medical research paper types

Basic structure and types of scientific papers

Affiliation.

• 1 Singapore Medical Journal, Singapore. [email protected]
• PMID: 18695858

The basic structure of a scientific paper is summarised by the acronym IMRAD. Many types of papers are published in medical journals. These include original articles, case reports, technical notes, pictorial essays, reviews, commentaries and editorials. Authors should be aware that each type of paper is specific in nature, serve a distinct purpose, and is judged by different criteria. Authors submitting their work in the most appropriate format will be able to maximise their material and enhance the chances of manuscript acceptance.

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What Are the Different Types of Clinical Research?

Different types of clinical research are used depending on what the researchers are studying. Below are descriptions of some different kinds of clinical research.

Treatment Research generally involves an intervention such as medication, psychotherapy, new devices, or new approaches to surgery or radiation therapy. 

Prevention Research looks for better ways to prevent disorders from developing or returning. Different kinds of prevention research may study medicines, vitamins, vaccines, minerals, or lifestyle changes. 

Diagnostic Research refers to the practice of looking for better ways to identify a particular disorder or condition. 

Screening Research aims to find the best ways to detect certain disorders or health conditions. 

Quality of Life Research explores ways to improve comfort and the quality of life for individuals with a chronic illness. 

Genetic studies aim to improve the prediction of disorders by identifying and understanding how genes and illnesses may be related. Research in this area may explore ways in which a person’s genes make him or her more or less likely to develop a disorder. This may lead to development of tailor-made treatments based on a patient’s genetic make-up. 

Epidemiological studies seek to identify the patterns, causes, and control of disorders in groups of people. 

An important note: some clinical research is “outpatient,” meaning that participants do not stay overnight at the hospital. Some is “inpatient,” meaning that participants will need to stay for at least one night in the hospital or research center. Be sure to ask the researchers what their study requires. 

Phases of clinical trials: when clinical research is used to evaluate medications and devices Clinical trials are a kind of clinical research designed to evaluate and test new interventions such as psychotherapy or medications. Clinical trials are often conducted in four phases. The trials at each phase have a different purpose and help scientists answer different questions. 

Phase I trials Researchers test an experimental drug or treatment in a small group of people for the first time. The researchers evaluate the treatment’s safety, determine a safe dosage range, and identify side effects. 

Phase II trials The experimental drug or treatment is given to a larger group of people to see if it is effective and to further evaluate its safety.

Phase III trials The experimental study drug or treatment is given to large groups of people. Researchers confirm its effectiveness, monitor side effects, compare it to commonly used treatments, and collect information that will allow the experimental drug or treatment to be used safely. 

Phase IV trials Post-marketing studies, which are conducted after a treatment is approved for use by the FDA, provide additional information including the treatment or drug’s risks, benefits, and best use.

Examples of other kinds of clinical research Many people believe that all clinical research involves testing of new medications or devices. This is not true, however. Some studies do not involve testing medications and a person’s regular medications may not need to be changed. Healthy volunteers are also needed so that researchers can compare their results to results of people with the illness being studied. Some examples of other kinds of research include the following: 

A long-term study that involves psychological tests or brain scans

A genetic study that involves blood tests but no changes in medication

A study of family history that involves talking to family members to learn about people’s medical needs and history.

Evidence-Based Medicine: Types of Studies

• What is Evidence-Based Practice?
• Question Types and Corresponding Resources
• Types of Studies
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• Step 3: Appraise This link opens in a new window
• Steps 4-5: Apply & Assess

Experimental vs. Observational Studies

An observational study is a study in which the investigator cannot control the assignment of treatment to subjects because the participants or conditions are not directly assigned by the researcher.

• Examines predetermined treatments, interventions, policies, and their effects
• Four main types: case series , case-control studies , cross-sectional studies , and cohort studies

In an experimental study , the investigators directly manipulate or assign participants to different interventions or environments

Experimental studies that involve humans are called clinical trials . They fall into two categories: those with controls, and those without controls.

• Controlled trials - studies in which the experimental drug or procedure is compared with another drug or procedure
• Uncontrolled trials - studies in which the investigators' experience with the experimental drug or procedure is described, but the treatment is not compared with another treatment

Definitions taken from: Dawson B, Trapp R.G. (2004). Chapter 2. Study Designs in Medical Research. In Dawson B, Trapp R.G. (Eds), Basic & Clinical Biostatistics, 4e . Retrieved September 15, 2014 from  https://accessmedicine.mhmedical.com/book.aspx?bookid=2724

Levels of Evidence Pyramid

Levels of Evidence Pyramid created by Andy Puro, September 2014

Additional Study Design Resources

Study Design 101 : Himmelfarb's tutorial on study types and how to find them

Study Designs  (Centre for Evidence Based Medicine, University of Oxford)

Learn about Clinical Studies  (ClinicalTrials.gov, National Institutes of Health)

Study Designs Guide  (Deakin University)

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Types of Research Articles Part I

This article describes some of the most common types of research articles published in medical journals. Medical journals publish many types of articles not discussed here. A comprehensive list is available from the National Library of Medicine.

Research articles can be primary or secondary. A primary research article describes the design, methods, and results of a study. A secondary research article is a review of at least two primary research articles.

Primary articles

Clinical trial report  

Definition: Study in people

Description: Clinical trials find out whether the results of basic research study can apply to people. The “gold standard” for clinical research on treatments and prevention strategies is the double-blind, randomized, controlled clinical trial. In this ideal study, participants are randomly assigned to one or more treatments or to a placebo . Also, the patients and the physicians treating them don’t know whether the patient is getting an active treatment or a placebo.

Use clinical trial reports to:

• Find out about a rigorous assessment one or more treatments or prevention strategies
• Track progress of research on a treatment or prevention strategy
• Learn whether results from animal studies apply to people

Basic research report

Definition: Study of biochemical substances or biological process to find out how a particular process works 

Description: Basic research can be done in test tubes (known as in vitro research) or in laboratory animals (known as in vivo research). Studies in mice and other animals help scientists learn how people might react when they are exposed to a drug. But animals have different physiology than people. Also, studies often expose animals to much higher doses of an experimental drug than the doses that might be used in humans. So it’s not always possible to generalize results from animal studies to people. 

Use basic research reports to:

• Learn what types of issues researchers are studying
• Found out about promising new findings that might eventually be tested in people

Case report

Definition: Report on a single patient

Description: A typical case report describes the patient’s condition, how the physician chose to treat the patient, and the results of this treatment. A case reports often includes a review of relevant medical journal articles. Case reports often feature a patient with an unusual disease or an unusual response to treatment.

Use case reports to:

• Learn about something rare that hasn’t been reported before and might be important for health-care providers to know

Papers that Summarize Other Papers

Systematic review

Definition: A critical assessment and evaluation of all primary studies on a given patient-related issue

Description: Although systematic reviews typically include only randomized, controlled trials, some systematic reviews include other types of studies. The authors of a systematic review use an organized method to find, bring together, and evaluate a set of study reports on a particular topic using criteria chosen in advance. A systematic review describes the findings of the research studies included in the review. 

