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The Gupta Period: A Golden Age of Art and Culture

Ancient India, a cradle of civilization, has been a wellspring of intellectual, spiritual, and artistic achievements that have shaped the course of human history. Among its many illustrious epochs, the Gupta Period (c. 320–550 CE) stands out as a beacon of cultural and artistic brilliance. Often hailed as the “Golden Age” of India, this era witnessed unparalleled advancements in art, literature, and science, laying a rich cultural foundation that continues to inspire and captivate generations.  

The Gupta Empire, founded by Sri Gupta, reached its zenith under the rule of Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II. These rulers not only expanded the empire’s boundaries but also fostered an environment where art and culture could flourish. The stability and prosperity of the Gupta Empire provided the perfect backdrop for a renaissance in creative expression and intellectual pursuit.  

One of the most remarkable aspects of the Gupta Period was its achievements in art. This era produced some of the most exquisite sculptures, intricate temple architecture, and beautiful paintings in Indian history. Gupta sculptures, often carved from sandstone, are renowned for their detailed craftsmanship and graceful forms. The portrayal of gods, goddesses, and mythological scenes in these sculptures reflects the deep religious and spiritual ethos of the time. Temples such as the Dashavatara Temple in Deogarh and the Vishnu Temple in Tigawa stand as testaments to the architectural ingenuity of the Gupta craftsmen. These temples, with their elaborate carvings and well-planned structures, laid the groundwork for the evolution of Indian temple architecture in the centuries to come.  

The Gupta Period was also a golden age for literature. This era saw the composition of some of India’s most enduring literary works. Among these, the plays and poems of Kalidasa stand out for their lyrical beauty and profound insight into human nature. Kalidasa’s works, such as “Shakuntala” and “Meghaduta,” are celebrated not only for their poetic excellence but also for their deep emotional resonance and timeless themes. Another significant literary contribution from this period is the “Panchatantra,” a collection of fables that imparts moral lessons through engaging stories of animals and humans. The “Panchatantra” has been translated into numerous languages and continues to be cherished worldwide for its wisdom and wit.  

The advancements in science during the Gupta Period were equally remarkable. The era saw significant contributions to astronomy and mathematics, with scholars like Aryabhata leading the way. Aryabhata’s work, the “Aryabhatiya,” introduced groundbreaking concepts in mathematics, including the approximation of pi and the concept of zero as a placeholder. His astronomical observations and calculations, such as the accurate determination of the Earth’s circumference and the explanation of lunar and solar eclipses, were far ahead of their time. These scientific achievements not only advanced knowledge in their respective fields but also laid the foundation for future discoveries.  

The Gupta Period’s cultural and intellectual achievements were not confined to the realms of art, literature, and science. This era also saw the development of important philosophical and religious ideas that would shape Indian thought for centuries. The promotion of Hinduism, alongside the tolerance of other religions like Buddhism and Jainism, created a rich and diverse spiritual landscape. This inclusiveness and intellectual openness fostered a climate of dialogue and synthesis, further enriching the cultural fabric of the time.  

In conclusion, the Gupta Period truly deserves its epithet as a “Golden Age” of art and culture. The era’s remarkable achievements in sculpture, architecture, literature, and science set high standards and left an indelible mark on India’s cultural heritage. The Gupta rulers’ patronage of the arts and their commitment to intellectual pursuits created a legacy that continues to inspire and captivate. As we reflect on this golden age, we are reminded of the enduring power of creativity and the timeless beauty of human expression, which continue to illuminate the path of progress and cultural enrichment.  

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The Gupta Period

Approximate extent of the Gupta Empire, c. 5th century C.E. (adapted from Woudloper , CC BY-SA 4.0)

During the Gupta period (c. 320 – 647 C.E., named for the Gupta dynasty) there were tremendous advances in poetry, prose, and drama as well as important discoveries in mathematics and astronomy. This was the age of some of the most celebrated creatives in Indian history, including the fifth century writer Kālidāsa whose works would influence generations of writers. This was also the period in which the fifth century astronomer Aryabhata theorized that the earth rotated on its own axis and calculated the solar year at 365.3586805 days.

