possible outcomes. Note that most proposals do not include an abstract [summary] before the introduction.

Think about your introduction as a narrative written in one to three paragraphs that succinctly answers the following four questions :

• What is the central research problem?
• What is the topic of study related to that problem?
• What methods should be used to analyze the research problem?
• Why is this important research, what is its significance, and why should someone reading the proposal care about the outcomes of the proposed study?

II.  Background and Significance

This section can be melded into your introduction or you can create a separate section to help with the organization and narrative flow of your proposal. This is where you explain the context of your proposal and describe in detail why it's important. Approach writing this section with the thought that you can’t assume your readers will know as much about the research problem as you do. Note that this section is not an essay going over everything you have learned about the topic; instead, you must choose what is relevant to help explain the goals for your study.

To that end, while there are no hard and fast rules, you should attempt to address some or all of the following key points:

• State the research problem and give a more detailed explanation about the purpose of the study than what you stated in the introduction. This is particularly important if the problem is complex or multifaceted .
• Present the rationale of your proposed study and clearly indicate why it is worth doing. Answer the "So What? question [i.e., why should anyone care].
• Describe the major issues or problems to be addressed by your research. Be sure to note how your proposed study builds on previous assumptions about the research problem.
• Explain how you plan to go about conducting your research. Clearly identify the key sources you intend to use and explain how they will contribute to your analysis of the topic.
• Set the boundaries of your proposed research in order to provide a clear focus. Where appropriate, state not only what you will study, but what is excluded from the study.
• If necessary, provide definitions of key concepts or terms.

III.  Literature Review

Connected to the background and significance of your study is a section of your proposal devoted to a more deliberate review and synthesis of prior studies related to the research problem under investigation . The purpose here is to place your project within the larger whole of what is currently being explored, while demonstrating to your readers that your work is original and innovative. Think about what questions other researchers have asked, what methods they have used, and what is your understanding of their findings and, where stated, their recommendations. Do not be afraid to challenge the conclusions of prior research. Assess what you believe is missing and state how previous research has failed to adequately examine the issue that your study addresses. For more information on writing literature reviews, GO HERE .

Since a literature review is information dense, it is crucial that this section is intelligently structured to enable a reader to grasp the key arguments underpinning your study in relation to that of other researchers. A good strategy is to break the literature into "conceptual categories" [themes] rather than systematically describing groups of materials one at a time. Note that conceptual categories generally reveal themselves after you have read most of the pertinent literature on your topic so adding new categories is an on-going process of discovery as you read more studies. How do you know you've covered the key conceptual categories underlying the research literature? Generally, you can have confidence that all of the significant conceptual categories have been identified if you start to see repetition in the conclusions or recommendations that are being made.

To help frame your proposal's literature review, here are the "five C’s" of writing a literature review:

• Cite , so as to keep the primary focus on the literature pertinent to your research problem.
• Compare the various arguments, theories, methodologies, and findings expressed in the literature: what do the authors agree on? Who applies similar approaches to analyzing the research problem?
• Contrast the various arguments, themes, methodologies, approaches, and controversies expressed in the literature: what are the major areas of disagreement, controversy, or debate?
• Critique the literature: Which arguments are more persuasive, and why? Which approaches, findings, methodologies seem most reliable, valid, or appropriate, and why? Pay attention to the verbs you use to describe what an author says/does [e.g., asserts, demonstrates, argues, etc.] .
• Connect the literature to your own area of research and investigation: how does your own work draw upon, depart from, synthesize, or add a new perspective to what has been said in the literature?

IV.  Research Design and Methods

This section must be well-written and logically organized because you are not actually doing the research, yet, your reader must have confidence that it is worth pursuing . The reader will never have a study outcome from which to evaluate whether your methodological choices were the correct ones. Thus, the objective here is to convince the reader that your overall research design and methods of analysis will correctly address the problem and that the methods will provide the means to effectively interpret the potential results. Your design and methods should be unmistakably tied to the specific aims of your study.

Describe the overall research design by building upon and drawing examples from your review of the literature. Consider not only methods that other researchers have used but methods of data gathering that have not been used but perhaps could be. Be specific about the methodological approaches you plan to undertake to obtain information, the techniques you would use to analyze the data, and the tests of external validity to which you commit yourself [i.e., the trustworthiness by which you can generalize from your study to other people, places, events, and/or periods of time].

When describing the methods you will use, be sure to cover the following:

• Specify the research operations you will undertake and the way you will interpret the results of these operations in relation to the research problem. Don't just describe what you intend to achieve from applying the methods you choose, but state how you will spend your time while applying these methods [e.g., coding text from interviews to find statements about the need to change school curriculum; running a regression to determine if there is a relationship between campaign advertising on social media sites and election outcomes in Europe ].
• Keep in mind that a methodology is not just a list of tasks; it is an argument as to why these tasks add up to the best way to investigate the research problem. This is an important point because the mere listing of tasks to be performed does not demonstrate that, collectively, they effectively address the research problem. Be sure you explain this.
• Anticipate and acknowledge any potential barriers and pitfalls in carrying out your research design and explain how you plan to address them. No method is perfect so you need to describe where you believe challenges may exist in obtaining data or accessing information. It's always better to acknowledge this than to have it brought up by your reader.

Develop a Research Proposal: Writing the Proposal . Office of Library Information Services. Baltimore County Public Schools; Heath, M. Teresa Pereira and Caroline Tynan. “Crafting a Research Proposal.” The Marketing Review 10 (Summer 2010): 147-168; Jones, Mark. “Writing a Research Proposal.” In MasterClass in Geography Education: Transforming Teaching and Learning . Graham Butt, editor. (New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2015), pp. 113-127; Juni, Muhamad Hanafiah. “Writing a Research Proposal.” International Journal of Public Health and Clinical Sciences 1 (September/October 2014): 229-240; Krathwohl, David R. How to Prepare a Dissertation Proposal: Suggestions for Students in Education and the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2005; Procter, Margaret. The Academic Proposal . The Lab Report. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Punch, Keith and Wayne McGowan. "Developing and Writing a Research Proposal." In From Postgraduate to Social Scientist: A Guide to Key Skills . Nigel Gilbert, ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2006), 59-81; Wong, Paul T. P. How to Write a Research Proposal . International Network on Personal Meaning. Trinity Western University; Writing Academic Proposals: Conferences, Articles, and Books . The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Writing a Research Proposal . University Library. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

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What (Exactly) Is A Research Proposal?

A simple explainer with examples + free template.

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | Reviewed By: Dr Eunice Rautenbach | June 2020 (Updated April 2023)

Whether you’re nearing the end of your degree and your dissertation is on the horizon, or you’re planning to apply for a PhD program, chances are you’ll need to craft a convincing research proposal . If you’re on this page, you’re probably unsure exactly what the research proposal is all about. Well, you’ve come to the right place.

Overview: Research Proposal Basics

• What a research proposal is
• What a research proposal needs to cover
• How to structure your research proposal
• Example /sample proposals
• Proposal writing FAQs
• Key takeaways & additional resources

What is a research proposal?

Simply put, a research proposal is a structured, formal document that explains what you plan to research (your research topic), why it’s worth researching (your justification), and how  you plan to investigate it (your methodology). 

The purpose of the research proposal (its job, so to speak) is to convince  your research supervisor, committee or university that your research is  suitable  (for the requirements of the degree program) and  manageable  (given the time and resource constraints you will face). 

The most important word here is “ convince ” – in other words, your research proposal needs to  sell  your research idea (to whoever is going to approve it). If it doesn’t convince them (of its suitability and manageability), you’ll need to revise and resubmit . This will cost you valuable time, which will either delay the start of your research or eat into its time allowance (which is bad news). 

What goes into a research proposal?

A good dissertation or thesis proposal needs to cover the “ what “, “ why ” and” how ” of the proposed study. Let’s look at each of these attributes in a little more detail:

Your proposal needs to clearly articulate your research topic . This needs to be specific and unambiguous . Your research topic should make it clear exactly what you plan to research and in what context. Here’s an example of a well-articulated research topic:

An investigation into the factors which impact female Generation Y consumer’s likelihood to promote a specific makeup brand to their peers: a British context

As you can see, this topic is extremely clear. From this one line we can see exactly:

• What’s being investigated – factors that make people promote or advocate for a brand of a specific makeup brand
• Who it involves – female Gen-Y consumers
• In what context – the United Kingdom

So, make sure that your research proposal provides a detailed explanation of your research topic . If possible, also briefly outline your research aims and objectives , and perhaps even your research questions (although in some cases you’ll only develop these at a later stage). Needless to say, don’t start writing your proposal until you have a clear topic in mind , or you’ll end up waffling and your research proposal will suffer as a result of this.

Need a helping hand?

As we touched on earlier, it’s not good enough to simply propose a research topic – you need to justify why your topic is original . In other words, what makes it  unique ? What gap in the current literature does it fill? If it’s simply a rehash of the existing research, it’s probably not going to get approval – it needs to be fresh.

But,  originality  alone is not enough. Once you’ve ticked that box, you also need to justify why your proposed topic is  important . In other words, what value will it add to the world if you achieve your research aims?

As an example, let’s look at the sample research topic we mentioned earlier (factors impacting brand advocacy). In this case, if the research could uncover relevant factors, these findings would be very useful to marketers in the cosmetics industry, and would, therefore, have commercial value . That is a clear justification for the research.

So, when you’re crafting your research proposal, remember that it’s not enough for a topic to simply be unique. It needs to be useful and value-creating – and you need to convey that value in your proposal. If you’re struggling to find a research topic that makes the cut, watch  our video covering how to find a research topic .

It’s all good and well to have a great topic that’s original and valuable, but you’re not going to convince anyone to approve it without discussing the practicalities – in other words:

• How will you actually undertake your research (i.e., your methodology)?
• Is your research methodology appropriate given your research aims?
• Is your approach manageable given your constraints (time, money, etc.)?

While it’s generally not expected that you’ll have a fully fleshed-out methodology at the proposal stage, you’ll likely still need to provide a high-level overview of your research methodology . Here are some important questions you’ll need to address in your research proposal:

• Will you take a qualitative , quantitative or mixed -method approach?
• What sampling strategy will you adopt?
• How will you collect your data (e.g., interviews, surveys, etc)?
• How will you analyse your data (e.g., descriptive and inferential statistics , content analysis, discourse analysis, etc, .)?
• What potential limitations will your methodology carry?

So, be sure to give some thought to the practicalities of your research and have at least a basic methodological plan before you start writing up your proposal. If this all sounds rather intimidating, the video below provides a good introduction to research methodology and the key choices you’ll need to make.

How To Structure A Research Proposal

Now that we’ve covered the key points that need to be addressed in a proposal, you may be wondering, “ But how is a research proposal structured? “.

While the exact structure and format required for a research proposal differs from university to university, there are four “essential ingredients” that commonly make up the structure of a research proposal:

• A rich introduction and background to the proposed research
• An initial literature review covering the existing research
• An overview of the proposed research methodology
• A discussion regarding the practicalities (project plans, timelines, etc.)

In the video below, we unpack each of these four sections, step by step.

Research Proposal Examples/Samples

In the video below, we provide a detailed walkthrough of two successful research proposals (Master’s and PhD-level), as well as our popular free proposal template.

Proposal Writing FAQs

How long should a research proposal be.

This varies tremendously, depending on the university, the field of study (e.g., social sciences vs natural sciences), and the level of the degree (e.g. undergraduate, Masters or PhD) – so it’s always best to check with your university what their specific requirements are before you start planning your proposal.

As a rough guide, a formal research proposal at Masters-level often ranges between 2000-3000 words, while a PhD-level proposal can be far more detailed, ranging from 5000-8000 words. In some cases, a rough outline of the topic is all that’s needed, while in other cases, universities expect a very detailed proposal that essentially forms the first three chapters of the dissertation or thesis.

The takeaway – be sure to check with your institution before you start writing.

How do I choose a topic for my research proposal?

Finding a good research topic is a process that involves multiple steps. We cover the topic ideation process in this video post.

How do I write a literature review for my proposal?

While you typically won’t need a comprehensive literature review at the proposal stage, you still need to demonstrate that you’re familiar with the key literature and are able to synthesise it. We explain the literature review process here.

How do I create a timeline and budget for my proposal?

We explain how to craft a project plan/timeline and budget in Research Proposal Bootcamp .

Which referencing format should I use in my research proposal?

The expectations and requirements regarding formatting and referencing vary from institution to institution. Therefore, you’ll need to check this information with your university.

What common proposal writing mistakes do I need to look out for?

We’ve create a video post about some of the most common mistakes students make when writing a proposal – you can access that here . If you’re short on time, here’s a quick summary:

• The research topic is too broad (or just poorly articulated).
• The research aims, objectives and questions don’t align.
• The research topic is not well justified.
• The study has a weak theoretical foundation.
• The research design is not well articulated well enough.
• Poor writing and sloppy presentation.
• Poor project planning and risk management.
• Not following the university’s specific criteria.

Key Takeaways & Additional Resources

As you write up your research proposal, remember the all-important core purpose:  to convince . Your research proposal needs to sell your study in terms of suitability and viability. So, focus on crafting a convincing narrative to ensure a strong proposal.

At the same time, pay close attention to your university’s requirements. While we’ve covered the essentials here, every institution has its own set of expectations and it’s essential that you follow these to maximise your chances of approval.

By the way, we’ve got plenty more resources to help you fast-track your research proposal. Here are some of our most popular resources to get you started:

• Proposal Writing 101 : A Introductory Webinar
• Research Proposal Bootcamp : The Ultimate Online Course
• Template : A basic template to help you craft your proposal

If you’re looking for 1-on-1 support with your research proposal, be sure to check out our private coaching service , where we hold your hand through the proposal development process (and the entire research journey), step by step.

Psst… there’s more!

This post is an extract from our bestselling short course, Research Proposal Bootcamp . If you want to work smart, you don't want to miss this .

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51 Comments

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I would be interested in getting some coaching.

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Bundle of thanks to you for the research proposal guide it was really good and useful if it is possible please send me the sample of research proposal

You’re most welcome. We don’t have any research proposals that we can share (the students own the intellectual property), but you might find our research proposal template useful: https://gradcoach.com/research-proposal-template/

Cheruiyot Moses Kipyegon

Thanks alot. It was an eye opener that came timely enough before my imminent proposal defense. Thanks, again

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Thank you. This is a great insight. I am a student preparing for a PhD program. I am requested to write my Research Proposal as part of what I am required to submit before my unconditional admission. I am grateful having listened to this video which will go a long way in helping me to actually choose a topic of interest and not just any topic as well as to narrow down the topic and be specific about it. I indeed need more of this especially as am trying to choose a topic suitable for a DBA am about embarking on. Thank you once more. The video is indeed helpful.

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I need any research proposal

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Writing a Research Proposal

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Your research proposal may be a part of your dissertation, submitted in advance, or submitted as a separate piece of work. You may also be required to write a research proposal as part of a grant application.

Whether or not you are required to submit a research proposal before your dissertation, it is good practice to summarise what you plan to do, and why, before you start as it will help to keep your research on track.

A research proposal is a document in which you outline the case for undertaking the research project, your dissertation or thesis, and present your plans for carrying out the work. 

It is needed to persuade supervisors, funders and other stakeholders of the value of the research and the likelihood that it will successfully be able to answer the research question(s). 

A typical research proposal contains:

An introduction outlining the topic and questions for investigation, as well as a brief literature review and theoretical framework.

A detailed strategy explaining what the research methods are, what data will be collected and how access to data sources will be obtained.

A realistic timetable for completion, showing key milestones and when they will be accomplished. You will be working to deadlines.

Discussion of logistical and ethical considerations.

Limitations of the proposed research.

An indicative bibliography of references consulted to date on the topic.

In addition, when a research proposal is made to a funding body or when plans for communication are not implicit in the project (e.g., when the research is undertaken for a dissertation), then it is usual to include a detailed budget and a description of the communication plans in the proposal.

Identifying your Topic

The first step in any research is to identify the topic of interest. Think about which areas have most interested you in your studies to date, and what you would most like to explore.

Then start to read around those subjects to narrow down the field of interest. Now is a good time to identify a possible supervisor and talk to them about whether they would be prepared to supervise you and help you narrow down your research topic.

As a general principle, it is better to research a narrow topic in more detail than a broad one in very little detail.

Start to write up your research proposal as you read around your subject.

Summarise the texts that you read and group ideas into themes as you go, not forgetting to reference very carefully. It is much easier to take irrelevant text and references out later than to add them in and remember where the ideas came from.

See our page: Academic Referencing for more on effective referencing.

Defining your Research Questions

Once you have identified your field of interest, you can then start to identify one or more research questions to answer. Again, a narrow question that you can research in detail is better than a broad one that you will not be able to cover in full.

Your research question(s) should be ones that have not been fully answered in previous research so that you are adding to the literature. However, you want your literature review to have at least something to report, so an area where there is already plenty of research is better than a completely new topic. You can always find a sector, study group, or other unique element that will make the research worthwhile, even if others have done similar studies before.

Thinking about your research topic, ask yourself it is that you actually want to find out?  Frame it as a question that you could ask somebody: good research questions often begin with asking words like who, what, when, where, why, how, and how much.  Once you have brainstormed several questions related to your topic, look at each one individually against the following checklist of considerations. 

Is the question interesting?

Is there a social or practical value in knowing the answer to this question?

Is the scope of the question specific enough that you would realistically be able to answer it within the limits (time and cost) of the project you are going to undertake?  If not, you may need to narrow down the focus even further.

Does the question suggest the kind of information you would need to answer it, and how you would go about getting that information?

Would it be feasible to get the information necessary to answer the question?

By the time you have finished developing your research question(s), they should be tight and carefully defined, including a clear idea of the sector or area of study, study population, and what someone will know after reading your research.

Choosing a Title

Once you have a topic, and research question(s), then you can decide on a title, which should broadly cover your research question(s) and summarise what you are going to do.