Use systematic reviews to:

• Assimilate comprehensive information about primary studies
• Compare results from different primary studies
• Find out whether findings of primary studies are consistent and can be generalized to patients who weren’t in the study

Meta-analysis

Definition: A statistical analysis of findings from at least two primary studies

Description: One purpose of a meta-analysis is to evaluate the effectiveness of a treatment by combining data from several randomized, controlled trials. The authors of a meta-analysis use statistical analysis techniques to assess the data from several primary studies (usually randomized, controlled trials). The authors gather information from the primary research reports on the inclusion criteria, sample size, characteristics of study participants, and results for each study included in their analysis.

Use meta-analyses to:

• Understand the research more easily than by reading each of the primary study reports
• Get a precise estimate of the effect of the treatment
• Compare the robustness of relevant studies

Narrative (non-systematic) review  

Definition : A review of other publications (either original research or other reviews) that does not use the rigorous methods of systematic review or meta-analysis

Description: Review authors choose articles to summarize that are familiar to them or that are prominent in the field. Many journals do not have a standard format for non-systematic review articles, which can vary in length and type of information presented. The reviewers describe all of the articles and draw conclusions from them. But they don’t use statistics or other rigorous methods to find or evaluate the articles in their review.

Use narrative reviews to:

• Get a helpful introduction to a topic
• Obtain an overview of the literature on the topic
• Learn about a topic that is too broad or too new for a systematic review

Trisha Greenhalgh. How to read a paper: Papers that summarise other papers (systematic reviews and meta-analyses). BMJ 1997;315:672.

Bernd Röhrig, Jean-Baptist du Prel, Daniel Wachtlin, and Maria Blettner. Types of study in medical research: part 3 of a series on evaluation of scientific publications . Deutsches Arzteblatt International . 2009;106(15):262-268. doi:10.3238/arztebl.2009.0262.

U.S. National Library of Medicine. Publication characteristics (publication types) – scope notes

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Types of journal articles

It is helpful to familiarise yourself with the different types of articles published by journals. Although it may appear there are a large number of types of articles published due to the wide variety of names they are published under, most articles published are one of the following types; Original Research, Review Articles, Short reports or Letters, Case Studies, Methodologies.

Original Research:

This is the most common type of journal manuscript used to publish full reports of data from research. It may be called an  Original Article, Research Article, Research, or just  Article, depending on the journal. The Original Research format is suitable for many different fields and different types of studies. It includes full Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion sections.

Short reports or Letters:

These papers communicate brief reports of data from original research that editors believe will be interesting to many researchers, and that will likely stimulate further research in the field. As they are relatively short the format is useful for scientists with results that are time sensitive (for example, those in highly competitive or quickly-changing disciplines). This format often has strict length limits, so some experimental details may not be published until the authors write a full Original Research manuscript. These papers are also sometimes called Brief communications .

Review Articles:

Review Articles provide a comprehensive summary of research on a certain topic, and a perspective on the state of the field and where it is heading. They are often written by leaders in a particular discipline after invitation from the editors of a journal. Reviews are often widely read (for example, by researchers looking for a full introduction to a field) and highly cited. Reviews commonly cite approximately 100 primary research articles.

TIP: If you would like to write a Review but have not been invited by a journal, be sure to check the journal website as some journals to not consider unsolicited Reviews. If the website does not mention whether Reviews are commissioned it is wise to send a pre-submission enquiry letter to the journal editor to propose your Review manuscript before you spend time writing it.  

Case Studies:

These articles report specific instances of interesting phenomena. A goal of Case Studies is to make other researchers aware of the possibility that a specific phenomenon might occur. This type of study is often used in medicine to report the occurrence of previously unknown or emerging pathologies.

Methodologies or Methods

These articles present a new experimental method, test or procedure. The method described may either be completely new, or may offer a better version of an existing method. The article should describe a demonstrable advance on what is currently available.

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How to Write a Medical Research Paper

Last Updated: February 5, 2024 Approved

This article was co-authored by Chris M. Matsko, MD . Dr. Chris M. Matsko is a retired physician based in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. With over 25 years of medical research experience, Dr. Matsko was awarded the Pittsburgh Cornell University Leadership Award for Excellence. He holds a BS in Nutritional Science from Cornell University and an MD from the Temple University School of Medicine in 2007. Dr. Matsko earned a Research Writing Certification from the American Medical Writers Association (AMWA) in 2016 and a Medical Writing & Editing Certification from the University of Chicago in 2017. wikiHow marks an article as reader-approved once it receives enough positive feedback. In this case, 89% of readers who voted found the article helpful, earning it our reader-approved status. This article has been viewed 202,758 times.

Writing a medical research paper is similar to writing other research papers in that you want to use reliable sources, write in a clear and organized style, and offer a strong argument for all conclusions you present. In some cases the research you discuss will be data you have actually collected to answer your research questions. Understanding proper formatting, citations, and style will help you write and informative and respected paper.

Researching Your Paper

• Pick something that really interests you to make the research more fun.
• Choose a topic that has unanswered questions and propose solutions.

• Quantitative studies consist of original research performed by the writer. These research papers will need to include sections like Hypothesis (or Research Question), Previous Findings, Method, Limitations, Results, Discussion, and Application.
• Synthesis papers review the research already published and analyze it. They find weaknesses and strengths in the research, apply it to a specific situation, and then indicate a direction for future research.

• Keep track of your sources. Write down all publication information necessary for citation: author, title of article, title of book or journal, publisher, edition, date published, volume number, issue number, page number, and anything else pertaining to your source. A program like Endnote can help you keep track of your sources.
• Take detailed notes as you read. Paraphrase information in your own words or if you copy directly from the article or book, indicate that these are direct quotes by using quotation marks to prevent plagiarism.
• Be sure to keep all of your notes with the correct source.
• Your professor and librarians can also help you find good resources.

• Keep all of your notes in a physical folder or in a digitized form on the computer.
• Start to form the basic outline of your paper using the notes you have collected.

Writing Your Paper

• Start with bullet points and then add in notes you've taken from references that support your ideas. [1] X Trustworthy Source PubMed Central Journal archive from the U.S. National Institutes of Health Go to source
• A common way to format research papers is to follow the IMRAD format. This dictates the structure of your paper in the following order: I ntroduction, M ethods, R esults, a nd D iscussion. [2] X Research source
• The outline is just the basic structure of your paper. Don't worry if you have to rearrange a few times to get it right.
• Ask others to look over your outline and get feedback on the organization.
• Know the audience you are writing for and adjust your style accordingly. [3] X Research source

• Use a standard font type and size, such as Times New Roman 12 point font.
• Double-space your paper.
• If necessary, create a cover page. Most schools require a cover page of some sort. Include your main title, running title (often a shortened version of your main title), author's name, course name, and semester.

• Break up information into sections and subsections and address one main point per section.
• Include any figures or data tables that support your main ideas.
• For a quantitative study, state the methods used to obtain results.

• Clearly state and summarize the main points of your research paper.
• Discuss how this research contributes to the field and why it is important. [4] X Research source
• Highlight potential applications of the theory if appropriate.
• Propose future directions that build upon the research you have presented. [5] X Research source
• Keep the introduction and discussion short, and spend more time explaining the methods and results.

• State why the problem is important to address.
• Discuss what is currently known and what is lacking in the field.
• State the objective of your paper.
• Keep the introduction short.

• Highlight the purpose of the paper and the main conclusions.
• State why your conclusions are important.
• Be concise in your summary of the paper.
• Show that you have a solid study design and a high-quality data set.
• Abstracts are usually one paragraph and between 250 – 500 words.