The Puranas, a compendium of religious literature considered sacred to both the Hindu and Jain religious traditions and consisting of stories and the genealogies of the gods, folk tales, and traditional lore, grew in prominence during the Gupta years . While it is difficult to date the Puranas because they contain anonymous texts compiled over many centuries both before and after the Gupta period, we know that Puranic stories were a popular religious and cultural reference during the Gupta years from the depiction of Puranic episodes in art and architecture. Kālidāsa’s poetry and plays also frequently engaged with episodes from the Puranas.

The Guptas were ambitious rulers and by the end of the fourth century claimed dominance over a vast swathe of northern India (see map above). They maintained a capital at Pataliputra, the same ancient center used by the formidable, and earlier, Mauryan empire (4th – 2nd century B.C.E.) and that of the emperor Ashoka Maurya (3rd century B.C.E.). 

Emperor Chandragupta II on his horse , c. 380 – 415 C.E., gold coin ( The British Museum )

The gold coin above shows Chandragupta II — one of the earliest and most successful Gupta rulers — who reigned from c. 380 C.E. to 415 C.E. Chandragupta is regally dressed, as is his horse, and he holds a bow as his sash flies behind him. This type of iconography emphasizes the emperor’s identification as a conqueror and the inclusion of a goddess (on the reverse side of this coin, not shown) implies divinely mandated rule. Fa Hsien, a Buddhist pilgrim from China, who was in India during the reign of this king wrote with admiration about the prosperity of the empire, describing it as a charitable place with hospitals, rest-houses, and medicine for those in need.

The Golden Age of Indian Culture?

Although Gupta overlordship was significant throughout the empire in the early years and later, local rulers were allowed a fair bit of autonomy in their territories. It is important therefore to not conflate the innovations and achievements of the Gupta period with the Guptas, and to acknowledge the contributions of regional dynasties. This is particularly important when works of art and architecture dated to the Gupta period are missing contextual information. Rather than assigning the Gupta dynastic label to these works of art and architecture, art historians use methods of connoisseurship to understand the artists, patrons, and provenance of these works. In the process, we are able to better understand the artistic developments of the period as a whole. 

The Gupta period was termed the “Golden Age of Indian Culture” by some early observers who assigned the vast quantity and sophisticated quality of art from that period to the sponsorship of the Guptas. The term “Golden Age” was based on the desire of these writers for an ideal or classical style of art (using the art of ancient Greece as an example), and the opinion that art after the Gupta period was less classical and too decadent to be tasteful. The artistic developments of regional kingdoms in the Gupta era problematizes this Eurocentric perspective. The fifth and sixth century rock-cut temples at Ajanta and Elephanta , in the domain of the Vakataka and Kalachuri rulers respectively, are prominent sites that point to a richer and more complex art history of the Gupta period.

That is not to say that the Gupta rulers themselves were not important patrons of art and architecture. The Udaigiri complex of rock-cut caves in Madhya Pradesh (a large state in central India) is a an exceptional site with inscriptions that indicate sponsorship from the Gupta court. Nineteen of the site’s twenty caves are dedicated to Hindu gods and date to the fourth and fifth centuries; one cave is dedicated to the Jain religion and is dated to the early fifth century.

Varaha panel, cave number 5, 5th century C.E., Udaigiri rock-cut caves, Madhya Pradesh (photo: Asitjain , CC BY-SA 3.0)

Varaha, the man-boar avatar

A sculptural panel at Udaigiri (in cave number 5) depicts the Hindu god Vishnu in his man-boar form avatar known as Varaha. The panel shows Varaha rescuing Bhudevi (goddess of earth) from a cosmic flood, a story that is recounted frequently in Hindu religious literature, including the Puranas. Varaha is shown here as a hero posing regally with the goddess as she dangles from his tusk. An audience of gods, sages, and people — most in crowds of organized rows — witness the event with awe. 