Working Title

It’s fine to change your title later on, or at least to tweak it, so consider this a working title for now.

Using your Supervisor

You can and should use your dissertation supervisor as a sounding board as you develop your thinking, although beware of bombarding them with enthusiastic and/or panicky emails.

It’s usually better to ask for a meeting to discuss your ideas, rather than trying to have a discussion by email.

Keep a note of ideas and questions, and then send a single email to your supervisor requesting an appointment, and setting out your broad thinking, preferably with your outline research questions.

Your supervisor will soon make clear whether they think your ideas are too broad for study and will hopefully help you to narrow them down.

Outline Methodology

Once you have defined your research questions, you need to set out broadly what you plan to do to answer them, and why.

Everything that you do should have a clear reason ‘I thought it might be fun’ is not considered good enough.

Your outline methodology should explain:

The broad approach that you plan to take and why, whether qualitative, quantitative, or a mixture of both (and if a mixture, use of the phrase ‘triangulation of results’ is useful to show that you understand that gaining the same results from different sources makes them more powerful);

Some idea of what exactly you plan to do within that approach: your study population, the experimental techniques that you’ll use, such as questionnaires, interviews, or both, again with good academic reasons for your choice;

Any weaknesses in your planned approach, and how you plan to overcome them;

How what you plan to do links back to your research questions and will help you to answer them;

How you will analyse the results, with good academic reasons for your selections.

This section is designed to show that you know what you’re going to do, and why. It will also serve to show whether you’re trying to do too much/too little, which your supervisor should point out to you at an early stage.

See our section on Research Methods for more about how you may go about conducting your research.

Ethical Approval

Any study involving human or animal subjects will need ethical approval, which will usually be from the university’s ethics committee.

There is likely to be a standard form to complete, which you may need to submit as part of your research proposal. Check the university’s requirements, and if necessary consult your supervisor about what to include.

An example ethical committee approval form may include questions such as:

A Word on Word Count

If you are submitting a grant application, or research proposal to a university, you will probably have a maximum word count or be given an acceptable word count range.

It’s important to stick to the word count. If the maximum is 2000 words, and you’ve written 500, you probably haven’t provided enough detail. On the other hand, if you’ve written twice as much as expected, then you’ll need to cut it down considerably.

A Final Word

Always check your university or grant-awarding body’s guidelines to make sure that you’ve included all the necessary information, and that this is in the required format.

It is extremely annoying to have something rejected, or have to rewrite it because of a formality like the font size.

See our study skills page: Assignment Finishing Touches for some general ideas about presentation and formatting your work.

Continue to: Writing a Methodology Research Methods

See Also: Writing a Literature Review Dissertation Results and Discussion Dissertation Conclusions and Extra Sections

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Developing an Effective Research Proposal

Welcome to this RMIT University Library online module which provides you with key information, strategies and resources for developing an effective research proposal.

The module is aimed at graduate researchers (PhD or Masters by Research) who are seeking to understand why and how to write their research proposal.

The course materials include information, videos and learning activities which explore key features of developing effective research proposals.

We hope you find this module useful and stimulating.

Learning objectives

On successful completion of the module, you will be able to:

• determine the purpose and importance of the research proposal
• create effective research questions
• identify they key components which structure a research proposal, and
• familiarise yourself with writing the “what”, “why” and “how” sections of your proposal.

This module should take you about 30 minutes to complete.

Work through each chapter using the navigation footer ( i.e.  previous/next) or use the contents page to select a particular section.

Please help us improve this module by taking a moment to complete the feedback form provided at the end.

Research and Writing Skills for Academic and Graduate Researchers Copyright © 2022 by RMIT University is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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10 Helpful Steps for Writing a Graduate Research Proposal

The road to obtain a graduate degree is unquestionably long. But we have ten incredibly helpful steps for writing your graduate research proposal. When you finally reach your destination, it will all be worthwhile.

As a graduate student, when you start your journey, you must write, present and defend a graduate research proposal in front of a committee of professors, also known as a graduate advisory committee.

A research proposal is usually short, with only fewer than ten pages, but it has to cover the proposed research in detail. After the committee approves it, you should follow the research plan explained in the research proposal to complete your research project.

Figure 1. The typical timeline in graduate school.

Why is it important to write a research proposal?

There are eight major reasons for graduate students to write a research proposal in graduate school:

• It's required by the graduate school before performing research.
• Students become more familiar with the research project
• They develop research skills and academic writing skills.
• Students develop literature review skills.
• Students learn how to identify the research problem, objective, research questions and hypothesis.
• They learn to explore different methods to collect and analyze data, and to select the most appropriate methods for solving research problems.
• They learn to design research experiments based on logical and chronological steps.
• The process nurtures critical thinking and logical reasoning skills.

What to include in a research proposal

The common elements to include in a good research proposal are:

• Title : The title of a research proposal should be clear and brief.
• Introduction : This part contains the background information of the proposed study leading to the research problem.
• Statement of purpose : This element should include the research objectives.
• Literature review : It should include an overview of findings from the previous studies, the gaps in the previous studies and the findings from a preliminary study.
• Research questions and hypothesis : This includes the research questions and hypothesis.
• Methodology : This element contains a full description of the research procedures, possible problems and alternatives strategies.
• The significance and impact of the study : This part shows how the proposed research will contribute to the field of study.

The 10 steps to writing an incredible research proposal

Below are ten steps for writing a research proposal:

1.Choose a research topic and develop a working title

Having a strong interest in your research topic will certainly help you to keep going when the journey becomes more challenging. The research topic is the subject of your research, which is a part of a broader field of study.

When you pick a research topic, find a topic that is not too narrow nor too broad. You can limit your topic, for example, by focusing on a certain treatment, population group, species, geographical area, period, methodology, or other specific factors.

After selecting a research topic, develop a working title to help you focus on your topic. As you write the proposal, you can keep changing the working title to formulate the perfect title.

2.Perform a literature review

The next step is to conduct a literature review. This step is important because when you write out the background information and knowledge gaps in your topic area, it will help you become more familiar with your research topic.

In addition, performing a literature review will direct you to a research problem . A research problem is a specific area of concern serving as the focus of your proposed research.

When performing a literature review, a graduate student can also discover some ideas for designing their research plan.

To help you conduct a literature review, answer the following questions below:

What have others done so far to solve the research problem?

Some helpful steps to answer this question:

• Understand the experimental designs from previous studies to help you design your own research experiments.
• Learn about appropriate sample sizes, data collection, and statistical analyses from previous studies.
• Investigate and make a list the reagents and equipment you’ll possibly need for your research.
• Learn the research questions, the findings, the impact and the significance of previous studies.
• Find out about any ethical concerns.

What additional studies are still needed to solve the research problem?

• Pay attention to the strength and limitation part of the discussion section of scientific articles. From this part, make notes about the limitations of previous studies to give you an idea about a potential research problem.
• Read the suggestions for future research part of scientific articles. That can serve as a call to action for you to solve those unanswered questions from previous studies.

3.Write an introduction

The introduction of your research proposal builds a framework for the research. This framework is the structure that supports your study and contains the background information. Its function is similar to the role of a foundation in supporting a building—if it is weak, a building will fall apart. Likewise, if your research lacks a strong background as a framework, it’s hard for others to see why it matters.

Writing your introduction can feel a little overwhelming. Where do you begin? How do you know you’re not missing anything?

You might want to read over our article:

How to Write an Effective Introduction Section of a Scientific Article

While the article is more specific to the introduction section of a formal research paper, there are some parts and tips you might find helpful.

4. Write research objectives or aims

In the next step, include research objectives or aims in the research proposal. A research objective is a goal you want to achieve in your research project ( Al-Riyami, 2008 ). Your research objectives must have a strong connection with your research problem.

When developing research objectives, identify all variables associated with the research problem. A variable in the research is a characteristic that you manipulate or observe in your experiment.

There are different types of variables, including an independent variable and dependent variable (Al-Riyami, 2008). An independent variable is a variable you can change in your experiment, whereas a dependent variable is a variable you observe in response to the independent variable. After identifying the variables, connect them to the research objective.

An example of a research objective: to determine the effect of different doses of a novel antibiotic X on the growth rate of some resistant bacterial strains . In this example, the independent variable is the treatment (the different doses of antibiotic X), and the dependent variable is the growth rate of some bacterial strains.

5.State a research question

The next step is to identify a research question. A research question is the key question you want to answer in your proposed study ( Farrugia et al ., 2010 ). A research project can contain several research questions.

Keep in mind that your research question must meet the criteria of a good research question, including specific, feasible, interesting, novel, ethical, and relevant (Farrugia et al ., 2010).

In term of feasibility, use current methods and technology to answer the question during your limited time in the graduate school.

An example of a research question : What doses of the antibiotic X are effective to inhibit the growth of some resistant bacterial strains?

6.Formulate a research hypothesis

After developing the research objectives and question, the next step is to formulate a research hypothesis. A research hypothesis is a statement of a possible research outcome.

Some criteria of a good hypothesis ( Prasad et al., 2010 ; Al-Riyami, 2008):

• Logical, precise, and clear
• Testable with research experiments
• Makes a prediction about the relationship between variables

An example of a research hypothesis: The new antibiotic X will significantly prevent the growth of some resistant bacterial strains.

7.Explain research methods

The methodology section containing proposed experimental procedures is required for a research proposal. This section has the detailed plan to solve the research problem. It also reflects the research questions and hypothesis.

After reviewing the credibility and validity of your research methods, your advisory committee will make a decision about the fate of your proposed study. Therefore, when writing the methodology section, keep in mind that others should be able to follow each step in the research design to perform the same experiment.

In this section, you should include these following key points:

• Experimental design : This is the research strategy you choose to solve your problem.
• Samples : It contains the description about the samples for each group of treatment in the proposed study.
• Sample size : This information is important to make sure your sample size is sufficient.
• Materials : It contains the reagents and chemicals needed in the proposed study.
• Equipment : This has the list of equipment needed for the proposed study.
• Protocols of data collection : It contains the procedures needed before collecting your data.
• Ethical issues and consent forms : You may need to include these if your proposed studies will need human participants.
• Data analysis : This part should include the steps to analyze the data.
• Gantt chart : This chart contains tasks in each research project with the timeline for each task.

8.Include potential problems and alternative strategies

When performing your study, you may encounter potential problems. Therefore, include some of the possible problems that may occur during your study and the potential solution for them. By doing so, you can use your backup plan to solve each potential problem when the problems actually occurs.

9.Conduct and include a preliminary study

Perform and include the findings from a preliminary study in your research proposal. A preliminary study is a small-scale pilot study, conducted to test the experimental design ahead of time and increase the likelihood of success. By including the findings from a preliminary study, your advisory committee can visualize and assess the feasibility of your large-scale study.

10.State the potential impact and significance

In the last paragraph of your research proposal, include the potential impact and significance of your proposed study.

The potential impact of your study means the changes that your proposed research would make. These changes can be positive or negative, immediate or long-term, and direct or indirect.

Whereas, the potential significance of your study means the contribution that your proposed research would make. For example, you can explain its contribution to the knowledge in your field of study.

After putting it all together, evaluate the entire proposal to make sure it is strong and well written.

Al-Riyami, A. (2008). How to prepare a Research Proposal. Oman Medical Journal, 23(2), 66–69. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC32824...

Benedetti, A. (n.d.). Research Guides: Advanced Research Methods: Writing a Research Proposal. Guides.library.ucla.edu. Retrieved March 17, 2021, from https://guides.library.ucla.edu/c.php?g=180334&p=1289236.

Crawford, L. (2020). LITERATURE-BASED DEFINITIONS OF CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS. https://us.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-assets/105274_book_item_105274.pdf.

Farrugia, P., Petrisor, B. A., Farrokhyar, F., & Bhandari, M. (2010). Practical tips for surgical research: Research questions, hypotheses and objectives. Canadian Journal of Surgery. Journal Canadien de Chirurgie, 53(4), 278–281. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC29120...

How to choose a research area. (2016, April 8). ASCB. https://www.ascb.org/careers/choose-research-area/

How to Select a Research Topic | University of Michigan-Flint. (2019). Umflint.edu; UM-Flint. https://www.umflint.edu/library/how-select-research-topic.

How To Write a Proposal | Science & Quantitative Reasoning. (n.d.). Science.yalecollege.yale.edu. Retrieved March 17, 2021, from https://science.yalecollege.yale.edu/fellowships/how-write-proposal.

Jacobs, R. L. (2013). Developing a dissertation research problem: A guide for doctoral students in human resource development and adult education. New Horizons in Adult Education and Human Resource Development, 25(3), 103–117. https://doi.org/10.1002/nha3.20034.

Kivunja, C. (2018). Distinguishing between Theory, Theoretical Framework, and Conceptual Framework: A Systematic Review of Lessons from the Field. International Journal of Higher Education, 7(6), 44. https://doi.org/10.5430/ijhe.v7n6p44.

LibGuides: Writing a Research Proposal: Parts of a Proposal. (2017). Illinois.edu. https://guides.library.illinois.edu/c.php?g=504643&p=3454882.

LibGuides: Research Process: Finding a Research Topic. (2019). Libguides.com. https://ncu.libguides.com/researchprocess/researchtopic.

LibGuides: Research Process: Literature Gap and Future Research. (2012). Libguides.com. https://ncu.libguides.com/researchprocess/literaturegap.

Pajares, F. (n.d.). THE ELEMENTS OF A PROPOSAL. https://www.uky.edu/~eushe2/Pajares/ElementsOfaProposal.pdf.

Prasad, S., Rao, A., & Rehani, E. (2001). DEVELOPING HYPOTHESES & RESEARCH QUESTIONS DEVELOPING HYPOTHESIS AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS. https://www.public.asu.edu/~kroel/www500/hypothesi...

Shardlow, M., Batista-Navarro, R., Thompson, P., Nawaz, R., McNaught, J., & Ananiadou, S. (2018). Identification of research hypotheses and new knowledge from scientific literature. BMC Medical Informatics and Decision Making, 18(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12911-018-0639-1

Steps in Developing a Research Proposal. Open.lib.umn.edu; University of Minnesota Libraries Publishing edition, 2015. This edition adapted from a work originally produced in 2010 by a publisher who has requested that it not receive attribution. https://open.lib.umn.edu/writingforsuccess/chapter...

Vining, S. (2019, July 22). Dissertation Proposal | Genetics and Genomics. https://genetics.mcb.uconn.edu/dissertation-propos...

Writing a Research Plan. (2017, December 11). Science | AAAS. https://www.sciencemag.org/careers

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How to write a research proposal?

Department of Anaesthesiology, Bangalore Medical College and Research Institute, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India

Devika Rani Duggappa

Writing the proposal of a research work in the present era is a challenging task due to the constantly evolving trends in the qualitative research design and the need to incorporate medical advances into the methodology. The proposal is a detailed plan or ‘blueprint’ for the intended study, and once it is completed, the research project should flow smoothly. Even today, many of the proposals at post-graduate evaluation committees and application proposals for funding are substandard. A search was conducted with keywords such as research proposal, writing proposal and qualitative using search engines, namely, PubMed and Google Scholar, and an attempt has been made to provide broad guidelines for writing a scientifically appropriate research proposal.

INTRODUCTION

A clean, well-thought-out proposal forms the backbone for the research itself and hence becomes the most important step in the process of conduct of research.[ 1 ] The objective of preparing a research proposal would be to obtain approvals from various committees including ethics committee [details under ‘Research methodology II’ section [ Table 1 ] in this issue of IJA) and to request for grants. However, there are very few universally accepted guidelines for preparation of a good quality research proposal. A search was performed with keywords such as research proposal, funding, qualitative and writing proposals using search engines, namely, PubMed, Google Scholar and Scopus.

Five ‘C’s while writing a literature review

BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

A proposal needs to show how your work fits into what is already known about the topic and what new paradigm will it add to the literature, while specifying the question that the research will answer, establishing its significance, and the implications of the answer.[ 2 ] The proposal must be capable of convincing the evaluation committee about the credibility, achievability, practicality and reproducibility (repeatability) of the research design.[ 3 ] Four categories of audience with different expectations may be present in the evaluation committees, namely academic colleagues, policy-makers, practitioners and lay audiences who evaluate the research proposal. Tips for preparation of a good research proposal include; ‘be practical, be persuasive, make broader links, aim for crystal clarity and plan before you write’. A researcher must be balanced, with a realistic understanding of what can be achieved. Being persuasive implies that researcher must be able to convince other researchers, research funding agencies, educational institutions and supervisors that the research is worth getting approval. The aim of the researcher should be clearly stated in simple language that describes the research in a way that non-specialists can comprehend, without use of jargons. The proposal must not only demonstrate that it is based on an intelligent understanding of the existing literature but also show that the writer has thought about the time needed to conduct each stage of the research.[ 4 , 5 ]

CONTENTS OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

The contents or formats of a research proposal vary depending on the requirements of evaluation committee and are generally provided by the evaluation committee or the institution.

In general, a cover page should contain the (i) title of the proposal, (ii) name and affiliation of the researcher (principal investigator) and co-investigators, (iii) institutional affiliation (degree of the investigator and the name of institution where the study will be performed), details of contact such as phone numbers, E-mail id's and lines for signatures of investigators.

The main contents of the proposal may be presented under the following headings: (i) introduction, (ii) review of literature, (iii) aims and objectives, (iv) research design and methods, (v) ethical considerations, (vi) budget, (vii) appendices and (viii) citations.[ 4 ]

Introduction

It is also sometimes termed as ‘need for study’ or ‘abstract’. Introduction is an initial pitch of an idea; it sets the scene and puts the research in context.[ 6 ] The introduction should be designed to create interest in the reader about the topic and proposal. It should convey to the reader, what you want to do, what necessitates the study and your passion for the topic.[ 7 ] Some questions that can be used to assess the significance of the study are: (i) Who has an interest in the domain of inquiry? (ii) What do we already know about the topic? (iii) What has not been answered adequately in previous research and practice? (iv) How will this research add to knowledge, practice and policy in this area? Some of the evaluation committees, expect the last two questions, elaborated under a separate heading of ‘background and significance’.[ 8 ] Introduction should also contain the hypothesis behind the research design. If hypothesis cannot be constructed, the line of inquiry to be used in the research must be indicated.