• Unless otherwise directed, use the American Medical Association (AMA) style guide to properly format citations.
• Add citations at end of a sentence to indicate that you are using someone else's idea. Use these throughout your research paper as needed. They include the author's last name, year of publication, and page number.
• Compile your reference list and add it to the end of your paper.
• Use a citation program if you have access to one to simplify the process.

• Continually revise your paper to make sure it is structured in a logical way.
• Proofread your paper for spelling and grammatical errors.
• Make sure you are following the proper formatting guidelines provided for the paper.
• Have others read your paper to proofread and check for clarity. Revise as needed.

Expert Q&A

• Ask your professor for help if you are stuck or confused about any part of your research paper. They are familiar with the style and structure of papers and can provide you with more resources. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
• Refer to your professor's specific guidelines. Some instructors modify parts of a research paper to better fit their assignment. Others may request supplementary details, such as a synopsis for your research project . Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
• Set aside blocks of time specifically for writing each day. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0

• Do not plagiarize. Plagiarism is using someone else's work, words, or ideas and presenting them as your own. It is important to cite all sources in your research paper, both through internal citations and on your reference page. Thanks Helpful 4 Not Helpful 2

You Might Also Like

• ↑ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3178846/
• ↑ http://owl.excelsior.edu/research-and-citations/outlining/outlining-imrad/
• ↑ http://china.elsevier.com/ElsevierDNN/Portals/7/How%20to%20write%20a%20world-class%20paper.pdf
• ↑ http://intqhc.oxfordjournals.org/content/16/3/191
• ↑ http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~bioslabs/tools/report/reportform.html#form

About This Article

To write a medical research paper, research your topic thoroughly and compile your data. Next, organize your notes and create a strong outline that breaks up the information into sections and subsections, addressing one main point per section. Write the results and discussion sections first to go over your findings, then write the introduction to state your objective and provide background information. Finally, write the abstract, which concisely summarizes the article by highlighting the main points. For tips on formatting and using citations, read on! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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3 Types of Research Publications Premeds Can Work On

There are pros and cons of hypothesis-based research papers, review articles and case reports.

Research Pubs Premeds Can Work On

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Writing a published article is a major achievement, but take the time to research the different kinds of academic publications before getting started.

Having a publication under your belt is a powerful tool in your medical school application arsenal. It is tangible evidence of your contribution to furthering scientific progress and your ability to take on and complete difficult tasks.

After getting into medical school, you will be able to include your publications on your residency applications and fellowship applications. Therefore, a published article is a lifelong achievement that you can be proud of.

[Read: Premeds: Maximize Your Research Publication Chances .] However, not all academic publications are equal. There are many types of publications in science and in medicine. In this article, we describe three types of academic publications, outline the pros and cons of each and discuss how to find opportunities to work on these papers.

Terrible Advice Given to Premed Students

Renee Marinelli, M.D. Sept. 13, 2021

Hypothesis-based research papers. An original research paper is the holy grail of research. It typically involves a hypothesis, experimentation, analysis of results and a discussion of what the researchers found and how the finding fits into the existing trove of knowledge in the field.

In biology and the medical sciences, there are many types of research papers, including basic sciences, translational sciences and clinical trials, to name a few. To work on a research paper, you will need to join a laboratory or a research group.

[Read: 4 Ways to Make Premedical Research Experience Count .]

However, the disadvantage of working on a hypothesis-driven research project is that a research project faces many hurdles, including whether the experiments work, whether valid conclusions can be drawn, and whether other scientists accept the resulting manuscript for publication. There is never a guarantee that a science research project will come to fruition in the form of a research paper.

Review paper. A review paper is an in-depth summary of the existing publications in the field. It provides a detailed overview of the essential concepts and findings in a given research specialty. Working on a review paper requires working under an expert on a topic – typically your research adviser – and sorting, annotating and analyzing many different articles to reach a conclusion.

Based on her personal experience, Maria Filsinger Interrante, a third-year M.D.-Ph.D. student at Stanford University , says, “Writing an excellent review article requires that you sift through hundreds of papers, and from that enormous collection curate the most novel and significant. Having the confidence to read a paper and try to make a determination of ‘this really matters for the field’ versus ‘I don't think I need to include this one’ as an undergraduate doesn’t come naturally, and that’s where it’s essential to get feedback and revisions from your (principal investigator), who is an expert in the field.”

[Read: How to Find Balance as a Premed Student .] “While I was by no means already a topic expert, I understood that writing a review would be an excellent way to greatly expand my knowledge in that area while having a tangible product to show for it,” she says. “I would encourage undergraduates to have the confidence to seek those opportunities, knowing that they can count on guidance and feedback from their (principal investigator) and ultimately deliver a strong, well-crafted review that they can take pride in.”

Case report. A case report is a type of publication that is unique to the field of medicine. It is an article that describes one or a few patients with unusual medical symptoms, signs, diagnosis and treatment. The purpose of a case report is to explain very rare medical cases in detail so that other physicians can refer to it if they end up encountering a similar incident in their practice.

Case reports are straightforward to write, given their limited scope. Moreover, you will be able to expose yourself to clinical language and interesting presentations of human diseases. However, finding physicians who have seen novel patients and are interested in co-authoring a case report can be a challenge. Additionally, admission committee members and physicians are typically aware of the fact that case reports are much easier to write than a hypothesis-based research paper or a review paper.

Research doesn’t just stop as a pre-med. After school, medical students work on publication manuscripts for residency, and residents conduct research to be competitive for fellowship positions and many physicians share their knowledge and findings with others through research publications. Regardless of whether your project ends up being published, working toward a scientific goal is an invaluable investment for your future career in medicine.

10 Med Schools for Nonscience Majors

Tags: education , medical school , graduate schools , students

About Medical School Admissions Doctor

Need a guide through the murky medical school admissions process? Medical School Admissions Doctor offers a roundup of expert and student voices in the field to guide prospective students in their pursuit of a medical education. The blog is currently authored by Dr. Ali Loftizadeh, Dr. Azadeh Salek and Zach Grimmett at Admissions Helpers , a provider of medical school application services; Dr. Renee Marinelli at MedSchoolCoach , a premed and med school admissions consultancy; Dr. Rachel Rizal, co-founder and CEO of the Cracking Med School Admissions consultancy; Dr. Cassie Kosarec at Varsity Tutors , an advertiser with U.S. News & World Report; Dr. Kathleen Franco, a med school emeritus professor and psychiatrist; and Liana Meffert, a fourth-year medical student at the University of Iowa's Carver College of Medicine and a writer for Admissions Helpers. Got a question? Email [email protected] .

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Medical Research for High School Students

Medical research aims to improve our understanding of the mechanisms of human disease and health, develop new treatments, and study and learn from the macro environment of medicine and public health. It could take place in an experimental lab or from your own home. Researchers in medicine apply knowledge from a wide array of disciplines related to the natural sciences, social sciences and mathematics. If these broad topics interest you, then you might enjoy doing a deep dive in an area of medicine that you find really compelling. This guide will help you accomplish just that.