Varaha, 5th century CE, Eran, Madhya Pradesh (photo: ArnoldBetten , public domain)

Scholars have suggested that the Guptas may have been especially attached to the Varaha avatar of Vishnu. A remarkable sculpture — this time showing the Varaha avatar in the form of a boar (not a man-boar as at Udaigiri cave number 5) — is found in Eran, another site in Madhya Pradesh. Eran has a number of temples dated to the Gupta period and its association with the Guptas is well-established by way of inscriptions.

Eran’s Varaha is colossal – nearly twelve feet in height – and is shown again with the goddess holding on to his tusk. The artists cleverly included the witnesses of the miracle on Varaha’s body itself which is covered almost entirely by rows of spectators. Additional figures are also carved on his ears and snout. 

Standing Buddha Offering Protection , late 5th century, red sandstone, Mathura ( The Metropolitan Museum of Art )

The Gupta Buddha

The aniconic tradition of representing the Buddha was abandoned by this stage in favor of depictions of the deified Buddha and the Gupta period boasts some of the most impressive examples. Scholars have suggested that the style of the Gupta Buddha evolved out of the Gandhara and Mathura style of Buddhas. The Gandhara and Mathura Buddhas were distinct versions of the Buddha image developed during the Kushan empire (2nd century B.C.E. – 3rd century C.E.) in the Gandhara and Mathura regions respectively. Kushan-ruled territories became part of the Gupta empire and it is certainly possible that the aesthetic style of Buddha images produced in those areas inspired the development of the Gupta Buddha.

The process by which the amalgamation of features from both the Gandhara and Mathura styles led to the Gupta image was surely a complex and involved process that developed over centuries. In addition, while Gupta period artists appear to have inherited the developments of the Kushan empire in many aspects, they likely also gained from the developments of art produced in other regions and kingdoms — both previous and contemporaneous. It is helpful to also remember that artists and therefore styles of art may have been itinerant at various points in history. 

Gupta period Buddhas are characterized by covered shoulders, a head full of tight curls that cover even the ushnisha , and ornately carved halos. Images of the Jina (the 24 great teachers and perfected beings of the Jain religion) from this period are closely similar to Buddha images, especially in the rendering of a head of tight curls. The Jina’s posture and adornment follows the iconographic prescriptions of Jain sacred imagery and emphasize immobility and austerity.

“Gupta” as a style

While using the Gupta dynastic label to categorize all art produced in the Gupta period is, as we have seen above, problematic, there are certain developments in style and iconography from the Gupta period that are important to note, such as the tendency to render deities as life-sized or larger and the consistent use of hierarchic scaling . See the Varaha panel at Udaigiri above, for example.

Workshops in the Gupta period also employed signature styles. Images of the Buddha from the Mathura region, for instance, were produced in mottled red sandstone. The Mathura workshops also preferred to render the folds of the Buddha’s robes as looped strings as opposed to the thick folds preferred by Gandharan workshops in the Kushan period. Buddha images from the region of Sarnath, on the other hand, were made from a yellowish-tan sandstone and are shown wearing smooth robes.

Left to right: Buddha , 3rd century CE, schist, Gandhara ( The Metropolitan Museum of Art ); Standing Buddha , c. 5th century CE, red sandstone, Mathura ( Rashtrapati Bhavan Presidential Palace, New Delhi ); Standing Buddha , 474 CE, sandstone, Sarnath ( Sarnath Museum )

Scholars believe that portable Gupta period Buddhas, carried by pilgrims back to their homelands, played a role in the development of the Buddha image in the art of East and Southeast Asia. The Gupta Buddha would also influence later images of the Buddha in South Asia — such as those that were produced in the territory of the Pala dynasty (c. 700 – 1200) in eastern India. The Pala period saw the Buddha image develop even further and is notable for its inclusion of ornate crowns . 

Gupta period sculpture and painting

In addition to its prolific production of Buddha images, the Gupta period is also known for its Hindu and Jain sacred imagery fashioned from terracotta, stone, and metal . Surviving terracotta examples include sculptural plaques that were meant to adorn the walls of temples.