Review of literature

It refers to all sources of scientific evidence pertaining to the topic in interest. In the present era of digitalisation and easy accessibility, there is an enormous amount of relevant data available, making it a challenge for the researcher to include all of it in his/her review.[ 9 ] It is crucial to structure this section intelligently so that the reader can grasp the argument related to your study in relation to that of other researchers, while still demonstrating to your readers that your work is original and innovative. It is preferable to summarise each article in a paragraph, highlighting the details pertinent to the topic of interest. The progression of review can move from the more general to the more focused studies, or a historical progression can be used to develop the story, without making it exhaustive.[ 1 ] Literature should include supporting data, disagreements and controversies. Five ‘C's may be kept in mind while writing a literature review[ 10 ] [ Table 1 ].

Aims and objectives

The research purpose (or goal or aim) gives a broad indication of what the researcher wishes to achieve in the research. The hypothesis to be tested can be the aim of the study. The objectives related to parameters or tools used to achieve the aim are generally categorised as primary and secondary objectives.

Research design and method

The objective here is to convince the reader that the overall research design and methods of analysis will correctly address the research problem and to impress upon the reader that the methodology/sources chosen are appropriate for the specific topic. It should be unmistakably tied to the specific aims of your study.

In this section, the methods and sources used to conduct the research must be discussed, including specific references to sites, databases, key texts or authors that will be indispensable to the project. There should be specific mention about the methodological approaches to be undertaken to gather information, about the techniques to be used to analyse it and about the tests of external validity to which researcher is committed.[ 10 , 11 ]

The components of this section include the following:[ 4 ]

Population and sample

Population refers to all the elements (individuals, objects or substances) that meet certain criteria for inclusion in a given universe,[ 12 ] and sample refers to subset of population which meets the inclusion criteria for enrolment into the study. The inclusion and exclusion criteria should be clearly defined. The details pertaining to sample size are discussed in the article “Sample size calculation: Basic priniciples” published in this issue of IJA.

Data collection

The researcher is expected to give a detailed account of the methodology adopted for collection of data, which include the time frame required for the research. The methodology should be tested for its validity and ensure that, in pursuit of achieving the results, the participant's life is not jeopardised. The author should anticipate and acknowledge any potential barrier and pitfall in carrying out the research design and explain plans to address them, thereby avoiding lacunae due to incomplete data collection. If the researcher is planning to acquire data through interviews or questionnaires, copy of the questions used for the same should be attached as an annexure with the proposal.

Rigor (soundness of the research)

This addresses the strength of the research with respect to its neutrality, consistency and applicability. Rigor must be reflected throughout the proposal.

It refers to the robustness of a research method against bias. The author should convey the measures taken to avoid bias, viz. blinding and randomisation, in an elaborate way, thus ensuring that the result obtained from the adopted method is purely as chance and not influenced by other confounding variables.

Consistency

Consistency considers whether the findings will be consistent if the inquiry was replicated with the same participants and in a similar context. This can be achieved by adopting standard and universally accepted methods and scales.

Applicability

Applicability refers to the degree to which the findings can be applied to different contexts and groups.[ 13 ]

Data analysis

This section deals with the reduction and reconstruction of data and its analysis including sample size calculation. The researcher is expected to explain the steps adopted for coding and sorting the data obtained. Various tests to be used to analyse the data for its robustness, significance should be clearly stated. Author should also mention the names of statistician and suitable software which will be used in due course of data analysis and their contribution to data analysis and sample calculation.[ 9 ]

Ethical considerations

Medical research introduces special moral and ethical problems that are not usually encountered by other researchers during data collection, and hence, the researcher should take special care in ensuring that ethical standards are met. Ethical considerations refer to the protection of the participants' rights (right to self-determination, right to privacy, right to autonomy and confidentiality, right to fair treatment and right to protection from discomfort and harm), obtaining informed consent and the institutional review process (ethical approval). The researcher needs to provide adequate information on each of these aspects.

Informed consent needs to be obtained from the participants (details discussed in further chapters), as well as the research site and the relevant authorities.

When the researcher prepares a research budget, he/she should predict and cost all aspects of the research and then add an additional allowance for unpredictable disasters, delays and rising costs. All items in the budget should be justified.

Appendices are documents that support the proposal and application. The appendices will be specific for each proposal but documents that are usually required include informed consent form, supporting documents, questionnaires, measurement tools and patient information of the study in layman's language.

As with any scholarly research paper, you must cite the sources you used in composing your proposal. Although the words ‘references and bibliography’ are different, they are used interchangeably. It refers to all references cited in the research proposal.

Successful, qualitative research proposals should communicate the researcher's knowledge of the field and method and convey the emergent nature of the qualitative design. The proposal should follow a discernible logic from the introduction to presentation of the appendices.

Financial support and sponsorship

Conflicts of interest.

There are no conflicts of interest.

LBST 2301 (SOCY): Critical Thinking & Communication - Karen Cushing

• How to Develop a Research Question
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Popular vs. Scholarly Resources
• Annotated Bibliography
• Citing Your Sources

Tips on Preparing a Research Proposal

Common mistakes to avoid.

• Failure to be concise.  A research proposal must be focused and not be "all over the map" or diverge into  on unrelated tangents without a clear sense of purpose.
• Failure to cite landmark works in your literature review.  Proposals should be grounded in foundational research that lays a foundation for understanding the development and scope of the issue.
• Failure to delimit the contextual boundaries of your research  [e.g., time, place, people, etc.]. As with any research paper, your proposed study must inform the reader how and in what ways the study will examine the problem.
• Failure to develop a coherent and persuasive argument for the proposed research . This is critical. In many workplace settings, the research proposal is intended to argue for why a study should be funded.
• Sloppy or imprecise writing, or poor grammar.  Although a research proposal does not represent a completed research study, there is still an expectation that it is well-written and follows the style and rules of good academic writing.
• Too much detail on minor issues, but not enough detail on major issues.  Your proposal should focus on only a few key research questions in order to support the argument that the research needs to be conducted. Minor issues, even if valid, can be mentioned but they should not dominate the overall narrative.

--------------------------------------

Adapted from "Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper," USC Libraries, University of Southern California, <https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/researchproposal>, accessed 4 Feb.. 2022.

Research Proposals

What is a Research Proposal

A research proposal is simply a structured, formal document that explains  what  you plan to research (i.e. your research topic),  why  it’s worth r esearching (i.e. your justification), and  how  you plan to investigate it (i.e. your practical approach). 

The purpose of the research proposal (it’s job, so to speak) is to  convince  your research supervisor, committee or university that your research is  suitable  (for the requirements of the degree program) and  manageable  (given the time and resource constraints you will face). 

The most important word here is “ convince ” – in other words, your research proposal needs to  sell  your research idea (to whoever is going to approve it). If it doesn’t convince them (of its suitability and manageability), you’ll need to revise and resubmit. This will cost you valuable time, which will either delay the start of your research or eat into its time allowance (which is bad news). 

Research proposals generally follow the same format as a research paper, with an introduction, a literature review, a discussion of research methodology and goals, and a conclusion.

From: Wong, Paul T. P.  How to Write a Research Proposal . International Network on Personal Meaning. Trinity Western University

Components of a Research Proposal

Introduction.

The first part of your proposal is the initial pitch for your project, so make sure it succinctly explains what you want to do and why. It should:

• Introduce the topic
• Give background and context
• Outline your  t problem statement and research question(s)

Some important questions to guide your introduction include:

• Who has an interest in the topic (e.g. scientists, practitioners, policymakers, particular members of society)?
• How much is already known about the problem?
• What is missing from current knowledge?
• What new insights will your research contribute?
• Why is this research worth doing?

If your proposal is very long, you might include separate sections with more detailed information on the background and context, problem statement, aims and objectives, and importance of the research.

Literature review

It’s important to show that you’re familiar with the most important research on your topic. A strong  literature review  convinces the reader that your project has a solid foundation in existing knowledge or theory. It also shows that you’re not simply repeating what other people have already done or said.

In this section, aim to demonstrate exactly how your project will contribute to conversations in the field.

• Compare and contrast: what are the main theories, methods, debates and controversies?
• Be critical: what are the strengths and weaknesses of different approaches?
• Show how your research fits in: how will you build on, challenge, or synthesize the work of others?

The literature review serves several important functions:

• Ensures that you are not "reinventing the wheel".
• Gives credits to those who have laid the groundwork for your research.
• Demonstrates your knowledge of the research problem.
• Demonstrates your understanding of the theoretical and research issues related to your research question.
• Shows your ability to critically evaluate relevant literature information.
• Indicates your ability to integrate and synthesize the existing literature.
• Provides new theoretical insights or develops a new model as the conceptual framework for your research.
• Convinces your reader that your proposed research will make a significant and substantial contribution to the literature (i.e., resolving an important theoretical issue or filling a major gap in the literature).

The purpose of the discussion is to interpret and describe the significance of your findings in light of what was already known about the research problem being investigated, and to explain any new understanding or fresh insights about the problem after you've taken the findings into consideration. The discussion will always connect to the introduction by way of the research questions or hypotheses you posed and the literature you reviewed, but it does not simply repeat or rearrange the introduction; the discussion should always explain how your study has moved the reader's understanding of the research problem forward from where you left them at the end of the introduction.

This section is often considered the most important part of a research paper  because it most effectively demonstrates your ability as a researcher to think critically about an issue, to develop creative solutions to problems based on the findings, and to formulate a deeper, more profound understanding of the research problem you are studying.

The discussion section is where you explore the underlying meaning of your research , its possible implications in other areas of study, and the possible improvements that can be made in order to further develop the concerns of your research.

This is the section where you need to present the importance of your study  and how it may be able to contribute to and/or fill existing gaps in the field. If appropriate, the discussion section is also where you state how the findings from your study revealed new gaps in the literature that had not been previously exposed or adequately described.

This part of the paper is not strictly governed by objective reporting of information  but, rather, it is where you can engage in creative thinking about issues through evidence-based interpretation of findings. This is where you infuse your results with meaning.

Kretchmer, Paul.  Fourteen Steps to Writing to Writing an Effective Discussion Section . San Francisco Edit, 2003-2008.

The conclusion is intended to help the reader understand why your research should matter to them after they have finished reading the paper. A conclusion is not merely a summary of your points or a re-statement of your research problem but a synthesis of key points. For most essays, one well-developed paragraph is sufficient for a conclusion, although in some cases, a two-or-three paragraph conclusion may be required.

A well-written conclusion provides you with several important opportunities to demonstrate your overall understanding of the research problem to the reader. These include:

• Presenting the last word on the issues you raised in your paper . Just as the introduction gives a first impression to your reader, the conclusion offers a chance to leave a lasting impression. Do this, for example, by highlighting key points in your analysis or findings.
• Summarizing your thoughts and conveying the larger implications of your study . The conclusion is an opportunity to succinctly answer the "so what?" question by placing the study within the context of past research about the topic you've investigated.
• Demonstrating the importance of your ideas . Don't be shy. The conclusion offers you a chance to elaborate on the significance of your findings.
• Introducing possible new or expanded ways of thinking about the research problem . This does not refer to introducing new information [which should be avoided], but to offer new insight and creative approaches for framing/contextualizing the research problem based on the results of your study.

Conclusions . The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Kretchmer, Paul.  Twelve Steps to Writing an Effective Conclusion . San Francisco Edit, 2003-2008.

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Institute for Employment Research National Guidance Research Forum

Developing your research skills.

Developing Your Research Skills

Contribution from Jenny Bimrose, Warwick Institute for Employment Research (2003).

The following materials provide an introduction to some key issues for designing and progressing a research project in guidance through to successful completion.

Links to subsections: Contents

STAGE 1: Identifying a research need within a guidance (or related) context

Stage 2: reading for research, stage 3: selecting appropriating methods and procedures, stage 4: research models, traditions and approaches, stage 5: writing a research report.

Bibliography

Research in Practice website

Harvard Reference Style

This section will help you plan your research project.

1.1 Introduction

To carry out research, you will need to carry out a variety of tasks. Robson (1993:pxvii) identifies the main ones as:

deciding on the focus; developing the research question(s); choosing a research strategy; selecting the method(s); arranging the practicalities; collecting the data; preparing for, and carrying out analysis; reporting what you have found; and possibly acting on your findings There is no shortage of advice in books on how to approach your research (see the References and Bibliography sections - though, please note, that there are many other standard texts which contain the same type of general information). It is worth spending time reviewing the advice and suggestions contained in a selection of these texts, since learning from the experience of the experts who have written these texts can often save you time and effort in the longer term.

1.2 Objective: stage 1

The first stage in conducting successful research involves identifying a realistic and achievable research need which is relevant to your professional area, then undertaking some initial planning of your project.

By the end of this stage of your research project, you should have:

gathered and selected information from a variety of sources which is appropriate to your broad area of interest; synthesised this information to identify a research need; identified constraints associated with your chosen research focus together with possible solutions to potential problems they represent; considered likely trends related to the prospective research area; written a brief research proposal outlining your ideas for research (see 1.8 below).

1.3 Keeping a research diary

It is usual for initial ideas to change as you become more and more involved with the process of research. Because of this, it is worth keeping some informal notes about your progress, like a personal diary, which keeps a reasonably accurate record of key issues. These could include:

how and why you selected the particular focus for your study; difficulties anticipated and actually encountered; how and when difficulties are overcome; sources of inspiration; thoughts and feelings; insights and anxieties; critical turning points, etc. To ensure you do actually keep a diary, it’s important to select an approach to keeping a diary with which you feel comfortable. A small notebook would suffice or, alternatively, Blaxter et al (1996) suggest that diaries can also be kept on tape or a word processor. Whichever method of recording your choose, try to keep it readily accessible, so that ideas can be jotted down as and when they arise.

1.4 Models of research process

‘A rationale for the methods used to gather and process data, in what sequence and on what samples, taken together, constitutes a research methodology.’ Cryer, 1996: 45

The task of carrying out a research inquiry is complicated by the fact that there is no consensus about the way this should be done (Robson, 1993). A fundamental difference relates to the sequence and relationship of activities involved. One model says that you collect all the data before analysing it. One other model requires that data collection and analysis are intertwined. Another difference relates to views about the role of theory. Such differences can be categorised into two main traditions: quantitative (positivist, natural-science based, hypothetico-deductive) and qualitative (interpretative, ethnographic). The implications of adopting one as opposed to the other of these models are discussed later (4.5 and 4.6 below). However, whichever of these approaches (or combination of approaches) you decide to adopt, you will still need to develop your focus at an early stage of your research.

1.5 Selecting a topic

If you are reading this information, it is likely that you already have one (maybe several) idea(s) or a particular area of interest that you would like to research. To help you make your final selection, try to find out just how much has been written each topic. You probably won't have time to read extensively on each topic, so using a library catalogue can be a useful way of identifying relevant material. For example, try the catalogue linked to the careers library that can be accessed through this Forum). Additionally, talk to colleagues and others who might be interested. Discussing ideas about possible topics and the associated problems is an essential part of planning your research. Views may differ from (even conflict) with your own and you may be able to identify alternative approaches as a result of this process. For example, colleagues may be aware of sensitive aspects of certain topics that could cause difficulties at some stage. Use the discussion facility of the Forum to test out your ideas. If you are hoping to carry out research in your own employing organisation, early consultation with relevant individuals is essential to avoid later difficulties.

In selecting a topic, there is often a tendency to be over-ambitious. With limited resources (including time) at your disposal it’s important to prepare the ground carefully. Discussions and inquiries will help you select a topic which is likely to be of interest, which you have a good chance of completing and which may well have some practical application in a guidance context.

1.6 Ethical considerations

At a very early stage of your preparations to carry out research it is vital that you give serious thought to the ethical aspects of the enquiry you are proposing. Ethics refers to rules of conduct, and adopting an ethical approach involves conformity to a code or set of principles. Ethical problems can start at the very beginning of study. Some issues, which may be relevant to your research, are identified by Robson (1993:31):

Do individuals have the right not to take part? Even if they do, are there any overt or covert penalties for non-participation (e.g. 'it will look good on your reference if you have taken part in this study'). Do they know what they are letting themselves in for? Is their consent fully informed? Will individuals participating be protected, not only from any direct effects of the intervention, but also by the investigator ensuring that the reporting of the study maintains confidentiality? Is confidentiality always appropriate? If people have done something praiseworthy and put extra effort and time, should they get credit for this? Conversely, if inefficiency or malpractice is uncovered in your study, should the guilty ones be permitted to hide? What responsibility do investigators have for the knowledge they have acquired? Should those undertaking applied research target their knowledge and take responsibility for the consequences? These are just some examples. Each needs careful thought for your particular situation. Robson (1993: 32) lists ten questionable practices in social science research, relevant to a guidance context. These are:

Involving people without their knowledge or consent. Coercing them to participate. Withholding information about the true nature of the research. Otherwise deceiving the participant. Inducing them to commit acts diminishing their self-esteem. Violating rights of self-determination (e.g. in studies seeking to promote individual change). Exposing participants to physical or mental stress. Invading their privacy. Withholding benefits from some participants (e.g. in comparison groups). Not treating participants fairly, or with consideration, or with respect. He goes on to identify ethical principles relevant for 'action research' - one approach that you may choose to adopt, relevant to a guidance context, characterised by a collaborative effort between researcher and 'researched'. Ethical guidelines for this type of research emphasise the need for negotiation and involvement in the research process. These include:

Observe protocol: Ensure that the relevant persons, committees and authorities have been consulted and informed and that the necessary permission and approval has been obtained. Involve participants: Encourage those who have a stake in the improvement you envisage, shape the form of the work. Negotiate with those affected: Remember that not everyone will want to be directly involved. Your research should respect this. Report progress: Keep the work visible and remain open to suggestions to that both anticipated and unanticipated developments can be dealt with. All involved must have the opportunity to raise concerns with you. Negotiate descriptions of people's work. Always allow those described in your research to challenge your accounts on the grounds of fairness, relevance and accuracy. Negotiate reports for various levels of release. Different audiences demand different levels of reports. 1.7 Planning your research project

Bell (1993:23) provides a useful checklist for planning your project, which identifies the following stages:

Draw up a short list of topics; Select a broad topic for investigation; Refine the precise focus of the study; Decide on the aims and objectives; Draw up an initial project outline; Read enough to ensure you’re on the right lines; Devise a timetable to enable you to check that all stages will be covered and time allowed for writing. By the time you have completed all of these planning phases, you will be ready to write your Research Proposal.