Medicine Research Guide

Medicine Articles

Medicine Projects

Medicine Mentors

Medicine Scholars

Types of Medical Research and Careers

Medicine is an exciting, diverse and constantly evolving field and, thus, the types of research in this area follows suit. From clinical research into medicinal efficacy, to clinical trials using human subjects, to datasets and qualitative surveys, the world of medicine can be explored through many different approaches.

Similarly, the types of careers available within the medical field are also quite endless and varied: hands-on surgeons in the OR, business-minded healthcare administrators, public health researchers, professors of medicine, community health workers and epidemiologists–to name a few. 

The opportunities for medical research and career paths are truly unlimited. The common thread throughout most medical professions, however, is that the individuals who most thrive in them tend to be: hard-working, empathetic, patient, curious, flexible, detail-oriented and great at communicating.

How to Get into Medicine

Take time to learn about different areas of medicine to see which topics and aspects you’re gravitating toward right now. Science and math courses at your high school will provide the best foundational knowledge for college- and grad-level medical studies. There is also a vast array of books on specific medical topics, case studies and narrative perspectives.

Taking advantage of resources available to you now and participating in extracurricular activities can expand your knowledge and help you discover medical niches and research areas that spark excitement for you.

1. Take a Class in High School

Science and math courses tend to be the most applicable when preparing for a medical path. The availability of classes varies greatly from school to school, but most high schools offer many of the courses listed below. You can also look for them at your local community college or an accredited online institution.

Natural Sciences:

Organic Chemistry

Social Sciences:

Anthropology

Communications

Public Health

Mathematics:

It’s important to note that in life and work, it’s an advantage to be well-rounded and it can open up more opportunities for you. Be thoughtful about the humanities courses you select, too. They might feel extraneous to your medical aspirations, but they could actually end up being extremely relevant.

Speaking multiple languages would be a huge benefit, for example, if you want to serve immigrant populations or individuals in international crisis areas (e.g., Doctors Without Borders). A good understanding of writing structure can help you communicate your theories and discoveries more effectively in a medical journal. If you love the arts, it might inspire a medical research project .

2. Read a Book

There are many acclaimed books on various facets of the medical industry, from instructional books to historical narratives, to social and ethical questions and firsthand accounts. Below are some of the classics.

History, Commentary and Accounts from the Field

“An American Sickness: How Healthcare Became Big Business and How You Can Take It Back” by Elisabeth Rosenthal - An exploration of the doctor-patient relationship and exploitation within the US healthcare system.

“Better: A Surgeon’s Notes on Performance” by Atul Gawande - A national bestseller investigating human performance in medicine in battlefield surgical tents, delivery rooms, malpractice courtrooms and more.

“The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer” by Siddartha Mukherjee - Cancer is explored through the lenses of history, research and cellular biology in this Pulitzer Prize winning memoir.

"The Gene: An Intimate History" by Siddhartha Mukherjee - This book looks at the history of genetics and the impact on medicine and society.

“The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat” by Oliver Sacks - An account of real clinical cases of patients with fascinating and bizarre neurological disorders.

"When Breath Becomes Air" by Paul Kalanithi - A young neurosurgeon is diagnosed with terminal lung cancer and reflects on what it means to live a meaningful life in his memoir.

Texts and Instructional Books

“The Language of Medicine” by Davi-Ellen Chabner - An educational text with important medical terminology explained through easy-to-follow descriptions, examples and exercises.

“The Medicine Book: Big Ideas Simply Explained” by DK - An accessible medical overview on the breakthroughs and discoveries that have shaped our understanding of medicine today, with striking graphics to simplify complex topics.

“Netter Atlas of Human Anatomy” by Frank H. Netter - A mainstay medical school atlas with detailed illustrations of the human body from a clinical perspective.

As in all sciences, there are constantly new breakthroughs in medicine. Keep up with new developments through reputable websites, podcasts, medical journals, and organizations like the American Medical Association (AMA).

3. Extracurricular Study

Remember that quality is often more important than quantity when it comes to extracurricular activities. Choose activities that genuinely interest you.

Volunteer at a health facility: Get some exposure to health and medicine in the real world by seeking out volunteer opportunities at local hospitals or community organizations.

Intern: Seek internships or shadowing opportunities with practicing doctors, nurses and other healthcare professionals. This firsthand experience can give you insight into the day-to-day work of professionals in the medical field.

Join or start a medical-related club: HOSA-Future Health Professionals is a well-known organization endorsed by the Department of Education. If this group doesn’t already exist at your high school, you can start a chapter! HOSA cultivates leadership skills and builds knowledge among students interested in pursuing health careers.

Become an EMT: If you’re over 18, you can train to become an Emergency Medical Technician (EMT) and get real, hands-on experience. 

Find a mentor: Find a mentor who is a practicing medical professional, pre-med professor, or medical school graduate student (with knowledge in medicine , neuroscience , public health , and/or healthcare ). They can answer your questions, provide guidance and share insights into the profession.

Conduct independent research projects: Undertake independent research projects in medicine. You can investigate topics of interest and present your findings at school or local science fairs .

Present: Develop your public speaking skills by giving presentations or talks on medical-related topics. Consider participating in events like TEDx Youth or school assemblies. 

Write: If getting up and talking in front of people is not your thing, you can contribute articles or essays to your school newspaper or magazine on medical-related subjects. This can help you develop your writing skills and share your passion for the field.

Create a medical blog or podcast: Start a blog or podcast where you discuss medical topics, share book reviews, or interview professionals in the field. This can showcase your interest and communication skills.

Start a movement: Start or join an initiative or event to raise awareness and/or money concerning a regional or global health issue.

If you could use some help developing your own medical research project, our Pathfinders program gives you access to mentors in healthcare who can listen to your ideas and provide valuable feedback.

Medical Research Opportunities 

There are many research options for high school students to drill down into a facet of the medical field that interests you, including summer pre-college programs , local community college offerings, internships, virtual programs and independent research with a professor or mentor. If you want to conduct your own experiments , we highly advise that you have a qualified adult advisor you can consult.

Find research programs close to home

We’ll go into summer medical programs in more depth in the next section, but if you want to find all types of established medical research opportunities close to home, our High School Student Research Opportunities Database is an excellent resource. Click on your state, then search based on your location, institution, event type (in-person or virtual) and tuition (paid or free).

Work with a professor

If you have a clear idea of your passions, you can reach out to professors in your field to see if they are open to collaborating with you. Refer to our Guide to Cold-Emailing Professors (written by Polygence literature research mentor Daniel Hazard , a Ph.D. candidate at Princeton University).

Engage in your own research project

Students with initiative and focus can opt to tackle research independently. Carly Taylor , a Stanford University senior who has completed several independent research projects, shares how to write a self-guided research paper . By reading it, you’ll get a better understanding of what to expect when taking on this type of project.

Enter a competition

Competitions can be fun when you’re really interested in a subject and the requirements and deadlines that come with competitions can provide a helpful structure for you to stay on track. Another benefit to attending a competition is that you will meet other students, teachers, and experts who share your passion for the medical field. There are many fantastic science and medicine-related competitions geared toward high school students, including: 

Conrad Challenge (The Conrad Foundation)

Competitive Events Program (HOSA-Future Health Professionals)

ExploraVision (Toshiba/NTSA)

Eye on the Future Teen Video Contest (NIH)

National Science Bowl (Department of Energy)

Neuroscience Research Prize (American Academy of Neurology)

High School Design Competition (Engineering World Health)

Regeneron Science Talent Search (Society for Science)

If you could use some help developing a plan of action, our Pathfinders program gives you access to medical mentors who can listen to your ideas and provide valuable feedback.

Summer Programs in Medicine

Here are some top picks for summer medical research programs. We chose them based on a combination of their affordability, name recognition, social opportunities and academic rigor.

1. Summer Medical Academy

Hosting institution: Rady Children’s Hospital

Cost: $3,000 (partially tax-deductible)

Format: In person (San Diego, CA)

Application deadline: TBD - 2024 deadline not yet released

These two-week sessions provide interactive learning opportunities and are designed for students interested in pursuing a career in healthcare, particularly as a nurse, physician assistant or mental health practitioner. Highly motivated and enthusiastic students who will be between 15-19 years old in June 2024 and have completed 9th grade (up until the summer after graduating 12th grade) are eligible to apply. 

2. CDC Museum Disease Detective Camp

Hosting institution: CDC - Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

Format: In person (Atlanta, GA)

Topics vary year to year in these one-week sessions and may include public health interventions, global health, infectious disease, chronic disease, injury prevention and data analysis. The program is fast paced and academically demanding and participants are expected to fully immerse themselves, work together, and become a diverse team of “disease detectives.” Admission is open to high-school students during the summer before their junior or senior years. 

3. 1-Week Medical Academy

Hosting institution: Georgetown University

Cost: $2,750-$3,549

Format: In person (Washington, DC)

In this one-week program in June or July, students explore topics ranging from human anatomy, physiology, and radiology to surgery, cancer, biomedical ethics, and procurement of human tissues. Students will participate in hands-on labs, including suturing, orthopedic casting, small mammal dissection and use of a patient simulator. Participants will have the opportunity to interact directly with medical students, faculty and physicians. The program is open to current or rising high school students in good academic standing.

4. Medical Immersion Summer Academy

Hosting institution: Alameda Health System , Samuel Merritt University , and private clinicians

Cost: $1,400

Format: In person (Oakland, CA)

MISA offers this five-day program in the spring and summer. MISA works to expose pre-med and pre-health high school students to hands-on clinical experience in a variety of healthcare settings that will provide them with a competitive edge as they begin their own career in health. MISA encourages high school students (15 years or older) from across the country to apply. 

For all of our summer medical research picks, check out this post on the subject.

If you’re searching for a virtual psychology research opportunity, consider doing a project through Polygence with one of our mentors in medicine .

Medical Internships for High School Students

1. high school senior summer internship program.

Hosting institution: Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center

Cost: Paid internship: $13/hour; 20 hours/week

Format: In person (Cincinnati, OH)

Application deadline: February 1, 2024

Graduating high school seniors get the opportunity to work with a mentor in one of multiple pediatric specialties in this eight-week, part-time internship program. The program is very competitive, offering an exciting experience for highly motivated students interested in pursuing higher education (MD, PhD, or MD / PhD) to learn more about careers in Biomedical Sciences.  

2. Summer Child Health Research Internship

Hosting institution: University of Colorado-Boulder

Cost: $3,500 stipend offered

Format: In person (Boulder, CO)

Application deadline: TBD - 2024 info not yet released

This paid internship introduces high school students between their junior and senior years of high school to research opportunities related to child health. After a summer of hands-on experience, students will have the opportunity to participate in a lecture research series and present their research at the completion of the internship. The internship includes opportunities for students to participate in a lecture research series as well as present their research at the completion of the internship.

3. Summer Internship Program (HS-SIP)

Hosting institution: The National Institutes of Health (NIH)

Cost: Free; may provide stipend

Format: In person (Bethesda, MD)

Application deadline: February 16, 2024 @ Noon ET

Students interested in exploring careers in research and healthcare get to work in a research group directed by a Principal Investigator (PI). Students passionate about biology, engineering, epidemiology, psychology, mathematics, chemistry, pharmaceutical sciences, nursing, physics, computer science, bioinformatics or other health-related fields are encouraged to apply. This eight-week internship program is open to high school juniors and seniors (at least 17 years old).

4. Stanford Institutes of Medicine Summer Research Program (SIMR)

Hosting institution: Stanford University

Cost: $500-$1,500 stipend offered

Format: In person (Stanford, CA)

Application deadline: February 24, 2024

SIMR is an eight-week, paid summer internship program open to high school juniors and seniors from diverse backgrounds. The program consists of hands-on research under the direct guidance of a one-on-one mentor. Students applying to the program can choose from eight areas of research: Immunology; Neurobiology; Cancer Biology; Bioengineering; Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine; Cardiovascular Biology; Bioinformatics; and Genetics and Genomics.

Medical Project Ideas and How to Brainstorm Your Own

There are many different forms of research and ways to pursue your project. Experiments on animals or volunteer human subjects help medical researchers determine causation through comparing the effects on treatment groups and control groups. Survey-based research involves analyzing participants’ responses to questions, such as through express interviews, written responses or numerical information. A literature review is a written summary of key works that have already been conducted about a medical topic over several years. Other projects involve analyzing large amounts of data in spreadsheets using statistical analysis. 

Polygence Scholars Are Also Passionate About

You can brainstorm your own project ideas and pull from these idea generation techniques to come up with your own idea based on a medical or health concept that intrigues you. If you have an area in mind that you would like to explore, consider which form(s) of research might be best to elicit the type of information you are seeking. 

If you could use some inspiration, below are 10 medical research project ideas from our mentors to help kickstart the process.

The Use of Virtual and Augmented Reality in Medicine

Level: Beginner

Idea by: Medical research mentor Mina

Virtual realities are becoming the norm around households and even classrooms these days! Did you know that virtual and augmented realities are also starting to be incorporated within the world of medicine ? Take a deeper dive into this topic and write a research paper on your findings!

High School Health Independence

Idea by: Medical research mentor Margaret

Sometimes, it’s hard for teens to pinpoint a medical problem that they might be facing. How can we better educate high schoolers on the ins and outs of self care and living a healthy life? Brainstorm ways to introduce positive lifestyle mechanisms to this specific age group.

How Does Aristotle Inform Decision-Making at the End of Life in the U.S. Healthcare System?

Idea by: Medical research mentor Avery

Sometimes, medical decisions can interfere with what you believe is ethically correct. To help with this, clinicians should have some sort of guide to help them through decision making processes. For this project, you will grasp a better understanding of Aristotle’s principles, ethics, and more to assist with medical decision making . 

What can Songbirds Teach Us about Premature Infants?

Level: Intermediate

Idea by: Medical research mentor Naomi

Due to the advancement of medicine, more premature babies are given a chance at life than ever before. However, some of these babies unfortunately grow to develop some sort of mental impairment which points back to their time spent in the NICU. Is the sensory overload found within the rooms of the NICU altering brain development ?

Under the Dermatoscope: A Fact Check of Common Skin Care and Sun Protection Advice

Idea by: Medical research mentor Austin

If you find yourself buying lotions and serums to protect your skin from the sun, this could be the project for you! Do your research on all things dermatology! What really causes skin damage and how do you know you’re using the correct ointments? Create a blog or podcast on skin health. 