1.8 Research proposal

It is good practice to produce a brief research proposal after your preliminary investigations. This need not be long or complicated, but helps order thoughts and organise subsequent action. It is also good preparation for when you may wish to submit a formal application for funding for research. It should include:

a statement of the research (including, aims and objectives), sources to be examined and identification of any potential ethical issues; a provisional timetable for carrying out the research and writing the report; a rationale for the research, which identifies probable outcomes (what you hope to achieve); a provisional outline of your research report, which can be expanded as your research progresses. Cryer (1996:51) identifies some examples of research outcomes, which are relevant to a guidance context:

A new product e.g. a book, a video, worksheets, etc. A development of or an improvement on something that already exists. A new theory. A reinterpretation of an existing theory. A new research tool or technique. A new model or perspective. An in-depth study. A critical analysis e.g. an analysis of the effects of a particular policy. A collection of general findings or conclusions.

Once you have written your research proposal, you are ready to move on to second stage of your research.

This section will help you focus on identifying and managing the reading materials for your research project.

2.1 Introduction

Carrying out any worthwhile research project will involve a significant amount of reading. The purpose of research is to extend and develop knowledge and understanding. Reading is an integral part of this process. Reading for research in guidance will probably involve reviewing or refreshing your current knowledge base (e.g. theories on which practice is based) as well as undertaking new reading. The types of skills required with reading for research (e.g. how to read, deciding what to read, how to interpret your reading) can be a source of anxiety, so the following sections have been designed to support and/or develop these skills.

2.2 Objective: stage 2

By the end of the second stage of your research you will be able to:

communicate effectively and clearly with others in the discipline area; develop information storage and retrieval strategies; develop skills relevant to library and resource use; develop skills relating to the organisation of reading, research time and tasks; use information to construct a rationale for your research project. 2.3 Information storage and retrieval strategies

For successful research, you will need to be familiar with the sound methods of keeping records and making notes. Whilst locating information for the first time can be difficult, re-locating it can be even more of a problem unless you have developed systematic record-keeping procedures. As well as keeping a record of useful sources, you should also keep a record of sources that proved to be of no interest (and why) to save valuable time later if you come across the same reference again. Remember that for all your sources, you need to record sufficient information for constructing your bibliography (see 2.7 below).

A number of texts on research suggest adopting a card index system (e.g. Bell, 1993 and Cryer, 1996). The merits of using different size cards are discussed (e.g. to contain more or less information) and the potential for keeping cards for various sources in different sections (e.g. cards on books in one section, cards on articles in another, etc.). Other methods could include using part of your 'Research Diary' (see 2.3 above), or using a computer to develop systems of recording.

Adopting a system may prove challenging because breaking off from reading an interesting report, article or chapter to record the necessary details requires a good deal of self-discipline – especially when you’re working under pressure. It is, however, worth persevering since your recording system will undoubtedly be a key feature of producing a high quality research report.

2.4 Reading for research

You may already have been involved in research connected with your professional role and this may have been undertaken without much direct reading (e.g. if you have been involved in administering questionnaires on someone's behalf). However, for research requiring more in-depth involvement, reading is essential since it will both be stimulated and informed by the knowledge acquired by your reading. Blaxter et al (1996:94) usefully suggest that reading should be undertaken at different stages of your research and for different purposes, as follows:

At the beginning of your research: to check what other research has been done, to focus your ideas and to explore the context for your project. During your research: to keep you interested and up to date with developments, to help you better understand the methods you are using and the field you are researching, and as a source of data. After your research: to see what impact your own work has had and to help you develop ideas for further research projects. Purposes of reading for your research are to familiarise yourself with:

research which has been undertaken on topics similar to your own; research methods being applied in ways which are similar to your own plans; accounts of the context relating to your project 2.5 Potential difficulties

One common difficulty is getting hold of relevant books, reports or journal articles. The careers library which can be accessed through this website, is one obvious source of relevant materials. However, remember that there is often competition for popular and scarce resources, so careful planning may be necessary to ensure you manage to access key texts for your research when you need them. It may also be necessary to negotiate access to libraries near to where you live. Local libraries can be very helpful - ordering specialist books on request – and you may be lucky enough to live near a University library, which often allow access to researchers. Wherever you access literature, you probably need to give some careful thought and planning to how and when you will access the material you wish to read.

Apart from libraries, you will need to use a wide variety of other sources for your reading. Your employer, colleagues, supervisors, friends, relations - even clients and research subjects - can prove to be a rich source of relevant material. The Internet can also produce relevant information and can be invaluable for identifying and locating possible material.

Blaxter et al (1996) identify four common concerns about reading for research:

the volume of literature: how do you get to grips with this? the variety of literature: how do you go about using the vast range of sources available? lack of boundaries: how do you decide which areas of literature are relevant? conflicting arguments: how do you assess and evaluate competing explanations? If you can identify with any, or all, of these concerns it is probably worth spending some time developing strategies for reading for research. Again, a number of texts that are readily available provide helpful hints on dealing with these sorts of problems. Some of these are summarised next.

2.6 Basic reading strategies

What to read Read as much as possible from as many sources as possible - books, journals, computer-based materials, reports, the popular media (daily and weekly press, magazines), memos, minutes, internal reports and even letters.

Remember that, even though it is important to be as up-to-date as possible, this does not preclude older sources like classic texts. Edited texts and literature reviews are also particularly useful for research purposes. The careers library accessed through this website is a rich source of this type of material since it contains historical collections of guidance materials. They can provide invaluable overviews of an area as well as excellent introductions to an area – though try to balance these with references to original materials where possible. Methodological accounts are also valuable sources.

Make sure you understand the extent to which the texts that you are using make use of original data:

primary sources: contain original data; secondary sources: contain discussions and interpretations of data, in which the author typically argues for a particular point of view; tertiary sources: presents information and references to the sources of that information. It’s best to try to draw from a mix of sources for your research report.

Making selections Familiarise yourself with key texts relevant to your research topic and then supplement with a broader, but selective, reading around the topic. Develop a selective approach by, for example:

Taking advice from available sources: for example from your colleagues or manager at work. Use the discussion section of this website under different section headings (e.g. Equal Opportunties; Improving Practice; Impact Analysis). Locating books or journals that appear relevant in a careers library by asking, browsing or using a catalogue. Keyword searches on computer-based catalogues are very useful. Following up interesting references from your original sources. Identifying key texts by noting those that are referred to repeatedly. Selective reading If you haven’t already done so, you will need to develop the skill of selective reading because you will not have time to read thoroughly all the written sources with which you need to be familiar. The following tips can help develop this skill:

record the author(s), title, publisher and date of the book, report or articles. Keep this safely and any notes you make on the content; look for an introduction, concluding chapter, abstract or executive summary. If it exists, read quickly, scanning the contents. If the book or report has a cover, the information printed there can be useful; with books and reports, look for the contents page. Identify any chapters that you think may be of particular relevance and focus on them, again starting from the introduction and/or conclusion. You can find your way through a chapter or section by using the sub-headings; in the text itself, key points will often be highlighted, or in the first or last paragraphs. Similarly, the first and last sentences of paragraphs are often used to indicate and summarise their contents. Remember - you should be able to understand the key points of a book or article in no more than five minutes. This should enable you to decide you need go no further, or decide which parts of the book or article you need to read in depth.

Critical reading This requires careful examination of what others have written (or said) on a particular subject. It is a difficult skill to develop but important for successful research. The types of questions you will need to ask as you are reading: does the author present convincing arguments or evidence to support assertions? Is information easy to find? Are the views expressed consistent? Are clear distinctions made between fact and opinion?

Blaxter et al (1996:106) suggest that critically sound sources:

go beyond mere descriptions by arguing their position - making a personal response to what has been written; relate different writings to each other, indicating their differences and contradictions, and highlighting what they are lacking; do not take what is written at face value; are explicit about the values and theories which inform and colour reading and writing; view research writing as contested terrain, within which alternative views and positions may be taken up; show an awareness of the power relations involved in research, and of where writers are coming from; use a particular language (e.g. the author asserts, argues, states, concludes or contends). 2.7 Referencing

There are several acceptable ways of recording sources and other information. The Harvard method is a common method that has various advantages. For example, it avoids footnotes and all sources mentioned appear at the end of your dissertation rather than at the end of each chapter. When sources are referred to in the text, only the name(s) of author(s) and year of publication appear. Even though there are different styles of referencing, they will probably contain the information identified below.

Books For all books you wish to include in your Bibliography, you will need the following information:

Author's surname and initials Year of publication (in brackets) Title (underlined) Edition, if relevant (in brackets) Place of publication Name of publisher

For example: Hodkinson, P., Sparkes, A.C. & Hodkinson, H. (1996) Triumphs and Tears: young people, markets and the transition from school to work, London, David Fulton Publishers.

References in the text should be given as follows:

Smith and Brown (1998:175) or (Smith and Brown, 1998:175)

Where there are three or more authors, only give the name of the first:

Smith et al. (1997:203) or (Smith et al., 1997:203)

When an author has published two or more items in one year, the references should be distinguished by:

Smith (1996a) Smith (1996b) and so on.

Where more than one reference has to be given at a single point in the text, they should be listed chronologically:

Brown (1986:47), Jones (1992:106) and Kaput (1997:427)

Articles and Chapters in Books quote the following:

Author's surname and initials Year of publication (in brackets) Title (in inverted commas or italics) Source of journal or book, that is: ~ Title of journal or book (underlined) ~ Volume number, issue and page numbers in journals

For example: Savickas, M.L. (1995) Current Theoretical Issues in Vocational Psychology: Convergence, Divergence, and Schism in Walsh, W.B. and Osipow, S.H. Handbook of Vocational Psychology: Theory, Research and Practice, (2nd ed) Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Articles in Journals quote the following:

Author's surname and initials Year of publication Title (inverted commas or italics) Title of journal (underlined) Volume number, issue and page numbers

For example: Betz, N.E., Harmon, L.W. & Borgen, F.H. (1996) The Relationships of Self-Efficacy for the Holland Themes to Gender, Occupational Group Membership, and Vocational Interests in Journal of Counseling Psychology, 43, 1, p90-98.

Citing Web Pages As with printed references, the title should be either in Italics or underlined. Note that round brackets are used for (year) and (edition). Where there is no year given on the web material, your would record this as (no date).

Note also that square brackets are used for [medium] and [access date]. The access date is the date you last accessed that reference. This is important, given the volatility of web material, because it offers some indication of the currency of the reference. Without your access date, there might be no intention of how old the material is.

Author/editor. (Year). Title (edition).[Type of medium].Producer (optional). Available Protocol (if applicable):Site/Path/File[Access date].

For example: Equal Opportunities Commission (2003) ‘The Development of Gender Roles in Young Children’. [Online]. Available: http://www.eoc.org.uk/PDF/gender_roles.pdf [2003, May 22].

Whichever method you select for your Bibliography and referencing, remember that it is important to be consistent.

This section will help you to decide how to collect the evidence you require for your research project.

3.1 Introduction

Once you have decided on a research topic, you will be able to decide how to collect the evidence you require. This section will be concerned with general issues associated with the selection of methods and appropriate procedures for the project.

3.2 Objectives: stage 3

By the end of this stage of your research project, you will be able to:

identify appropriate criteria by which to judge the validity of a guidance project; approximate and estimate time involved, necessary materials and the quantities in which they are required, costs of the research, etc.; identify design principles relevant to the chosen research area; identify the major issues or problems in the specific research area; demonstrate the ability to re-formulate research design in response to unexpected circumstances; synthesise material, evidence and arguments to select appropriate methods and procedures for the project. 3.3 Validity, Reliability and Relevance

When judging the quality of any research, reliability, validity and relevance are important.

The validity of research refers to the credibility of the results. Has the research actually done the things it claims to do? Does an item measure or describe what it is supposed to measure or describe? In considering these issues, it needs to be acknowledged that discussions about validity provoke controversy amongst researchers. Some have rejected the concept of validity as inapplicable since it implies the possession of knowledge that is absolutely certain and, in this sense, knowledge can never be certain. McLeod (1999) argues that the concepts of validity and reliability that have been developed for use in quantitative research can’t be applied in the same way in qualitative studies. Nevertheless, in deciding the value of our own and other research, we need to be able to make reasoned judgements about it as a new contribution to knowledge.

Measuring the extent of validity can become extremely involved and there are different levels at which the question of validity can be considered. Put simply, if your research is valid, then you are observing, identifying or measuring what you say you are. A rough guide would be to ask the question: ‘would another researcher using my research instrument get the same responses?’ Additionally, ask other people whether the questions or items you have devised are likely to achieve what you want. Three different aspects of validity are discussed below:

Plausibility:

How plausible is this claim: that is, do we judge it to be likely to true, given our existing knowledge? Some claims may be so plausible that we can reasonably accept them at face value without needing to know anything else.

Credibility:

Does it seems likely that the researcher's judgement of matters relating to the claim is accurate, given the nature of the phenomena concerned, the circumstances of the research, the characteristics of the researcher, etc.?

Where a claim is neither sufficiently plausible, nor sufficiently credible, then we require evidence. When examining the evidence, we need to employ much the same means to assess its validity as we applied to the claim itself (plausibility and credibility) - and may require even more evidence!

McLeod (1999:101) outlines nine criteria suitable for evaluating the validity of qualitative research, which include:

Sufficient contextualisation of the study: Since qualitative research is more concerned with developing knowledge that is relevant and useful at particular times and places, it is necessary to contextualise the study in its historical, social and cultural location.

Credibility of the researcher (reflexivity):A reflexive account of internal processes of research, covering, for example, how contact was made with informants, issues of trust and rapport, how mistakes and misconceptions were dealt with, whether there was agreement over goals and tasks.

Catalytic validity: Defined as the degree to which the research process reorients, focuses and energies participants. Implicit in this is the idea that research should empower those who take part in it.

McNiff (1992) discusses the issue of validity in relation to action research, and distinguishes three types: 1) self validation, 2) peer validation and 3) learner validation. Action research is an approach that often has particular appeal to researchers working on issues related to professional practice. Because much of what McNiff (1992) discusses is applicable to a careers guidance and counselling context, a summary of some of the points she makes on validity follows.

Self-validation: If you are researching within the broad area of guidance and counselling, you are likely to be involved in interpreting your own practice and in making decisions about improving it. The implication of self-validation in this context refers to the potential of these interpretations of your own practice being recognised. McNiff (1992:133) discusses how certain criteria justify an individual's claim to knowledge. They include:

Practice as a realisation of values: where guidance and counselling research starts with a declaration (spoken or written) of values – for example, 'my clients have a right to self-determination'. Often the research inquiry is stimulated because those values are being denied in practice. If clients are being denied the service you think they deserve, this is where a cycle of imagined solutions, implementation, observation, evaluation, re-planning is enacted. Intentional critical reflection: where research inquiry occurs as a result of critical reflection, a desire to explore an intuitive understanding of practice and communicate it to others. Disciplined enquiry: where a researcher demonstrates publicly that s/he has followed a system of disciplined enquiry in arriving at a hypothesis. Personal interpretation as a basis for dialogue: where individuals recognise the potential in their interpretations of their own practice. Peer validation: This relates to the notion that a claim to knowledge or expertise derived from practice must be validated externally. It is the process whereby your findings are made available to and scrutinised by others who can agree that these findings are of interest and could be useful to their own practice. This external validation can come from a number of sources, including colleagues, manager or supervisor, the wider guidance and counselling community, other students, etc. Peer validation can be effective in moving your ideas forward. Questions may be asked which provide new insights and ways of thinking about your research, and invariably you will gain more confidence to progress your research from the process of peer validation.

Client validation: It is particularly useful to get the reactions of the clients themselves. This may be presented in short, written statements, recordings (tape or video), reports, etc. For example, data about the use of labour market information by guidance practitioners could be collected during focus group discussions. This could be written up into a report that was circulated to the practitioners who were asked to validate the accuracy of the reports. The findings could then be circulated more widely to the guidance community who are asked to comment on the relevance of these findings to their own experiences. This represents a powerful chain of validation.

Overall, validation of research findings in a guidance and counselling or related context is likely to involve the development of self-knowledge followed by a genuine attempt to share that knowledge with others.

Reliability

Whatever procedure is used for collecting data for research, it should always be examined critically to assess to what extent it is likely to be reliable, as well as valid. Reliability is the extent to which a test or procedure produces similar results under constant conditions on all occasions. Bell (1993:65) suggests two questions to ask yourself when checking items on a questionnaire or interview schedule you may devise to collect data. They are:

would two interviewers using the schedule or procedure get a similar results? would an interviewer obtain a similar picture using the procedures on different occasions? There are a number of devices for checking reliability in scales and tests. For example:

test-retest method: administering the same test some time after the first; alternate forms method: where equivalent versions of the same items in the test are given and results correlated; split-half method: where the items in the test are split into two matched halves and scores then correlated. These methods are not always feasible or necessary, and there are disadvantages and problems associated with all three. Such mechanisms are not usually necessary unless you are attempting to produce a test or scale. The check for reliability will come at the stage of wording questions and piloting your research instrument(s).