Development of New Cancer Treatment with Targeted Medicine

Level: Advanced

Idea by: Medical research mentor Clayton

Explore the world of medicine by helping treat a cancer type of your choice! For this project you will invent a drug by learning more about cancerous cellular markers . You will focus on targeting those specific markers with the drug that you develop. Write a research paper or create a poster presentation to explain your creation. 

How Will Personalized Medicine Affect the Costs of Medical Care?

Idea by: Medical research mentor Alejandro

You went to the doctor and used your insurance, yet you still received a large bill in the mail. Then you have to go back to the doctor because the treatment given to you didn't work. It’s time to incorporate personalized medicine into our healthcare system. Do your research to gain an understanding on why this has yet to happen and what we should do to get there.

Tranexamic Acid as a Treatment for Drug-Induced Angioedema

Idea by: Medical research mentor Gaurav

Unfortunately, we probably all know someone with high blood pressure as it’s one of the most common diagnoses in the U.S. Even though there are plenty of medications that help control the spike in blood pressure, many of them have awful side effects. One of the most common side effects, angioedema , can be very dangerous if left untreated. Do your research to develop a treatment plan for these patients. 

Need more inspiration from our fantastic mentors? Check out additional Passion Project Ideas here ! (And if you have a particular interest in cancer research, see 13 Cancer Research and Passion Project Ideas for High School Students .)

If you want to bounce your ideas off someone else, the Pathfinders program gives you the chance to talk with mentors who specialize in your field of interest. You can discuss your project ideas with them, and they can help you grow your idea, discover new research techniques, and point the way to great resources and alternative options. 

Medical Projects from Polygence Scholars

For a sense of how varied the subjects and methods for medical projects can be, take a look at topics covered by some of our Polygence Scholars.

The effect of dance on the memory and proprioceptive ability of the elderly

Ella studied the effect of two months of dance classes on elderly participants. She first recorded participants’ baseline memory, balance and proprioceptive abilities (sense of body movement) prior to beginning the class, and then again two months later, upon completion of the class. Read her research paper here .

A theoretical gene therapy for hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer using CRISPR-Cas9 nickase

Shravan posed an alternative treatment method for hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC). He suggested using CRISPR-Cas9n-based gene therapy to prevent tumor formation in patients, avoid morbid surgery and significantly improve quality of life. He has submitted his research paper for publication in the Journal of Emerging Investigators. Read it here .

How could AI assist in the prediction and search for risk factors associated with anorexia nervosa?

Krishnaveni explored using artificial intelligence to help detect and diagnose eating disorders earlier. She created an integrated AI solution to finding eating disorder prevalence based on the responses to a National Longitudinal Survey of Adolescent to Adult Health questionnaire. Her paper was published in the International Youth Neuroscience Association Journal .

Explore more medical projects by Polygence Scholars here . 

How to Conduct Medical Research

Primary research.

If you will be conducting primary research and/or experiments, you’ll need to figure out how you’re going to set up your experiment and what data types you’re going to collect. There are two main types of data collection: quantitative data and qualitative data . 

Quantitative focuses on numerical data, which allows researchers to analyze large amounts of data quickly by conducting statistical analyses. This type of data-collection can be conducted at home and does not require a wet lab. 

Qualitative focuses on rich, word-based information, such as anecdotal accounts people give through open-ended response questions or interviews (conducted in person or virtually). Qualitative data provides emotional nuances and depths that cannot be captured through numbers. Surveys and questionnaires can be distributed online and can gather both quantitative and qualitative data.

Secondary Research

If running your own experiment proves too complicated or beyond your financial means (research subjects often expect to be compensated), you may want to conduct secondary research . You can analyze free, publicly available datasets and journals about your topic, such as through NIH’s Scientific Data Sharing and National Library of Medicine hubs. Just make sure that the dataset you use comes from a trusted source. If you are reading articles to support your thesis, you should skim their introduction and conclusion first to make sure they’re worth reading all the way through.

Another form of secondary research is writing a literature review (or “lit review”) summarizing key works that have been published over the years by others about a medical or health topic you want to explore. The review paper might describe how different studies relate to each other and how the field has developed over time. With a simple internet connection, you can use tools like Google Scholar to start reading scholarly articles and writing your own review paper right away.

A note on ethics: As you conduct your research it is absolutely crucial that you follow ethical practices , including minimizing risk, getting informed consent and ensuring scientific validity. Also, throughout the research and paper-writing process, keep track in real time of each source you reference, so you can give due credit to the creators and easily cite them in your bibliography without scrambling to find them again.

Writing a Medical Research Paper

There are several essential components to writing an effective and sound research paper. Here’s a great general article on how to write a good research paper and below we break down the critical elements for every research paper with accompanying links that expand upon each element.

Write an abstract

The abstract encapsulates the essence of your research paper. It is a standalone summary that gives a quick snapshot of your study’s problem, methodology, findings and conclusion. It provides a reader with the critical aspects of your research before they decide if they wish to read the comprehensive paper.

Create an outline for your research paper  

Research papers often include the following sections: Introduction , Materials , Methods , Data , Discussion and Conclusion

The Introduction will present the problem you’re trying to solve, any existing research and an overview of your research. Write this after you’ve finished conducting all of your experiments and/or research.

Develop your thesis statement

This is the why . Why are you conduct this research? What is the argument or theory you are posing? You can always come up with a preliminary or working thesis and then refine it or completely revise it as you learn more through the research process. By the time you begin writing your research paper, however, it’s important to have a strong sense of your thesis statement to ensure your paper is clear and focused.

Cite your work

Every research paper must have a bibliography at the end with proper citations giving credit to the original authors of the resources and data you reference. 

To get a sense of the length and organization of a student medical research paper, check out Polygence student Alexandra’s paper, Mechanisms Behind Hypoxia-Driven Resistance to Immunotherapy in the Tumor Microenvironment , published in the Journal of Student Research and Navenka’s paper, The Impact of Cannabis on Academic Achievement: Brain Development, Cognitive Functioning, and Mental Health ” published in the International Youth Neuroscience Association Journal. 

For more insights, see Polygence’s library of resources on How to Conduct and Showcase Research .

Medical Journals

Once you’ve researched, written, and revised your research paper, it’s time to introduce it to the world. You could enter it into a competition , as mentioned earlier in this post, launch a podcast, create a YouTube video about it and/or publish it in a journal. 

Publishing your research in a journal can take the great work you’ve already done and add credibility to it. It also makes a stronger impression than unpublished research. For peer-reviewed journals, the process of having your work reviewed by advanced degree researchers can be a valuable experience in itself. You can receive feedback from experts and learn how to improve upon the work you’ve already done. 

Below are some excellent publications that accept medical and science research submissions from high school students.

1. Youth Medical Journal

The Youth Medical Journal is an international, student-run team of 40 students looking to share medical research. We’ve found that this journal is a good entry point for students new to research papers.

Deadline: March

Type of research: Original research and commentaries

2. The Journal of Emerging Investigators (JEI)

JEI is an online, peer-reviewed journal that publishes research by middle and high school students in various scientific disciplines, including medicine. Please note that JEI requires that a teacher, mentor, or Principal Investigator of a lab submit your research on your behalf. 

Deadline: Rolling

Type of research: Original research in the biological and physical sciences

3. Journal of High School Science

Although this online journal is not specifically focused on the medical field, The Journal of High School Science is a peer-reviewed quarterly publication showcasing high school student research in the realm of science, technology, engineering, arts, and mathematics.

Type of research:   STEAM-based research or innovations

4. International Youth Neuroscience Association Journal

The IYNA journal publishes work from young neuroscience enthusiasts every month, providing many opportunities for students to publish throughout the year. 

Type of research: Research papers

We compiled a list of additional journals to consider here .

Keep in mind that conducting and publishing research takes time, patience and practice. By starting now as a high school student, you are laying down the foundation to set yourself up for long-term success as a student and professional. Don’t be discouraged if you submit your project to a journal and it is rejected or you are asked to make revisions. Medical publishing is highly competitive. If you are persistent in your efforts and earnestly take in feedback you are given, you will get better and evolve.

For a full list of journals to publish you medical research in, check out Top 7 Medical Journals for High School Students

We hope you found this medical research handbook helpful. If you have some ideas and want to conduct medical research with the guidance of a mentor, apply to be a part of our flagship mentorship program !

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Medicine projects

Review Paper: The Effects of Dietary Fiber on Asthma through Cytokine Production

Review of Chronic Kidney Disease and Comparison between Humans, Dogs, and Cats

Increasing Cervical Cancer Screening Access for Women in Nigeria

Do video games improve the symptoms of Tourette’s Syndrome?

How can the development and application of antiviral peptide therapy be used to treat Parvovirus in endangered species, and how does this therapy compare to the treatments already on the market?

Investigating the Efficacy of AI-Powered Innovations in Cardiovascular Healthcare

A Theoretical Approach to an HIV Vaccine Targeting CCR5

Ready to start your own project?

Work 1 on 1 with an expert mentor on a project built around your passions.

Understanding the Role of Mitochondria in Neurological Disease

Battling atopic dermatitis: its prevalence, how it affects the body, and treatment options

A Review Of Colorectal Cancer Formation, Metastasis And Gene-therapy Treatment

Current Next-Generation Vaccines for COVID-19: The Success and Challenges of mRNA Technology

Using a Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacogenetic Approach to Examine Nicotine Addiction

Resiniferatoxin: Mechanism in Treating Osteoarthritis Pain and Slowing Osteoarthritis Progression, Safety, and Efficacy

Considering how Microbial Colonization is Determined

Current and Forthcoming Treatments for Alzheimer’s Disease

Current treatments and future directions in leukemia

Analyzing the Connections of Microglial Phenotypes in the Progression of Neurodegeneration and Tumors And The Future For Therapeutic Treatments

How Histamine Can Treat Circadian Dysfunction

What are the most common types of hair loss and their treatment options?

Down Syndrome Sensory Processing

Medicine mentors

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Medicine scholars

Project: “Current treatments and future directions in leukemia“

Project: “Analyzing Cardiovascular Disease Risk Assessments: Improving Cultural Competence for Asian Americans“

Project: “Risk factors for Calf Related Injuries in Soccer Players: A Review“

Project: “How can medicinal herbs be utilized to create equitable and effective alternatives to current pharmaceutical drugs that are used to treat anxiety and depression?“

Project: “What are the most common types of hair loss and their treatment options?“

Project: “The effects of Clostridiaceae bacteria familia on Multiple Sclerosis“

Project: “Considering how Microbial Colonization is Determined“

Project: “African Herbal Remedies: The Healing Abilities of Nature's Gift“

Project: “What is the relationship between caffeine intake and heart arrhythmias? What are the associated safety risks and important considerations for caffeine product use?“

Project: “How do different modes of administration, and specific bodily characteristics, influence the addictive effects of nicotine and cocaine?“

Project: “An investigation of vaccine candidates for the treatment of leprosy and their efficacy and accessibility“

Project: “Role of Inflammation in Allergic Responses and Cancer“

Project: “Cerebellar Involvement and Altered Brain Structures in Autism Spectrum Disorder“

Project: “How Histamine Can Treat Circadian Dysfunction“

Project: “Exploring Neurological Development and Sensory Processing Challenges in Individuals with Down Syndrome“

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Monoallelic TYROBP deletion is a novel risk factor for Alzheimer’s disease

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Biallelic loss-of-function variants in TYROBP and TREM2 cause autosomal recessive presenile dementia with bone cysts known as Nasu-Hakola disease (NHD, alternatively polycystic lipomembranous osteodysplasia with sclerosing leukoencephalopathy, PLOSL). Some other TREM2 variants contribute to the risk of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and frontotemporal dementia, while deleterious TYROBP variants are globally extremely rare and their role in neurodegenerative diseases remains unclear. The population history of Finns has favored the enrichment of deleterious founder mutations, including a 5.2 kb deletion encompassing exons 1-4 of TYROBP and causing NHD in homozygous carriers. We used here a proxy marker to identify monoallelic TYROBP deletion carriers in the Finnish biobank study FinnGen combining genome and health registry data of 520,210 Finns. We show that monoallelic TYROBP deletion associates with an increased risk and earlier onset age of AD and dementia when compared to noncarriers. In addition, we present the first reported case of a monoallelic TYROBP deletion carrier with NHD-type bone cysts. Mechanistically, monoallelic TYROBP deletion leads to decreased levels of DAP12 protein (encoded by TYROBP ) in myeloid cells. Using transcriptomic and proteomic analyses of human monocyte-derived microglia-like cells, we show that upon lipopolysaccharide stimulation monoallelic TYROBP deletion leads to the upregulation of the inflammatory response and downregulation of the unfolded protein response when compared to cells with two functional copies of TYROBP . Collectively, our findings indicate TYROBP deletion as a novel risk factor for AD and suggest specific pathways for therapeutic targeting.

One Sentence Summary Nasu-Hakola disease causing TYROBP deletion increases the risk of Alzheimer’s disease in elderly monoallelic carriers in the Finnish population.

Competing Interest Statement

CH collaborates with Denali Therapeutics and is a member of the advisory boards of AviadoBio and Cure Ventures. The other authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Funding Statement

This study was funded by the following: Research Council of Finland (to HM, MH, MT, VL). Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Eastern Finland (to HM, MT). Sigrid Juselius Foundation (to MH, VL, ES, TN). The Strategic Neuroscience Funding of the University of Eastern Finland (to MH, AH, VL, ES). Alzheimer's Association (to MH). The State Research Funding KUH-VTR (to VL, ES). Doctoral Programme in Molecular Medicine (to RMW, HJ). Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation) under Germany's Excellence Strategy within the framework of the Munich Cluster for Systems Nuerology, SyNergy (to CH and SFL) and a Koselleck Project (to CH). JPco-fuND 2019 Personalised Medicine for Neurodegenerative Diseases; PMG-AD (to CH, SFL, JCL, and MH).

Author Declarations

I confirm all relevant ethical guidelines have been followed, and any necessary IRB and/or ethics committee approvals have been obtained.

The details of the IRB/oversight body that provided approval or exemption for the research described are given below:

Medical Research Ethics committee of Wellbeing Services County of North Savo gave ethical approval for this work.

I confirm that all necessary patient/participant consent has been obtained and the appropriate institutional forms have been archived, and that any patient/participant/sample identifiers included were not known to anyone (e.g., hospital staff, patients or participants themselves) outside the research group so cannot be used to identify individuals.