A third criterion for judging research in the area of guidance and counselling is relevance. Since the purpose of any research inquiry is to extend knowledge and understanding, it follows that this must be communicated to a wider audience. When we communicate with people, they assume that we are telling them something that is likely to be of significance to them. It follows that what is communicated should be relevant in some way to the chosen audience. Who are the appropriate audiences for your research and what sort of relevance should your research have for them? Audiences for research reports vary. If you are undertaking a research project within your employing organisation, its primary audience is likely to be members of that organisation. Additionally, your research findings should have some relevance to other audiences. These may include other researchers, a particular practitioner audience or even a more general audience. Whatever audience(s) you select as your target(s), you will need to consider two aspects of the relevance of your research:

importance of the topic: must relate to an issue of importance to the intended audience; contribution to existing: must add something to our knowledge of the issue to knowledge which they relate. Research that merely confirms what is already beyond reasonable doubt makes no contribution to the existing knowledge base. 3.4 Access

No researcher can demand access to an institution, an organisation or to materials. People will be doing you a favour if they agree to help, and will need to know exactly what they will be asked to do, how much time they will be expected to give and what use will be made of the information they provide. They will have to be convinced of your integrity and of the value of your research before they decide whether or not to cooperate. Bell (1993:58) provides a useful checklist of points to consider when negotiating access, including:

Clear official channels by formally requesting permission to carry out your research as soon as you have an agreed project outline. Speak to the people who will be asked to co-operate. Maintain strict ethical standards at all times. Submit the project outline to the principal, senior staff member. Decide what you mean by anonymity and confidentiality. Decide who will receive a copy of the report and/or see drafts of interview transcripts. Inform participants what is to be done with the information they provide. Prepare an outline of intentions and conditions under which the study will be carried out to hand to participants. Be honest about the purpose of the study and about the conditions of the research. Remember that people who agreed to help are doing you a favour. Even when strict protocol is adhered to, things can go wrong. Blaxter et al identify the following strategies to consider if access is denied (1996:144):

approach other individuals. If one person refuses to be interviewed or answer a questionnaire, try approaching another person in a similar position or sharing similar characteristics; approach another institution; approach another individual within the same institution (more risky because of possible communication with the institution); try again later, when people are less busy. Attitudes may have changed, people may have moved on, and you may have more to show to demonstrate the value of your research; change your research strategy. This is probably something you should be prepared to do, and plan for, throughout the research process. It may involve using other, perhaps less sensitive, methods for collecting data, or focusing on a slightly different set of issues, or studying alternative groups or organisations. 3.5 Managing your research project

Constraints operate on any research process. This section discusses time and costs, as well as identifying some others which may well be relevant for the type of research you are planning.

Inevitably, the nature and extent of your data collection will be constrained by your access to various resources – in particular time. Whatever the competing demands for your time and attention, it is important to think about what strategies you need to develop to manage the new demands of your research project in parallel with all the established demands.

A key strategy for managing your time effectively is to be realistic, initially, about the methods you are going to use to collect data and the amount of data needed. One common problem with new researchers is over-ambition. Since it’s likely that you will have a limited timescale to complete and write up your research, it follows that the methods you select will have to be informed by these (and other) considerations. For example, time available will limit the amount of any cross-checking you can undertake, and the size of your research sample.

The costs of research can mount up, so it is advisable to undertake a rough costing of the methods of data collection and analysis that you have considered to make sure they are affordable. The process of costing research activities will be very useful if you are, at any stage of your professional career, ever likely to apply for research funding. For applications for external funding, a detailed costing has to be submitted, and if successful, it is likely that you will have to adhere fairly closely to the original costing submitted.

The costs of your research project could include:

travel costs to your research sites and/or libraries; costs of consumables, such as paper, tapes, batteries, etc.; equipment purchase or hire costs (e.g. word processor, tape recorder, software); book, report and journal purchases; photocopying, printing and binding costs; postage and email/telephone costs. Other constraints

In addition to time and costs, there are bound to be other constraints you need to take into account when designing your research: for example, the willingness of people to be interviewed or observed. If you need to observe meetings or training sessions, you will be limited by the schedule of meetings or training events that will take place during the data-collection phase of your project. If you need to research some aspect of guidance and counselling that requires involvement with schools, colleges or universities, you are likely to be constrained by examination timetables and vacations.

To manage your research project successfully, you will need to anticipate routine constraints affecting the research process. This will help you to develop strategies to cope with these limitations and avoid difficult situations arising in the first place.

3.6 Overcoming obstacles

The process of successful research will, inevitably, involve developing problem-solving techniques. Problems that may arise can range from those relating directly to the research process (for example, the response rate is very low), to problems in other areas in your life (for example, changing your job or falling ill). Blaxter et al (1996: 137) suggest the following ways of coping with difficulties:

remind yourself that the purpose of carrying out research, particularly as a new researcher, may be as much to develop your understanding of the research process and/or the use of particular research methods as to explore substantive issues; remember that it may be just as valid to write up your research in terms of, for example, the problems of gaining access to a particular group, or of getting an adequate response from that group once access has been gained; as part of writing your research report, reflect on your research strategy, explore what went wrong and why and include recommendations for improvement; view research as being about the skills you have learnt and developed on the way. Part of doing research is about appreciating what is involved and where it may be leading you; if you have time and resources, you may choose to redirect your research strategy when you become stuck.

This section will help you understand the broader context of guidance research including consideration of both qualitative and quantitative approaches.

4.1 Introduction

This section examines the two major traditions of research methods: qualitative and quantitative. It discusses the dominant effect that one of these traditions (quantitative research) has had on current careers guidance and counselling practice and considers the value of piloting research.

4.2 Objectives: stage 4

distinguish between quantitative and qualitative research; outline some key issues from current practice which link with research method; describe the main features of qualitative research; describe the main features of quantitative research; pilot your research project. 4.3 Models of Research

The most common way of conceptualising the diversity of approaches to research is to distinguish between quantitative and qualitative models. It is this distinction that will be adopted here, though it should be stressed that this is a rather crude distinction that can be misleading. In reality, much social scientific research combines methods from the two traditions. So how are these two approaches different? Most obviously, quantitative research involves measurement on some numerical basis and usually employs statistical techniques, whereas qualitative research does not (at least to the same degree). Various other features of the research process are also associated with the different traditions. For example, quantitative research favours structured forms of data, which can consist of frequency counts or other types of measurements. In contrast, the data that qualitative researchers typically deal with are verbal descriptions in natural language often collected from an interview or some type of recorded conversation (for example, using audio tapes). They deal more in meanings, experiences and descriptions. This type of data cannot be directly subjected to counting or measuring, though, of course, they can subsequently be presented so that they can be analysed quantitatively.

Other differences have already been identified in 1.4 above. For example, the sequence and relationship of activities involved. A quantitative approach requires that the researcher collects all the data before analysing it. A qualitative approach requires that data collection and analysis are intertwined. One other important difference relates to views about the role of theory. These and other differences will be discussed in more detail later.

Methods of data collection are also varied. Some are clearly associated with quantitative research (for example, the scientific experiment) and other with qualitative research (for example, participant observation). Others are shared by both traditions (for example, questionnaires and interviews) though the precise design of the research instrument and the approach adopted by the researcher are likely to differ. There is a vast literature available on research methods. You will need to spend time reading about different methods and, once you have an idea of your research focus and methods, you will need to spend time researching issues related to different designs (for example, of questionnaires). Whichever approach (or combination of approaches) you choose to adopt for your research project and whatever methods, remember the underlying purpose is to extend knowledge and understanding about some aspect of careers guidance and counselling. As May (1996:3) expresses it more generally, the purpose of all research is:

'to understand and explain social phenomena, to focus attention on particular issues and to challenge conventionally held beliefs about the social and natural worlds'.

4.4 Research Traditions in Guidance and Counselling

Current Practice

The theories which underpin current careers guidance and counselling practice have come mainly from North America. Varied accounts exist which identify the main influences in the development of this body of knowledge (for example, Arthur et al,1989, Brown et al, 1990, Seligman, 1994, Scharf, 1997 and Zunker, 1998,). Despite disagreements about the particular strands of influence, there is agreement that Frank Parsons was the founding father of the vocational guidance movement. A seminal work by Parsons entitled Choosing a Vocation was published posthumously in 1909. His ideas about how people choose jobs came from differential psychology and were initially referred to as the 'talent matching' approach. They later developed into what became known as the 'trait and factor' theory of occupational choice, and were developed by theorists who had a major impact on practice such as John Holland (1966,1973, 1992) and Alec Rodger (1952). Parsons' core concept was that of 'matching'. He suggested that occupational choice occurs when people have achieved:

an accurate understanding of their individual traits (e.g. personal abilities, aptitudes, interests, etc.); a knowledge of jobs and the labour market and then made a rational and objective judgement about the relationship between these two groups of facts. A key assumption is that it is possible to measure both individual talents and the attributes required in particular jobs which can then be matched to achieve a 'good fit'. It is when individuals are in jobs best suited to their abilities, they perform best, and productivity is highest.

This theory of occupational choice has dominated careers guidance and counselling practice for nearly a century, partly because of its practical appeal. It provides careers guidance and counselling practitioners with a clear rationale and framework for practice. Additionally, the underlying philosophy has suited policy makers since it lends itself to the servicing of labour market requirements. Consequently, it has been embraced enthusiastically by policy makers and barely questioned by the majority of practitioners.

The theory contains, however, fatal flaws. Scharf (1997) reminds us that:

There is little research supporting or refuting trait and factor theory itself as a viable theory of career development. Rather, the research that has been done, of which there is a large amount, has related traits and factors to one another or has established the validity and reliability of measurements of traits and factors.' (p26).

There was no viable theoretical alternative during the first half of this century to this 'best fit' theory of occupational choice, and it was not until the 1950's and 1960's that theories originating from other academic disciplines such as sociology, and other branches of psychology like developmental psychology emerged as serious alternatives. Theories which were developed from these academic disciplines emphasised the context in which occupational 'choice' occurred and the importance of the maturation process of individuals, respectively. Since this time, the theories careers guidance practitioners have used to inform their practice have expanded dramatically. Whichever theories actually inform current practice, there is emerging consensus around the inadequacies of these theories. In particular, researchers are questioning the relevance of current theory for particular sectors of society.

Adequacy of Current Practice

There is a growing critique of the current practice of careers guidance and counselling which is based on theory derived from quantitative research methods. For example, Osipow and Littlejohn (1995) discuss serious weaknesses in applying current theory to Minority ethnic groups. They argue that a major problem is the manner in which all current theories use concepts which 'assume cultures that are relatively affluent and have good opportunities for education, upward mobility and family support and encouragement' (p255). Many members of minority ethnic groups, they argue, do not have access to these privileges.

Hackett (1997) identifies several problems in trying to apply current theory to girls and women: 'I am suggesting the need for formal testing of competing models as well as attempts at unification and integration....we also need to incorporate issues of sexism, racism and their interaction, along with considerations of relational orientation, support and barriers into all our developing conceptions of women's career psychology’ (p187).

Savickas (1995) relates current problems with theory to the more fundamental issue of different philosophical origins reflected in the two approaches to research. He identifies inherent tensions which arise from the academic traditions of different theories: 'sharp lines have been drawn on which philosophy of science to choose' (p15). He concludes that 'vocational psychology could benefit simultaneously from refinements forged within the distinct career theories, from advances produced by convergence among career macrotheories and from break-throughs induced by divergence in work-role microtheory' (p29).

Implications for Research Methods

Theories informing current guidance and counselling policy practice have been developed mainly by psychologists operating from scientific positivist paradigms of research using quantitative methods. What, then, are the concerns now being expressed about the limitations of this research method?

Taking just one example of careers guidance and counselling for girls and women, Harmon & Meara (1994) discuss the limitations of experimentally designed empirical inquiry that meets the criterion of internal validity for both policy and practice. They argue that 'those who are interested in career counselling for women seem to be swimming against this tide in an attempt to integrate science and practice' (p362).

Hackett (1997) reviews some of the criticisms made about the existing literature on women's career development which include research methodologies which have been used. In particular, she argues that there is a need to move beyond 'simple correlational designs' (p184) and suggests that qualitative research methods 'are highly appropriate in attempts of this sort to truly understand the experiences of a group that has received insufficient attention' (p185). She discusses the need to triangulate across different data sources using focus groups, diaries, archival documents, or observations, concluding that 'future research on this model will also benefit from the integration of qualitative and quantitative methods' (p186).

Others have also discussed the type of research methods which should be used for future research inquiry. For example, Rainey and Borders (1997) advocate the use of narratives, constructivist methods or other qualitative approaches to examine environmental factors for girls and women (p169). Edwards and Payne (1997) state simply that there is a need 'to embrace ideas from a wider moorland of study than is presently the case' (p537).

Overall, then, there is a growing consensus that scientific research methods from within a positivist paradigm have been found to be wanting in several respects. Knowledge and understanding built up from a particular approach to research needs to be complemented with knowledge and understanding derived from different ways of investigating social phenomenon.

4.5 Quantitative Research

'Quantitative research is concerned with the collection and analysis of data in numeric form. It tends to emphasise relatively large-scale and representative sets of data, and is often........... presented or perceived as being about the gathering of facts.' (Blaxter et al (1996:60).

Quantitative or traditional experimental approaches set out to quantify and measure the contributions of different factors to phenomenon (for example, occupational choice behaviour). It can be useful if you want to compare things, like test scores under different conditions or behaviour under different conditions. However, this approach to research has certain disadvantages for small scale studies. For example, you would need a large enough sample to ensure your data is statistically significant. Additionally, your sample must be representative so that you can be confident of getting the same pattern of results again when you repeat the same procedures on a different population. Only then would you be able to generalise your findings to a wider sample than the one you are testing.

Robson (1993:19) summarises the five sequential steps which are commonly regarded as typifying the 'scientific' or quantitative approach to research. These involve:

Deducing a hypothesis (a testable proposition about the relationship between two or more events or concepts) from theory. Expressing the hypothesis in operational terms (i.e. ones indicating exactly how the variables are to be measured) which propose a relationship between two specific variables. Testing this operational hypothesis. This will involve an experiment or some other form of empirical enquiry. Examining the specific outcome of the enquiry. It will either tend to confirm the theory or indicate the need for its modification. If necessary, modifying the theory in the light of the findings. An attempt is then made to verify the revised theory by going back to the first step and repeating the whole cycle. So, adopting a quantitative approach to research involves searching for causal relationships which are conceptualised in terms of the interaction of 'variables', some of which (independent variables) are seen as the cause of other (dependent variables). It will invariably involve designing and using standardized research instruments (for example, tests, questionnaires, attitude scales) so that numerical data can be collected which will then be manipulated using statistical techniques.

Some suitable data for this research method already exists in the form of published or unpublished statistics. Often, though, researchers have to produce the data they need for analysis themselves. For example, from a laboratory experiment or from psychometric or personality tests which have been administered to relatively large groups of participants. As previously indicated, if responses to unstructured questionnaires can be coded and then counted in some way, this may also be a source of quantitative data.

4.6 Qualitative research

'Qualitative research is concerned with collecting and analysing information in as many forms, chiefly non-numeric, as possible. It tends to focus on exploring, in as much detail as possible, smaller numbers of instances or examples which are seen as being interesting or illuminating, and aims to achieve 'depth' rather than 'breadth'.' (Blaxter et al.,1996:60).

Qualitative research is concerned with life as it is lived, things as they happen or situations as they are constructed in the day-to-day course of events. Qualitative researchers seek lived experiences in real situations, try not to disturb the scene and to be unobtrusive in their methods. This is to ensure that data and analysis will closely reflect what is happening. Qualitative researchers are also interested in 'natural' experiments. For example, when ordinary processes are disrupted, basic rules and norms are thrown into relief. Usually, these types of rules and norms are tacit and understood, perhaps subconsciously, by people in a particular situation. A recent example relevant to guidance in the UK is the recent is the introduction of Personnel Advisers to work with disaffected young people in the Connexions service. Reformed organisational structures, different relations with schools, colleges, Youth Services, Social Services, Youth Offending Teams, and Educational Welfare Officers, different working practices with clients (e.g. over a two year period) are all examples of natural experiments which would be legitimate areas for research inquiry using a qualitative approach.

When studying in this way, it is important not to start off with too many preconceptions about what you might find. It is necessary to maintain an openness, not pre-judging issues and not even settling for the first (even second) impressions formed. Guesses might be made, tested along the way and abandoned, changed or revised in the light of later discoveries. This mode of study will have implications for the relationship fostered with the subjects in the research (refer to 'ethics' in 1.6, and 'access' in 3.4).

Six characteristics of qualitative research are identified by Blaxter et al (1996:61):

Events can be understood adequately only if they are seen in context. A qualitative researcher therefore immerses her/himself in the setting. The contexts of inquiry are not contrived; they are natural; nothing is predefined or taken for granted. Qualitative researchers want those who are studied to speak for themselves, to provide their perspectives in words and other actions. Therefore qualitative research is an interactive process in which the persons studied teach the researcher about their lives. Qualitative researchers attend to the experience as a whole, not as separate variables. The aim of qualitative research is to understand experience as unified. Qualitative methods are appropriate to the above statements. There is no one general method. For many qualitative researchers, the process entails appraisal about what was studied. This approach to research, therefore, involves considered selection and interpretation. It is therefore important to make the choice of focus for study principled and clear as well as being careful to make only reasonable claims in the research report or dissertation. In addition to making the basis of selections and methods clear, the researcher needs to include some biographical information because s/he cannot be regarded as an objective recorder of absolute truths, but rather a participant in the research process.

4.7 Piloting

Piloting is the process whereby you try out the research techniques and methods you have in mind to see how well they work in practice. This enables you modify your plans before you commit too much time to one procedure. If you have spent time thinking about and planning your research project, you may be tempted to believe that you are clear about what you are doing. However, the value of piloting research cannot be overestimated. Things rarely work out the way you expect - respondents can answer a questionnaire or interpret an interview question in ways that you can never anticipate! Taking time to run a pilot can save you time, frustration and even anguish in the end.