I understand that all clinical trials and any other prospective interventional studies must be registered with an ICMJE-approved registry, such as ClinicalTrials.gov. I confirm that any such study reported in the manuscript has been registered and the trial registration ID is provided (note: if posting a prospective study registered retrospectively, please provide a statement in the trial ID field explaining why the study was not registered in advance).

I have followed all appropriate research reporting guidelines, such as any relevant EQUATOR Network research reporting checklist(s) and other pertinent material, if applicable.

Data Availability

All data associated with this study are present in the paper or the Supplementary Materials. The study participant consent does not allow opening the sequencing (WGS, RNA-seq) or proteomic data generated and analyzed during the current study, but they are available from the corresponding authors (H.M. or M.H.) on reasonable request. Summary statistics from each FinnGen data release will be made publicly available after a one-year embargo period and can be accessed freely at www.finngen.fi/en/access_results. For individual level data, the Finnish biobank data can be accessed through the Fingenious services (https://site.fingenious.fi/en/) managed by FINBB. Access to Finnish Health register data can be applied from Findata (https://findata.fi/en/data/).

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• v.53(3); May-Jun 2019

Formatting References for Scientific Manuscripts

Srinivas b s kambhampati.

Sri Dhaatri Orthopaedic, Maternity and Gynaecology Center, Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh, India

Lalit Maini

1 Department of Orthopaedics, Maulana Azad Medical College, New Delhi, India

While references are an essential and integral part of a scientific manuscript, format and style of references are as varied as the number of journals currently present. International Committee of Medical Journal Editors in their latest recommendations for publication, 1 advice authors to quote original references whenever possible. We would recommend the readers to go through these guidelines as they are given in sufficient detail to submit a good set of references including styling. Other resources for citing references include the PubMed section 2 which gives samples of formatting of different reference types and the eBook: Citing Medicine, 3 published by the U. S. National Library of Medicine, which gives assistance and rules to authors, editors, publishers and librarians for formatting of references for different reference types.

References are formatted in two basic styles – the Vancouver style which is numeric (more commonly used in medical journals) and Harvard which uses author-date style (more commonly used in natural and Social sciences journals). 4 Parts and order of the parts cited differ on what the author is citing (reference type) and the journal that is being submitted to. The most common types of references include journal article, book, book section or chapter, dissertation, monograph, and webpage. As an example, for a journal article, the parts of a reference in the sequence include authors, article title, journal title, date of publication, volume, issue, and location/pagination. Each journal has its own modification of the format for each part and the punctuation marks, or their lack of, between the parts. Formatting style in each part of a reference could involve placement of selected punctuation marks, bold and italics enhancements, alphabetical order or sequential ordering of references and style of citing in the text, making the combination of variations that create a unique reference style as large in number as the number of journals currently published. It is not clear why such a system has evolved, but it requires considerable attention to detail to get the formatting correct and is time-consuming for the author. The tradition of the journal has been thought as one of the reasons. 4 In manuscripts submitted for the Indian Journal of Orthopaedics (IJO), the reference section carries the most formatting errors committed by authors.

The advantage of having a constant style within a journal is two-fold, apart from an esthetic appearance of references across all articles published by the journal. Ease of reading the references at the end of each article and ease of finding reference part by the reader if he/she is used to the format and plans to look up the reference. As a student/professional in the medical field, one would require attention to finer details of his/her research work as well as in their clinical practice and hence exercising attention to the references would help improve those skills. Such a wide variation in the styles of references has also benefitted some software companies who deal with reference managers (RMs). Some RMs are free for use, and the authors are advised to use different RMs to see which one suits their needs best. While some RMs are cloud based, others are computer based and do not require an internet connection while some others are cloud and computer based. The variation in the style of references across journals appears unlikely to be standardized to a single universal format in the near future.

The Citation Style Language (CSL) is an XML-based computer language developed to standardize formatting of citations and references in manuscripts submitting to journals. They are text application editable files which are imported into RMs. An increasing number of RMs use CSL to help users format their list of references according to individual journal guidelines. However, not all journals are supported by CSL files.

There are two main repositories for access to CSL files – One by GitHub 5 and the other by Zotero 6 developed by Corporation for Digital Scholarship and Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media. These contain more than 8500 styles of references. Authors using Zotero, Mendeley, RefWorks, Papers, CrossRef, Bibliography, and some 42 other RMs can use these CSL files to manage references within them. IJO did not have a CSL file until now in both the repositories. In this scenario, there are a few options for the authors preparing references for a manuscript. First, to type and style references manually which would take a long time and prone to human errors. Second, a CSL file similar to IJO may be selected from the repository and used and later manually edited, if any needed. However, this involves searching for an exact match of style for a journal registered in the repository of CSL files. Third, there are RMs with inbuilt options to format references while citing in the text. This option is independent of CSL. The disadvantage here is that the author is bound by the list of reference styles already loaded within the software. They may not be able to add new formats. Fourth, some RMs allow authors to prepare a style, but this would take some time to prepare if the style is not already inbuilt. As a fifth option, a CSL file that is close to IJO may be chosen, and the code of this file tweaked with minor editing to convert it for use with IJO. To do that, the author must be familiar with programming or editing of HTML/XML files since HTML is a language that is closer to XML.

Zotero's repository 7 website has a user-friendly interface in which such searches are easier to perform. It has 9357 styles stored in the repository at the time of writing this article on March 17, 2019. There are 1924 unique styles through which one can search if their required journal is listed. Zotero draws CSL files from GitHub into their repository. Hence, if a file is created in GitHub, it is drawn into Zotero by default. CSL Project 8 is a website sponsored by four well known RMs. These are Zotero, Mendeley, 9 Papers, 10 and RefWorks. 11 This website gives detailed specifications and documentation of CSL language if one is interested in coding these files. If one is proficient with XML, they can create a style and submit it to the GitHub website for others to benefit. Editing is easier if one uses the Zotero RM as it has an inbuilt option to edit style. It can be done even in other managers or with the use of a standard text editing application in Windows or Mac operating systems. Once a new CSL file is developed, in order to publish it, it has to be validated by CSL validator website 12 and submitted at the GitHub site for accepting into the repository. Even finer details like number of author names before et al. while formatting reference, punctuation marks and their placement, style of each part of the reference and each style of the reference, etc., can be edited accurately.

Once developed, the output of references and citations is remarkably consistent, and too much time need not be directed to editing the punctuation marks and styling of the references and citations while preparing the manuscript. The only hurdle after this would be to get full details of the references reliably and accurately into the RM database while importing the references. The author needs to check that the references were properly imported into the database. If verified, they may be used any number of times with precision. With appropriate selection, the citing as well as the list of references can be formatted according to the journal that is being considered, for submission. Those who are already using RMs may be well aware of the advantages and the time such CSL files can save while preparing a manuscript.

We are happy to inform that a CSL file for IJO has now been created in the GitHub repository 1 and Zotero Styles repository 3 and it can be used by authors using the RMs listed in the CSL website and benefit from its use. The direct link of the file in the repository is given 13 [ Figure 1 ]. Basic users of RMs may download it through their RMs by selecting Indian Journal of Orthopaedics option. Advanced users who know where to place this file may access using the weblink given. Examples of reference style and citation for IJO are given in Figure 2 .

Screenshot of browser shows the web address and search words used to retrieve Citation Style Language file for Indian Journal of Orthopaedics

Examples of format of references and their citation in text for the Indian Journal of Orthopaedics