In a small scale study, even an informal pilot can prove invaluable. Try out a couple of interviews, get some friends to fill out your questionnaires, go and observe some organisational activities - or whatever else you have in mind for the data collection phase of your project. You will almost certainly gain from doing this, even if it is a more accurate idea of the time collecting data can take. If you do this early enough, you can change your strategy before it's too late!

This section provides guidelines to help structure a research report.

When writing the main body of your research report, the following points may help with the structure:

Introduction:

Use your introduction to: set the context of your study (including information about your own role); explain why you approached your study in the way you did; what you hope to demonstrate by your results; and justify your approach with reasoned argument based on relevant theory and research evidence.

Literature Review:

The literature review should employ a critical, analytical approach with an understanding of (relevant) competing perspectives. It must go beyond a descriptive account and should be logically and coherently organised. Your review should demonstrate a detailed knowledge of original sources and the field together with your understanding of main theoretical and methodological issues. Do not be afraid to add your own ideas, especially if your study challenges established wisdom.

Research Method:

The purpose of this section is to enable your reader to understand exactly what you did as part of the research process, together with the results and your interpretation of their meaning. It should include sufficient details to enable the reader to understand:

the overall design of the study; details of participants (e.g. age, gender, experience, occupational role, etc.); research instruments used; procedures used in the study. This section should also contain a description of the overall purpose, summary of content, structure and justification of why this particular approach was used. If an instrument (e.g. questionnaire) was designed especially for your study, you should also include details of its piloting and include the final version as an appendix. Issues of validity and reliability should also be addressed.

Your results should be presented in a form that enables the reader to understand exactly what your data consists of and sources. It should also identify any trends that have emerged and (where relevant) statistical techniques used as well as the results of these analyses. Finally, this section should address the way(s) in which the data illuminate your research question(s).

It is likely that the results section will be the most difficult to write. If your have undertaken a qualitative study or have huge quantities of data, then you may need to include some discussion and not just description in this section. You should not include extensive ‘raw’ data and the results must be organised, summarised and selective. Where appropriate, tables or diagrams should be used to summarise your results. It may not even be possible to include all the results, as this may overwhelm your reader and obscure your main findings.

Discussion:

The purpose of this section is to:

present your interpretation of your results; justify your interpretation by anticipating counter arguments; and urge caution in accepting your interpretation where there are defects in the design and execution of the study. Few applied studies can be perfect, so demonstrate your awareness of flaws and weaknesses in your work and your understanding of how you might improve on your research. It is also important to comment on any practical difficulties you may have encountered, especially those out of your control. In summary, adopt a ‘reflective practitioner’ approach in reviewing the research process as a whole.

Your discussion should also highlight links between your own research and the literature review and evaluate your study's contribution to professional guidance practice.

Conclusion:

Your conclusion should present a summary of what you have achieved in your research project, without containing any new material. It should also suggest the implications of the findings, identify future related research and emphasise issues which require further research or investigation.

The 'Harvard Reference Style' is one system of referencing sources used internationally by scholars and researchers. At Coventry University the Centre for Academic Writing have produced a website and downloadable guide to this system which may be of interest. It includes sections on referencing new technology sources such as websites and emails. The link address is: http://home.ched.coventry.ac.uk/caw/harvard/index.htm

5 Proposal Writing Skills for Cultivating Great Proposals in 2022

A research proposal is the work plan, the outline and the statement of intent describing what, why, how, where and when to do the research. It is essentially a roadmap that shows where a journey will start, how it will end and the method to use for getting there.

A proposal must be well-structured and easy to read. It must also contain only the relevant information for the proposed study. Here are five important skills essential to writing a great proposal.

Developing Most Important Proposal Writing Skills

1. research skills.

Students need to think about the areas that interested them most in their studies and make a decision about what they would like to explore more. This will involve doing research into peer-reviewed, current research in the specific area they choose. They need to establish whether there are any gaps in knowledge or areas where they could put forward new ideas or innovations.

It is easy for students to fall into a research trap where they waste valuable time by conducting too much preliminary research and not drilling down to the point where they can conduct deep research. Mentors or college seniors give students access to the research skills of professional writers with experience in writing research proposals. This can help students who are overwhelmed by the amount of work they need to do.

2. Communication skills

In a proposal, students need to express themselves in logical, precise language. The ability to express themselves in a clear, scientific manner is what potential supervisors expect to see. They may know that their work is important but they need to communicate the value of their ideas to a reviewer . Explaining the problem or need they want to address and why it needs solving will help to demonstrate their insight into the topic.

Another aspect of effective communication is to be able to methodically organize writing and to stick to the guidelines. The style, structure and other writing conventions depend on the field of discipline. Even grammatical and spelling errors can sidetrack a reviewer when assessing the quality and relevance of a research proposal.

3. Time management skills: Use professional writers

Students who study to get an education at college often find that writing a research proposal within a specific timeline is difficult. When students are having a rough time, they can use the confidential research proposal writing services in Canada offered by Ca.EduBirdie. This means they can pay someone to write a research proposal online. These services guarantee proposals are not only delivered on time to students trying to find the time to study but they are of the highest quality. It also gives students a research proposal example to follow in the future.

4. Critical thinking skills

Students will need to critically examine different methods for gathering and analyzing data related to their research problem and decide which ones to use. A good proposal will display evidence of their ability to evaluate and synthesize material and show the ability to combine vertical and lateral thinking.

For a research proposal to be compelling, it must reveal critical thinking about the topic that goes beyond what is already known. It may help to search for controversial or cutting-edge topics in the field to address and connect with the interests of other researchers. The proposal must indicate to the reader that the student has thought ahead and considered the potential outcomes and implications of the research.

5. Listening skills

Listening skills are very important as it is essential to take advice from supervisors and fellow researchers. This can offer the perspective the students need and help them to understand how to make improvements. When listening to others and obtaining feedback, there are various devices for students to use, such as a smart notebook where they can record and make a digital version of notes to review later.

A proposal outline can help a supervisor to give vital feedback to a student, such as a need to narrow down ideas if they are too broad. A supervisor could also point out whether the student is trying to do too much or too little.

Many different proposal writing skills are required if the writer wants to build a convincing case – research, communication, time-management, critical thinking and listening skills. It is necessary to identify a specific research area within the context of the discipline and provide compelling evidence of why it is worth exploring. The research project must offer a viable way to bring a new approach to address an existing problem.

Rajinder Singh

Fountainhead of Thehotskills - Web Design Inspiration & Immense Art - Leading Web Design Agency based in Chandigarh offering cutting-edge UX/UI consulting & design, custom build and SEO friendly web design & development, and, interactive digital product design services. View more posts

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Top 12 Proposal Writer Skills to Put on Your Resume

Crafting compelling proposals is an art that requires a unique set of skills to persuade and captivate your target audience. In this article, we'll explore the top 12 skills every proposal writer should highlight on their resume to stand out in this competitive field.

Proposal Writer Skills

• Microsoft Word
• Adobe InDesign
• Project Management
• Google Docs
• CRM Software
• Data Visualization
• Collaboration
• Proofreading

1. Persuasion

Persuasion, in the context of a Proposal Writer, involves strategically crafting a document to convincingly present an idea, project, or solution in a way that appeals to and influences the decision-making of the target audience or stakeholders, aiming to secure their support, agreement, or funding.

Why It's Important

Persuasion is crucial for a Proposal Writer as it enables them to effectively convince potential clients or funders of the value and necessity of their project or idea, securing support, resources, or funding.

How to Improve Persuasion Skills

Improving persuasion, especially for a Proposal Writer, involves refining communication skills, understanding the audience, and structuring proposals effectively. Here are concise steps with relevant resources:

Understand Your Audience : Tailor your message to address the specific needs, pain points, and interests of your audience. Harvard Business Review offers insights on persuading challenging audiences.

Clear Value Proposition : Clearly articulate the benefits and value your proposal brings to the table. This Forbes article provides strategies for creating a compelling value proposition.

Use Evidence and Data : Support your proposals with relevant data, statistics, and case studies to build credibility. The Purdue Online Writing Lab offers guidelines on using statistical evidence effectively.

Storytelling : Incorporate storytelling to connect on an emotional level, making your proposal more memorable and impactful. TED Talks on storytelling can inspire and guide you on how to weave narratives into your proposals.

Simplicity and Clarity : Communicate your ideas clearly and avoid jargon to ensure your proposal is understandable. Grammarly’s blog provides tips on achieving clarity in writing.

Revise and Feedback : Always review and revise your proposal based on feedback from peers or mentors. Tools like Peergrade facilitate receiving constructive feedback.

Practice Persuasive Writing Techniques : Familiarize yourself with rhetorical strategies such as ethos, pathos, and logos. The University of Maryland’s guide to paragraph structure and cohesion can refine your persuasive writing skills.

By integrating these strategies and continuously seeking feedback, a Proposal Writer can significantly enhance their persuasive abilities.

How to Display Persuasion Skills on Your Resume

2. Research

Research, in the context of a Proposal Writer, involves systematically gathering and analyzing information to understand a problem or topic, identify needs, and develop evidence-based solutions or arguments to support funding requests or project proposals.

Research is crucial for a Proposal Writer as it ensures the proposal is informed, credible, and tailored to address the specific needs and criteria of the funding body, thereby significantly increasing the chances of securing support.

How to Improve Research Skills

Improving research, especially for a Proposal Writer, involves focusing on clarity, precision, and relevance. Here are concise steps to enhance your research skills:

Define Your Objectives : Clearly articulate the goals of your proposal. This ensures your research is targeted and relevant. Mindtools offers techniques for setting clear objectives.

Use Credible Sources : Prioritize information from reputable journals, books, and organizations. Google Scholar and JSTOR are excellent starting points for scholarly articles.

Organize Your Findings : Use tools like Mendeley or Zotero to manage your references and keep your research organized.

Analyze and Synthesize Information : Critically evaluate your sources and synthesize information to draw conclusions relevant to your proposal. Purdue OWL provides guidance on conducting research and evaluating sources.

Keep Up-to-Date : Stay informed about the latest developments in your field by subscribing to relevant journals, newsletters, and professional networks. ResearchGate is a platform to connect with other researchers and stay updated.

Seek Feedback : Before finalizing your proposal, get feedback from peers or mentors. This can provide new insights and highlight areas for improvement. LinkedIn is useful for networking and finding mentors in your field.

By following these steps and leveraging the recommended resources, you can significantly improve the quality and impact of your research.

How to Display Research Skills on Your Resume

3. Analysis

Analysis, in the context of a Proposal Writer, refers to the systematic examination and evaluation of data or information, by breaking it into its component parts to understand its structure, meaning, or relationships. This process helps in identifying the needs, determining solutions, and crafting persuasive proposals.

Analysis is crucial for a Proposal Writer because it enables the identification of key project requirements, ensures alignment with the objectives and priorities of the funding source, and facilitates the development of a compelling, evidence-based argument that increases the likelihood of proposal approval.

How to Improve Analysis Skills

Improving analysis skills, especially for a Proposal Writer, involves enhancing your ability to understand and interpret data, texts, and project requirements. Here are concise steps with relevant resources:

Understand the RFP : Start by thoroughly reading the request for proposal (RFP) to grasp the project's goals and requirements. Creating Winning Proposal outlines strategies for analyzing and responding to RFPs.

Research Skills : Enhance your research abilities to gather relevant data and benchmarks. Use Google Scholar for academic and industry-specific insights.

Critical Thinking : Develop critical thinking to evaluate information effectively. MindTools offers techniques for improving this skill.

Data Analysis : Learn basic data analysis to interpret figures and trends. Khan Academy provides free resources on statistics and probability.

Feedback and Revision : Use feedback constructively and revise your analysis accordingly. Harvard Business Review discusses the art of giving and receiving feedback.

Writing Skills : Polish your writing to present your analysis clearly and persuasively. Purdue OWL is an excellent resource for writing guidelines and tips.

Stay Updated : Keep abreast of industry trends and standards by following relevant publications and websites. Feedly is a useful tool for aggregating content from your favorite sources.

Following these steps and utilizing the linked resources will significantly improve your analysis skills as a Proposal Writer.

How to Display Analysis Skills on Your Resume

4. Microsoft Word

Microsoft Word is a word processing software used for creating, editing, and formatting text documents, widely utilized by proposal writers for drafting, revising, and finalizing proposals.

Microsoft Word is essential for Proposal Writers as it provides comprehensive tools for creating, editing, and formatting professional and persuasive documents, facilitating collaboration, and ensuring consistency in proposals.

How to Improve Microsoft Word Skills

To enhance Microsoft Word for a Proposal Writer:

Template Integration: Develop and integrate a vast library of customizable proposal templates directly within Word for efficiency. Template Library

Dynamic Content Library: Create a feature to seamlessly insert pre-approved content (text, graphics) from an external dynamic content library, ensuring consistency. Content Controls

Collaboration Tools Enhancement: Improve real-time collaboration tools, with better version control and comment tracking for external links. Collaborate in Word

Advanced Link Management: Implement a feature for managing and verifying the integrity of external links, ensuring they remain valid and accessible. Link Management

Enhanced Security Features: Strengthen security measures for sharing sensitive proposals, including password protection and encryption. Protect Documents

Automated Reference Manager: Integrate a more robust reference manager for automating citations and bibliography, tailored for proposal writers. Manage Sources

Feedback Loop Integration: Facilitate a direct feedback loop within the document from stakeholders, with the ability to accept or reject changes on-the-go. Track Changes

By focusing on these areas, Microsoft Word can be significantly improved to meet the specific needs of Proposal Writers, enhancing their productivity and proposal quality.

How to Display Microsoft Word Skills on Your Resume

5. Adobe InDesign

Adobe InDesign is a professional desktop publishing software used by proposal writers to create, design, and layout documents such as proposals, brochures, and reports, offering precise control over typography, page design, and multimedia integration.

Adobe InDesign is essential for a Proposal Writer because it provides sophisticated tools for creating, designing, and publishing high-quality, visually compelling documents, enabling the effective communication of proposals with professional layouts and typography.

How to Improve Adobe InDesign Skills

To enhance Adobe InDesign for a Proposal Writer, focus on these concise strategies:

Learn Key Shortcuts : Mastering keyboard shortcuts can significantly speed up your workflow. Adobe offers a comprehensive list to improve efficiency.

Utilize Templates : Start with professionally designed templates to save time. Adobe Stock provides a variety of InDesign templates suitable for various proposal types.

Incorporate Data Merge : Automate the insertion of text and images from an external data source, streamlining the creation of personalized proposals. Adobe's guide on Data Merge offers step-by-step instructions.

Optimize for Accessibility : Ensure your proposals are accessible to everyone by following Adobe's tips on creating accessible PDFs from InDesign.

Explore GREP Styles : Automate formatting specific text patterns using GREP styles, making it easier to apply consistent styles across your proposal. Here's a primer on using GREP styles in InDesign.

Interactive Elements : Make your proposals stand out by adding interactive elements like hyperlinks, buttons, and videos. Adobe provides instructions on creating interactive documents.

Regularly Update Software : Stay up-to-date with the latest version of InDesign to access new features and improvements. Check Adobe's InDesign User Guide for the latest updates.

By implementing these strategies, Proposal Writers can significantly improve their efficiency and effectiveness in Adobe InDesign.

How to Display Adobe InDesign Skills on Your Resume

SEO, or Search Engine Optimization, is the process of enhancing a website's visibility in search engine results to increase organic traffic, aiming to improve the site's ranking for relevant keywords and phrases.

SEO is essential for a Proposal Writer because it helps ensure their content is easily discoverable online, increasing visibility to potential clients and enhancing the chances of winning bids by reaching a wider audience.

How to Improve SEO Skills

Improving SEO involves optimizing website content and structure to increase visibility in search engine results. For a Proposal Writer, consider the following concise strategies:

Keyword Optimization : Identify and integrate relevant keywords throughout your content, especially in titles, headings, and the first paragraph. Use tools like Google Keyword Planner for research.

Quality Content : Create valuable, unique content that addresses your audience's needs. Regular updates can also improve rankings. Refer to Google’s content guidelines for best practices.

Mobile Optimization : Ensure your website is mobile-friendly. Google’s Mobile-Friendly Test can help you assess and improve.

Page Speed : Improve loading times for better user experience and rankings. Tools like Google’s PageSpeed Insights provide performance analysis and recommendations.

Backlinks : Gain quality backlinks from reputable sites within your industry. This enhances your site's credibility and search ranking.

Meta Descriptions and Title Tags : Write compelling meta descriptions and title tags that include relevant keywords. They should accurately describe the content of each page.

URL Structure : Use clear, descriptive URLs with keywords. This improves user experience and SEO.

Social Media Engagement : Promote your content on social media to drive traffic and improve search visibility.

By implementing these strategies, a Proposal Writer can enhance their website's SEO, attracting more visitors and potentially increasing conversion rates.

How to Display SEO Skills on Your Resume

7. Project Management

Project management is the process of planning, organizing, and overseeing the successful completion of specific project objectives or tasks, ensuring they are delivered on time, within budget, and to the desired quality standards. For a Proposal Writer, it involves coordinating the development, writing, and submission of proposals to meet deadlines and align with the client's requirements and project goals.

Project Management is crucial for a Proposal Writer as it ensures efficient organization and timely delivery of high-quality proposals, aligning resources, objectives, and deadlines to meet client expectations and secure project wins.

How to Improve Project Management Skills

Improving Project Management, especially for a Proposal Writer, involves enhancing planning, organization, and communication. Here are concise strategies:

Define Clear Objectives :Start by setting clear, achievable goals for each project. Understanding what success looks like from the outset guides focus and decision-making ( MindTools ).

Utilize Project Management Tools :Employ project management software (e.g., Trello, Asana) to track deadlines, assign tasks, and monitor progress efficiently (Capterra).

Enhance Communication :Maintain regular, open communication channels with all stakeholders to ensure alignment and address issues promptly (ProjectManagement.com).

Implement a Review and Feedback Loop :Incorporate periodic reviews to assess progress and gather feedback, allowing for timely adjustments (PMI).

Continual Learning and Improvement :Invest in ongoing training and professional development to keep up with best practices in project management and proposal writing ( APMP ).

Adopting these strategies can significantly enhance your capabilities in managing projects effectively.

How to Display Project Management Skills on Your Resume

8. Google Docs

Google Docs is a web-based word processing application that enables proposal writers to create, edit, and collaborate on documents in real time from any device with internet access.

Google Docs is essential for a Proposal Writer because it provides real-time collaboration, version control, and accessibility from any device, streamlining the proposal writing and review process.

How to Improve Google Docs Skills

Improving Google Docs for a Proposal Writer involves enhancing collaboration, organization, and formatting capabilities. Here are concise recommendations:

Real-Time Collaboration Enhancement : Integrate more robust version control and comment tracking features. This will help in managing contributions and feedback from multiple stakeholders efficiently. Google Docs Help

Advanced Template Library : Develop a comprehensive template library specific to various types of proposals. This will save time and ensure consistency across documents. Google Docs Templates

Dynamic Content Integration : Enable seamless integration with data sources (e.g., Google Sheets) for real-time data updates in documents. This feature would be invaluable for including up-to-date statistics and figures in proposals. Linking Google Sheets to Docs

Enhanced Formatting Tools : Implement advanced formatting tools for more sophisticated document styling, including better control over text styles, page layout, and interactive elements. Docs Editors Help

Improved Export Options : Offer more flexible export options (e.g., to PDF, Word) with customizable settings for layout, comments, and revisions. This will facilitate smoother document sharing and printing. Download & Export to Other File Types

Security and Access Control : Strengthen document security by providing more granular access controls and permissions, including temporary access and view-only links without sign-in requirements. Share files from Google Drive

External Link Management : Implement a feature for managing and verifying the integrity of external links in documents, ensuring all referenced material is accessible and up to date.

For Proposal Writers, these improvements will streamline the writing process, enhance document quality, and facilitate better collaboration with stakeholders.

How to Display Google Docs Skills on Your Resume

9. CRM Software

CRM software is a tool designed to manage a company's interactions with current and potential customers by organizing, automating, and synchronizing sales, marketing, customer service, and technical support processes.

CRM software is crucial for organizing client information, tracking interactions, and managing relationships, enabling Proposal Writers to tailor communications, respond promptly to opportunities, and increase proposal success rates.

How to Improve CRM Software Skills

Improving CRM software involves enhancing its functionality, user experience, and integration capabilities to better meet the needs of businesses and their customers. Here are concise strategies tailored for a Proposal Writer:

User Experience Enhancement : Focus on creating a more intuitive and user-friendly interface. Simplify navigation and ensure that key features are easily accessible. Consider feedback from users to identify areas for improvement. Nielsen Norman Group offers guidelines on usability that can be applied to CRM software design.

Customization and Flexibility : Allow users to customize dashboards, reports, and workflows to fit their specific business processes. This can lead to increased adoption rates. Salesforce provides customization options that can serve as a good model.

Integration Capabilities : Enhance the software’s ability to integrate smoothly with other tools and platforms, such as email, social media, and ERP systems. This ensures a seamless flow of information across tools. Zapier’s integration solutions can be a benchmark for effective integration.

Mobile Optimization : Ensure the CRM is fully functional and optimized for mobile devices, enabling users to access and update information on the go. HubSpot’s mobile CRM features highlight the importance of mobile accessibility.

Data Analysis and Reporting Features : Improve data analysis and reporting capabilities to offer deeper insights into customer behavior and sales trends. Incorporate advanced analytics and AI for predictive analysis. IBM’s Watson Analytics provides an example of leveraging AI for data insights.

Security Enhancements : Strengthen security measures to protect sensitive customer data. This includes implementing advanced encryption, secure authentication methods, and regular security audits. The ISO/IEC 27001 standard is a key reference for information security management.

Training and Support : Provide comprehensive training materials and responsive customer support to assist users in maximizing the software’s potential. Offering online tutorials, webinars, and a knowledge base can significantly improve user competence and satisfaction. Zendesk’s support and training resources are exemplary.

Implementing these improvements requires a thorough understanding of your current CRM software’s capabilities and limitations, as well as the specific needs of your users. Tailoring enhancements to address these needs directly can significantly increase the value and effectiveness of your CRM system.

How to Display CRM Software Skills on Your Resume

10. Data Visualization

Data visualization is the graphical representation of information and data, using visual elements like charts, graphs, and maps to simplify complex information and enhance understanding for decision-making.

Data visualization is crucial as it transforms complex data into clear, engaging visual formats, enabling Proposal Writers to effectively communicate insights, support arguments, and persuade stakeholders with evidence-based narratives.

How to Improve Data Visualization Skills

Improving data visualization involves several key strategies aimed at enhancing the clarity, impact, and accessibility of visual data representations. For a Proposal Writer, the goal is to convey complex data in a straightforward, compelling manner to support arguments and persuade stakeholders. Here are concise tips to improve data visualization:

Simplify and Focus : Concentrate on the main message. Remove unnecessary clutter and use clear, simple visuals. Edward Tufte's principles on data-ink ratio and chartjunk minimization are seminal in this area.

Choose the Right Chart Type : Match the visualization type with the data's nature and the story you want to tell. Data-to-Viz offers a decision tree to help select the most appropriate chart type.

Use Color Effectively : Utilize color to highlight important information or differentiate data groups, but avoid overuse. ColorBrewer provides color scheme guidance for maps and charts.

Make it Accessible : Ensure your visualizations are accessible to everyone, including those with visual impairments. WebAIM offers guidelines for making data tables accessible.

Annotate and Label Clearly : Use labels and annotations to guide the reader through the data. Make sure every axis, line, and data point is clear and understandable.

Tell a Story : Structure your visualization to lead the viewer on a journey through the data, highlighting key points and conclusions. Storytelling with Data by Cole Nussbaumer Knaflic provides excellent guidance on using data visualization to tell compelling stories.

Leverage Software Tools : Utilize data visualization tools and software for professional results. Tools like Tableau , Power BI , and D3.js offer powerful capabilities for creating dynamic and interactive visualizations.

Iterate and Get Feedback : Share your visualizations with others, gather feedback, and continuously refine your approach. Collaboration can reveal insights and improvements you might have missed.

By following these guidelines, Proposal Writers can significantly enhance the effectiveness of their data visualizations, making their proposals more persuasive and engaging.

How to Display Data Visualization Skills on Your Resume

11. Collaboration

Collaboration, in the context of a Proposal Writer, refers to the process of working jointly with team members, subject matter experts, and stakeholders to gather information, insights, and feedback in order to create, refine, and deliver a comprehensive and competitive proposal.

Collaboration is crucial for a Proposal Writer as it enables the integration of diverse expertise and perspectives, ensuring the creation of comprehensive, compelling, and high-quality proposals that effectively address client needs and stand out in competitive bidding processes.

How to Improve Collaboration Skills

Improving collaboration, particularly for a Proposal Writer, involves fostering clear communication, leveraging technology, and promoting a culture of teamwork. Here are concise strategies:

Utilize Collaboration Tools : Adopt tools like Google Docs for real-time editing and Trello or Asana for project management to streamline workflows and keep team members aligned.

Effective Communication Channels : Establish clear communication channels using platforms like Slack for instant messaging and Zoom for video conferencing to ensure everyone is on the same page.

Set Clear Roles and Deadlines : Clarify each team member's role and responsibilities using a tool like Smartsheet to define tasks and deadlines, ensuring accountability and progress tracking.

Encourage Feedback and Collaboration : Create a culture that welcomes feedback and ideas. Tools like Miro can be used for brainstorming sessions, making it easier for team members to contribute creatively and constructively.

Document and Share Knowledge : Implement a system for documenting processes and insights, using a knowledge base tool like Confluence to ensure valuable information is accessible to all team members.

By integrating these strategies and tools, a Proposal Writer can significantly enhance collaboration within their team, leading to more effective and efficient proposal development processes.

How to Display Collaboration Skills on Your Resume

12. Proofreading

Proofreading, in the context of a Proposal Writer, involves meticulously reviewing a proposal document to identify and correct any errors in spelling, grammar, punctuation, and formatting to ensure accuracy, clarity, and professionalism before submission.

Proofreading is crucial for a Proposal Writer as it ensures accuracy, clarity, and professionalism, significantly enhancing the proposal's credibility and the likelihood of securing funding or approval.

How to Improve Proofreading Skills

Improving proofreading skills, especially for a Proposal Writer, involves a focused approach to enhance accuracy, coherence, and effectiveness in written communication. Here are concise steps:

Read Aloud : Reading your text aloud helps catch errors that you might overlook when reading silently. It forces you to slow down and pay attention to every word.

Use Tools : Leverage proofreading tools like Grammarly or the Hemingway App for grammar and style suggestions.

Take Breaks : Allow time between writing and proofreading. Fresh eyes catch more errors. A break can help you see your work from a new perspective.

Check Facts and Figures : Ensure all data, including those in external links, are accurate and current. Use authoritative sources for verification.

Focus on Structure : Review your proposal’s structure for logical flow. Ensure that each section naturally leads to the next.

Peer Review : Have a colleague or another professional review your work. They can offer valuable feedback and catch mistakes you might have missed.

Read Backwards : For a meticulous line-by-line check, read your text backwards. This technique helps focus on individual words and punctuation rather than the content flow.

Attend Workshops : Participate in writing and proofreading workshops. Websites like Coursera and LinkedIn Learning offer relevant courses.

Practice Regularly : Like any skill, regular practice improves proofreading abilities. Dedicate time to write and review texts beyond your professional work.

Keep Learning : Stay updated with the latest writing and proofreading trends. Resources like The Chicago Manual of Style provide valuable guidelines.

By systematically applying these strategies, a Proposal Writer can significantly enhance their proofreading skills, leading to more compelling and error-free proposals.

How to Display Proofreading Skills on Your Resume

Related Career Skills

• Proposal Manager
• Proposal Coordinator
• Proposal Specialist
• Proposal Engineer
• Writer Editor

National Cancer Institute - Cancer.gov

Postdoctoral Fellow - Ephrin/Eph Signaling in Lung Development and Regeneration

Job description.

Ephrin/Eph signaling in lung development and regeneration: Postdoctoral project

Interactions between epithelial and endothelial cells in the lung alveolus are required to establish the gas exchange interface and mediate the critical function of the lung: transfer of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the body and the external environment. Incomplete lung development, acute or chronic respiratory diseases, and lung cancer disrupt this interface and are leading causes of death worldwide. A recent longitudinal analysis of the regenerative response of the lung alveolus to influenza infection has demonstrated that the cellular compartments of the lung respond differently to injury and that the timing and extent of cellular interactions across the alveolus likely determine the success or failure of regeneration.

Large genomic datasets have revolutionized our approach to studying complex tissues; however, it is essential to expand studies of novel cell states to determine how cells interact with one another to direct tissue morphogenesis. Mapping communication between cellular compartments in the alveolus during regeneration using CellChat has identified a potential role for endothelial-epithelial ephrin/Eph signaling in lung repair. Ephrin/Eph signaling often requires cell-cell contact, and signaling downstream of Ephs and ephrins is known to modulate cell self-organization and tissue morphogenesis in multiple contexts. Because communication and interaction between the lung epithelium and endothelium is required to reestablish the gas exchange interface after injury and restore lung function, ephrin/Eph signaling may play an essential role in cell-cell communication leading to repair of lung tissue structure.

Thus, a postdoctoral fellow position is available for a very interesting collaborative study that will dovetail the Daar laboratory interests with the laboratory of Dr. Terren Niethamer. The successful candidate for this position will integrate analysis of genomic datasets with studies of ephrin/Eph signaling and morphogenesis in both in vivo (model organism) and ex vivo (cell culture) systems. This project will provide insight into the role of endothelial Eph/ephrin signaling in lung development and regeneration and determine how endothelial cells interact with their niche to form 3D structures necessary for organ development, function, and repair. In addition, the established role of ephrin/Eph signaling in cancer progression and the emerging role for endothelial cell signaling in metastasis indicate that these mechanisms may be co-opted by cancer cells to drive tumor progression.

- Analysis of scRNA-seq data to identify the timing of expression and level of expression of Eph/ephrin pathway members in lung cells during regeneration following influenza infection

- In vivo validation of ephrin/Eph pathway member expression using immunofluorescence and/or RNAscope in mouse and human tissue sections

- Inhibition of ephrin/Eph signaling in an ex vivo alveolar organoid system or cultured precision-cut lung slices

- Inhibiiton of ephrin/Eph signaling using mouse genetic knockout experiments during postnatal alveologenesis, adult homeostasis, and regeneration following influenza infection

Overall goal: Determine whether loss of identified Eph/ephrin signaling pathway members results in changes to alveologenesis or regeneration following influenza infection, with a particular focus on changes to alveolar structure and cell behavior.

Qualifications and Job Details

Required and preferred skills.

A strong background in molecular, cellular, or developmental biology is required. Interested candidates should have a Ph.D. and/or an M.D. and have less than 5 years postdoctoral experience.

About the NCI Center for Cancer Research

The Center for Cancer Research (CCR) is home to nearly 250 basic and clinical research groups located on two campuses just outside of Washington, D.C. CCR is part of the National Cancer Institute (NCI) and makes up the largest component of the research effort at the National Institutes of Health (NIH). Centrally supported by long-term funding and a culture of complete intellectual freedom, CCR scientists are able to pursue the most important and challenging problems in cancer research. We collaborate with academic and commercial partners and advocacy groups across the world in efforts to prevent, diagnose and treat cancer and HIV/AIDS. The CCR research portfolio covers the full spectrum of biological and biomedical research. Our work ranges from basic to translational and clinical, and our clinical trials are conducted in the NIH Clinical Center, the world’s largest hospital dedicated to clinical research that offers a robust infrastructure to support CCR’s patients on an estimated 250 open studies. The success of CCR is grounded in an exceptionally strong discovery research program that provides the foundation for the seamless translation of insights from bench to bedside. Read more  about CCR , the  benefits  of working at CCR and hear from  our staff  on their CCR experiences.

Frederick is the second largest city in Maryland but retains a “small town” feel, surrounded by mountain views with a vibrant Main Street community. The city offers outstanding schools, a balanced and thriving economy and a highly educated workforce.

• 3 References
• Cover Letter
• Summary of Research Experience

Our laboratory is located at the NCI-Frederick campus and offers state-of-the-art facilities in an exciting environment for postdoctoral research. The NCI offers competitive postdoctoral stipends. Qualifying fellows from abroad will be provided a J-1 Visa.

Original text

As a business plan recruitment agency founder, developing the right skills is essential. Research shows that over 90% of startups fail due to a lack of skills. You need to understand how to attract clients and hire the best talents.

For this, specific abilities are crucial. We will share the top essential skills you must learn to run your agency successfully.

Additionally, studies find revenue increases by 30% through marketing abilities. As a  business plan recruitment agency  owner, it is essential to have a diverse skill set in order to manage and grow your business effectively. 

Let's look at the top abilities and how you can enhance them step-by-step.

9 Entrepreneurial Skills Every Startup Founder Should Have

Being a successful startup founder requires a unique set of skills. Here are 9 essential entrepreneurial skills that every startup founder should have:

Sales and Business Development

As a recruitment startup owner, developing solid sales and business development skills is crucial. This includes prospecting for new clients, nurturing relationships, and closing deals. 

For example, you should be able to effectively communicate the value of your services, negotiate contracts, and build a robust client base.

Networking and Relationship Building: 

Building a strong network is essential for the success of your recruitment startup. This involves attending industry events, joining professional associations, and actively connecting with potential clients and candidates. 

Developing exceptional networking and relationship-building skills will help you create valuable connections and referral sources.

Candidate Sourcing and Screening

Being able to source and screen high-quality candidates is vital for delivering top-notch recruitment services. This includes utilising various channels such as job boards, social media, and referrals to attract qualified talent. 

Additionally, developing effective screening techniques and conducting thorough interviews will ensure you present the best-fit candidates to your clients.

Industry Knowledge and Market Trends

Staying up-to-date with industry knowledge and market trends is crucial in the fast-paced recruitment industry. This involves continuously learning about different industries, understanding job market dynamics, and keeping track of emerging technologies. 

By staying informed, you can provide valuable insights to clients and remain competitive in the marketplace.

Communication and Negotiation

Strong communication and negotiation skills are essential for building relationships with clients and candidates. 

This includes active listening, clear and concise verbal and written communication, and the ability to negotiate mutually beneficial terms. Effective communication and negotiation skills will help you align client and candidate expectations and achieve successful placements.

Time Management and Organization

Running a recruitment startup requires excellent time management and organisational skills. This involves prioritising tasks, setting realistic goals, and managing multiple projects simultaneously. 

Developing efficient systems and processes will help you stay organised, meet deadlines, and deliver exceptional service to clients and candidates.

Problem Solving and Decision Making

As a recruitment startup owner, you will encounter various challenges and make critical decisions regularly. Developing strong problem-solving and decision-making skills will help you overcome obstacles and make sound judgments. 

This includes analysing situations, considering different perspectives, and finding creative solutions to meet client and candidate needs.

Marketing and Branding

Building a strong brand and effectively marketing your services is essential for attracting clients and candidates. For instance, developing a compelling brand message that resonates with your target audience will help differentiate your business in a competitive market. 

Creating a professional and visually appealing website, along with engaging social media profiles, can attract clients and candidates. Utilising targeted marketing techniques, such as content marketing or email campaigns, can reach potential clients and build brand awareness. 

Additionally, establishing thought leadership through industry blogs or participating in speaking engagements enhances your credibility. By investing in marketing and branding efforts, you can position your startup as a trusted and reputable recruitment partner, attracting both clients and top talent.

Technology and Data Analysis

In the recruitment industry, leveraging technology and data analysis can greatly enhance your startup's success. 

For example, utilising applicant tracking systems (ATS) streamlines candidate management automates processes, and improves efficiency. Data analysis allows you to gain insights into recruitment trends, track key performance indicators, and make data-driven decisions. 

By analysing metrics like time-to-fill or source of hire, you can optimise your strategies and improve outcomes. Additionally, leveraging artificial intelligence (AI) technology for candidate sourcing and screening can help you identify top talent more efficiently. Assuming technology and data analysis give your startup a competitive edge and enhance your ability to deliver exceptional recruitment services.

Frequently Asked Questions

What skills should startup founders have.

Startup founders must possess strong leadership, business management and marketing skills. They need to take initiative, work under pressure and have the ability to motivate teams to take risks. Founders should demonstrate financial discipline and a passion for solving problems through technology.

What Skills Do You Need to Be a Co-Founder?

To be an effective co-founder, you must demonstrate trust, ethics and passion for the company's goals. The ability to collaborate seamlessly cross-functionally, take initiatives independently and make decisions jointly are crucial. Leadership qualities, technical expertise in relevant domains and resilience to face challenges together are equally important.

What Makes You a Good Founder CEO?

Good founder CEOs have an entrepreneurial mindset and focus on customers, products and team above self. They can attract, onboard and inspire top talents through a compelling vision. Leadership abilities like public speaking, accountability and the ability to lead by example whilst delegating effectively are key attributes.

How Do I Become a Good Startup Founder?

To be a good founder:

• Develop business planning, marketing and networking skills.
• Learn through online courses and conferences.
• Gain experience at another startup and find a co-founder to complement your strengths.

In conclusion, cultivating the right skills is crucial for the growth of your business plan recruitment agency. While it takes time, starting early gives advantages. 

As discussed, focus on sharpening abilities like communication, networking and using the latest tools. Continuously enhance your leadership qualities, too. Most importantly, never stop learning from others' experiences. Staying curious and open-minded will help you overcome challenges innovatively. 

Remember, being a successful entrepreneur requires passion, resilience and self-awareness. Therefore, reflect regularly on your strengths and weaknesses to improve further. Build upon your learnings step-by-step. The discussion on key skills has provided helpful insights. 

All the best for your startup journey! With perseverance and by mastering the essential abilities, you can achieve your goals.

Feeling stuck with Facebook Ads? They can be a goldmine for customer acquisition, but knowing where to start can be overwhelming.

This interactive SCORE workshop is your key to unlocking the advertising power of Facebook! No matter your experience level , you'll walk away with actionable strategies to:

• Discover how to identify your ideal customer down to the finest detail, ensuring your ads reach the exact people who will convert.
• Learn the secrets to writing irresistible ad copy that stops scrollers in their tracks and compels them to take action.
• Say goodbye to ad campaign confusion! We'll show

Copyright © 2024 SCORE Association, SCORE.org

Funded, in part, through a Cooperative Agreement with the U.S. Small Business Administration. All opinions, and/or recommendations expressed herein are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the SBA.

Module 1: Research and the Writing Process

Steps in developing a research proposal, learning objectives.

• Identify the steps in developing a research proposal.
• Choose a topic and formulate a research question and working thesis.
• Develop a research proposal.

Writing a good research paper takes time, thought, and effort. Although this assignment is challenging, it is manageable. Focusing on one step at a time will help you develop a thoughtful, informative, well-supported research paper.

Your first step is to choose a topic and then to develop research questions, a working thesis, and a written research proposal. Set aside adequate time for this part of the process. Fully exploring ideas will help you build a solid foundation for your paper.

Choosing a Topic

When you choose a topic for a research paper, you are making a major commitment. Your choice will help determine whether you enjoy the lengthy process of research and writing—and whether your final paper fulfills the assignment requirements. If you choose your topic hastily, you may later find it difficult to work with your topic. By taking your time and choosing carefully, you can ensure that this assignment is not only challenging but also rewarding.

Writers understand the importance of choosing a topic that fulfills the assignment requirements and fits the assignment’s purpose and audience. (For more information about purpose and audience, see Chapter 6 “Writing Paragraphs: Separating Ideas and Shaping Content”.) Choosing a topic that interests you is also crucial. You instructor may provide a list of suggested topics or ask that you develop a topic on your own. In either case, try to identify topics that genuinely interest you.

After identifying potential topic ideas, you will need to evaluate your ideas and choose one topic to pursue. Will you be able to find enough information about the topic? Can you develop a paper about this topic that presents and supports your original ideas? Is the topic too broad or too narrow for the scope of the assignment? If so, can you modify it so it is more manageable? You will ask these questions during this preliminary phase of the research process.

Identifying Potential Topics

Sometimes, your instructor may provide a list of suggested topics. If so, you may benefit from identifying several possibilities before committing to one idea. It is important to know how to narrow down your ideas into a concise, manageable thesis. You may also use the list as a starting point to help you identify additional, related topics. Discussing your ideas with your instructor will help ensure that you choose a manageable topic that fits the requirements of the assignment.

In this chapter, you will follow a writer named Jorge, who is studying health care administration, as he prepares a research paper. You will also plan, research, and draft your own research paper.

Jorge was assigned to write a research paper on health and the media for an introductory course in health care. Although a general topic was selected for the students, Jorge had to decide which specific issues interested him. He brainstormed a list of possibilities.

If you are writing a research paper for a specialized course, look back through your notes and course activities. Identify reading assignments and class discussions that especially engaged you. Doing so can help you identify topics to pursue.

Set a timer for five minutes. Use brainstorming or idea mapping to create a list of topics you would be interested in researching for a paper about the influence of the Internet on social networking. Do you closely follow the media coverage of a particular website, such as Twitter? Would you like to learn more about a certain industry, such as online dating? Which social networking sites do you and your friends use? List as many ideas related to this topic as you can.

Narrowing Your Topic

Once you have a list of potential topics, you will need to choose one as the focus of your essay. You will also need to narrow your topic. Most writers find that the topics they listed during brainstorming or idea mapping are broad—too broad for the scope of the assignment. Working with an overly broad topic, such as sexual education programs or popularized diets, can be frustrating and overwhelming. Each topic has so many facets that it would be impossible to cover them all in a college research paper. However, more specific choices, such as the pros and cons of sexual education in kids’ television programs or the physical effects of the South Beach diet, are specific enough to write about without being too narrow to sustain an entire research paper.

A good research paper provides focused, in-depth information and analysis. If your topic is too broad, you will find it difficult to do more than skim the surface when you research it and write about it. Narrowing your focus is essential to making your topic manageable. To narrow your focus, explore your topic in writing, conduct preliminary research, and discuss both the topic and the research with others.

Exploring Your Topic in Writing

“How am I supposed to narrow my topic when I haven’t even begun researching yet?” In fact, you may already know more than you realize. Review your list and identify your top two or three topics. Set aside some time to explore each one through freewriting. (For more information about freewriting, see Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?”.) Simply taking the time to focus on your topic may yield fresh angles.

Jorge knew that he was especially interested in the topic of diet fads, but he also knew that it was much too broad for his assignment. He used freewriting to explore his thoughts so he could narrow his topic. Read Jorge’s ideas.

Conducting Preliminary Research

Another way writers may focus a topic is to conduct preliminary research . Like freewriting, exploratory reading can help you identify interesting angles. Surfing the web and browsing through newspaper and magazine articles are good ways to start. Find out what people are saying about your topic on blogs and online discussion groups. Discussing your topic with others can also inspire you. Talk about your ideas with your classmates, your friends, or your instructor.

Jorge’s freewriting exercise helped him realize that the assigned topic of health and the media intersected with a few of his interests—diet, nutrition, and obesity. Preliminary online research and discussions with his classmates strengthened his impression that many people are confused or misled by media coverage of these subjects.

Jorge decided to focus his paper on a topic that had garnered a great deal of media attention—low-carbohydrate diets. He wanted to find out whether low-carbohydrate diets were as effective as their proponents claimed.

Writing at Work

At work, you may need to research a topic quickly to find general information. This information can be useful in understanding trends in a given industry or generating competition. For example, a company may research a competitor’s prices and use the information when pricing their own product. You may find it useful to skim a variety of reliable sources and take notes on your findings.

The reliability of online sources varies greatly. In this exploratory phase of your research, you do not need to evaluate sources as closely as you will later. However, use common sense as you refine your paper topic. If you read a fascinating blog comment that gives you a new idea for your paper, be sure to check out other, more reliable sources as well to make sure the idea is worth pursuing.

Review the list of topics you created in Note 11.18 “Exercise 1” and identify two or three topics you would like to explore further. For each of these topics, spend five to ten minutes writing about the topic without stopping. Then review your writing to identify possible areas of focus.

Set aside time to conduct preliminary research about your potential topics. Then choose a topic to pursue for your research paper.

Collaboration

Please share your topic list with a classmate. Select one or two topics on his or her list that you would like to learn more about and return it to him or her. Discuss why you found the topics interesting, and learn which of your topics your classmate selected and why.

A Plan for Research

Your freewriting and preliminary research have helped you choose a focused, manageable topic for your research paper. To work with your topic successfully, you will need to determine what exactly you want to learn about it—and later, what you want to say about it. Before you begin conducting in-depth research, you will further define your focus by developing a research question , a working thesis, and a research proposal.

Formulating a Research Question

In forming a research question, you are setting a goal for your research. Your main research question should be substantial enough to form the guiding principle of your paper—but focused enough to guide your research. A strong research question requires you not only to find information but also to put together different pieces of information, interpret and analyze them, and figure out what you think. As you consider potential research questions, ask yourself whether they would be too hard or too easy to answer.

To determine your research question, review the freewriting you completed earlier. Skim through books, articles, and websites and list the questions you have. (You may wish to use the 5WH strategy to help you formulate questions. See Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” for more information about 5WH questions.) Include simple, factual questions and more complex questions that would require analysis and interpretation. Determine your main question—the primary focus of your paper—and several subquestions that you will need to research to answer your main question.

Here are the research questions Jorge will use to focus his research. Notice that his main research question has no obvious, straightforward answer. Jorge will need to research his subquestions, which address narrower topics, to answer his main question.

Using the topic you selected in Note 11.24 “Exercise 2”, write your main research question and at least four to five subquestions. Check that your main research question is appropriately complex for your assignment.

Constructing a Working ThesIs

A working thesis concisely states a writer’s initial answer to the main research question. It does not merely state a fact or present a subjective opinion. Instead, it expresses a debatable idea or claim that you hope to prove through additional research. Your working thesis is called a working thesis for a reason—it is subject to change. As you learn more about your topic, you may change your thinking in light of your research findings. Let your working thesis serve as a guide to your research, but do not be afraid to modify it based on what you learn.

Jorge began his research with a strong point of view based on his preliminary writing and research. Read his working thesis statement, which presents the point he will argue. Notice how it states Jorge’s tentative answer to his research question.

One way to determine your working thesis is to consider how you would complete sentences such as I believe or My opinion is . However, keep in mind that academic writing generally does not use first-person pronouns. These statements are useful starting points, but formal research papers use an objective voice.

Write a working thesis statement that presents your preliminary answer to the research question you wrote in Note 11.27 “Exercise 3”. Check that your working thesis statement presents an idea or claim that could be supported or refuted by evidence from research.

Creating a Research Proposal

A research proposal is a brief document—no more than one typed page—that summarizes the preliminary work you have completed. Your purpose in writing it is to formalize your plan for research and present it to your instructor for feedback. In your research proposal, you will present your main research question, related subquestions, and working thesis. You will also briefly discuss the value of researching this topic and indicate how you plan to gather information.

When Jorge began drafting his research proposal, he realized that he had already created most of the pieces he needed. However, he knew he also had to explain how his research would be relevant to other future health care professionals. In addition, he wanted to form a general plan for doing the research and identifying potentially useful sources. Read Jorge’s research proposal.

Before you begin a new project at work, you may have to develop a project summary document that states the purpose of the project, explains why it would be a wise use of company resources, and briefly outlines the steps involved in completing the project. This type of document is similar to a research proposal. Both documents define and limit a project, explain its value, discuss how to proceed, and identify what resources you will use.

Writing Your Own Research Proposal

Now you may write your own research proposal, if you have not done so already. Follow the guidelines provided in this lesson.

Key Takeaways

• Developing a research proposal involves the following preliminary steps: identifying potential ideas, choosing ideas to explore further, choosing and narrowing a topic, formulating a research question, and developing a working thesis.
• A good topic for a research paper interests the writer and fulfills the requirements of the assignment.
• Defining and narrowing a topic helps writers conduct focused, in-depth research.
• Writers conduct preliminary research to identify possible topics and research questions and to develop a working thesis.
• A good research question interests readers, is neither too broad nor too narrow, and has no obvious answer.
• A good working thesis expresses a debatable idea or claim that can be supported with evidence from research.
• Writers create a research proposal to present their topic, main research question, subquestions, and working thesis to an instructor for approval or feedback.
• Successful Writing Section 11.2, Steps in Developing a Research Proposal. Authored by : Anonymous. Located at : http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/successful-writing/s15-02-steps-in-developing-a-research.html . License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike

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Why Cross-Functional Collaboration Stalls, and How to Fix It

• Sharon Cantor Ceurvorst,
• Kristina LaRocca-Cerrone,
• Aparajita Mazumdar,

Research shows that 78% of leaders report “collaboration drag” — too many meetings, too much peer feedback, and too much time spent getting buy-in from stakeholders.

Gartner research shows 78% of organizational leaders report experiencing “collaboration drag” — too many meetings, too much peer feedback, unclear decision-making authority, and too much time spent getting buy-in from stakeholders. This problem is compounded by the fact that companies are running as many as five types of complex initiatives at the same time — each of which could involve five to eight corporate functions and 20 to 35 team members. The sheer breadth of resource commitments across such a range of initiatives creates a basic, pervasive background complexity. To better equip teams to meet the demands of this complexity, Gartner recommends the following strategies: 1) Extend executive alignment practices down to tactical levels; 2) Develop employee strategic and interpersonal skills; and 3) Look for collaboration drag within functions or teams.

Corporate growth is the ultimate team sport, relying on multiple functions’ data, technology, and expertise. This is especially true as technology innovation and AI introduce new revenue streams and business models, which require significant cross-functional collaboration to get off the ground.

• SC Sharon Cantor Ceurvorst is vice president of research in the Gartner marketing practice , finding new ways of solving B2B and B2C strategic marketing challenges. She sets annual research agendas and harnesses the collective expertise of marketing analysts and research methodologists to generate actionable insights.
• KL Kristina LaRocca-Cerrone is senior director of advisory in the Gartner marketing practice , overseeing Gartner’s coverage of marketing leadership and strategy, cross-functional collaboration, proving the value of marketing, and marketing innovation and transformation.
• AM Aparajita Mazumdar is senior research principal in the Gartner marketing practice , co-leading the research agenda for marketing technology.  Her research focuses primarily on marketing strategy and technology topics such as cross-functional collaboration and marketing technology utilization.
• AN Anja Naski is senior research specialist in the Gartner marketing practice . She edits the Gartner CMO Quarterly journal, highlighting the latest insights on critical challenges facing CMOs. Her research covers topics related to marketing operations, CMO leadership, and cross-functional collaboration.

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2023 Request for Proposals: Call for Collaborative Research Proposals in Basic and Applied Sciences between UNAM and the University of California

• Adela Hernandez
• February 03, 2023
• Opportunities

The Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM) and the University of California Alianza MX (UC Alianza MX) are pleased to announce the first “ Call for Collaborative Research Proposals in Basic and Applied Sciences between UNAM and the University of California .” Proposals are expected to lead to the development of major, long-term collaborations among groups of researchers from both institutions and to significantly advance knowledge in the following disciplines in the context of climate change:

• Coastal flooding
• Drought and fire ecology
• Extreme heat and health-related effect
• GHG emissions and air quality
• Soil functions and management
• Sustainable food production and nutritional genomics
• Other related disciplines with a positive impact on society.

Proposals are due by Wednesday, March 15, 2023 by 11:59 p.m. (PST).  For more information, please visit: here  or the application homepage . 

(310) 825-7943 [email protected]

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IOE academics highly commended as part of the Medical Research Council Early Career Impact Prize

25 June 2024

Drs Amy Harrison and Marta Francesconi (Department of Psychology and Human Development) were highly commended at the 2023 MRC Impact Prize ceremony last week for their research on how decision-making skills impact the development of eating disorders in adolescence.

The MRC Early Career Impact Prize recognises individuals or teams making outstanding contributions to health and society – early career researchers who are pioneers in medical research that transforms and supports the wider field. 

Their MRC-funded research investigated the link between decision-making skills in childhood and eating disorder symptoms in adolescence. These mental health conditions are estimated to affect 1.25 million people in the UK, with a large proportion of patients aged under 25. 

Drawing from the national longitudinal Millennium Cohort Study, Drs Harrison and Francesconi analysed a sample of 11,000 boys and girls to gain greater insights into the early signs of disordered eating before any serious disorder fully emerges. 

Their work is transforming policymakers’ and the public’s understanding of these conditions and countering prevailing stigma around eating disorders. 

Future work aims to develop an evidence-based game for young people as a resilience training tool, to foster healthy decision-making around food and exercise and protect against the later onset of eating disorders. 

Professor Zachary Walker, Head of the Department of Psychology and Human Development, says, “Amy and Marta's recognition is reward for their consistent hard work and dedication to learning how eating disorders develop throughout adolescence. 

“They are both tremendously gifted researchers who care deeply about their work and the young people their findings impact. In addition, they are outstanding colleagues, and we are lucky to have them in the department."

Related links

• More about the research: Better decision-making skills may help young people resist problematic eating behaviours
• Listen on the #IOEPodcast: What’s the link between decision-making and eating disorders?
• Dr Amy Harrison’s academic profile
• Dr Marta Francesconi’s academic profile
• Department of Psychology and Human Development
• Medical Research Council’s Impact Prize

Drs Amy Harrison and Marta Francesconi with IOE Director and Dean, Professor Li Wei at the ceremony. Tatiana Souteiro Dias.

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