Krishna Killing the Horse Demon Keshi , 5th century, terracotta ( The Metropolitan Museum of Art )

The terracotta panel above shows the Hindu god Krishna (also an avatar of Vishnu) killing the horse demon Keshi. Krishna pushes the horse-demon back with his leg and sticks his elbow in Keshi’s mouth to stop the demon’s advance. If there is any doubt as to the aftermath of this encounter, the dead Keshi lies at the bottom of the panel. 

Painting too was likely a popular art-form in the Gupta period, although sadly, few examples have survived. If the mural paintings at the Buddhist rock-cut caves of Ajanta are any indication, painting techniques by the fifth century were highly developed. Ajanta’s paintings are also priceless for the clues that they contain on the artistic achievements of the period; we only need look at the accessories and clothes worn by the protagonists of the murals as well as at the architectural spaces that they occupy to better know the style of jewelry, textiles, and secular architecture that was popular at that time.

Mural in cave 1, Ajanta, 5th century C.E., Aurangabad

Temple architecture

Most Gupta-period architecture that survives in-situ is religious in nature and is built from stone and brick. A modest temple structure known as number 17 at the sacred complex at Sanchi – famous for its great stupa, and believed to date to the early fifth century, gives an idea of the early style of Indian temple architecture.

Temple number 17, Sanchi  (photo: Biswarup Ganguly , CC BY 3.0)

Temple number 17 is flat-roofed, mostly unadorned, and has an attached portico marked by four pillars topped with lion capitals. The temple is quite different from another fifth century brick-temple at Bhitargaon that  sits at the center of a square plan and would have once had an impressive shikara (pyramidal roof). Although the temple is heavily reconstructed today, it still preserves some of its sculptured terracotta panels, providing a glimpse of its original grandeur.

Dashavatara Temple, 6th century C.E., Deogarh (photo: Work2win , CC BY-SA 4.0)

Another Gupta period temple, the sixth century Dasavatara temple at Deogarh (above), also sits at the center of a plinth (an architectural feature that becomes increasingly common in temple building). Like Bhitargaon, Deogarh features sculptured panels, although here, three large niches containing sacred imagery associated with the god Vishnu receive special prominence — each one featured on its own wall. The panels may have originally been located within an ambulatory that is now missing.

By the end of the sixth-century, hastened by military incursions and the loss of territories, the Gupta empire fell into decline. Nevertheless, the Gupta period’s formative developments in art, architecture, and religious iconography would have a lasting impact on the art and architecture of South and Southeast Asia. 

Bibliography

A record of Buddhistic Kingdoms by Fa-Hsien

Art of the Silk Road: Cultures: The Gupta Dynasty

Recognizing the Gods

Frederick Asher, “Historical and Political Allegory in Gupta Art.” In Essays on Gupta Culture , ed. Bardwell Smith (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1983), pp. 55–57.

Catherine Becker, “Not your average boar: the colossal varaha at Eran, an iconographic innovation,” Artibus Asiae , volume 70, number 1, “To My Mind”: Studies in South Asian Art History in Honor of Joanna Gottfried Williams. Part II (2010): 123–49.

Vidya Dehejia,  Indian Art  (London: Phaidon Press, 1997).

Wendy Doniger,  The Hindus: an Alternative History  (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010).

Partha Mitter,  Indian Art  (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001).

Ju-Hyung Rhi, “From Bodhisattva to Buddha: the Beginning of Iconic Representation in Buddhist Art,”  Artibus Asiae , volume 54, number 3 / 4 (1994): 207–25.

Bardwell L. Smith,  Essays on Gupta Culture  (Columbia: South Asia Books, 1983).

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Gupta dynasty

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Gupta dynasty , rulers of the Magadha (now Bihar ) state in northeastern India . They maintained an empire over northern and parts of central and western India from the early 4th to the late 6th century ce . Historians once regarded the Gupta period as the classical age of India—during which the norms of Indian literature , art, architecture, and philosophy were established—but many of those assumptions have been challenged by more extensive studies of Indian society and culture between the Mauryan and Gupta periods. Among the products traditionally thought to be from the Gupta era were the decimal system of notation, the great Sanskrit epics, and Hindu art, along with contributions to the sciences of astronomy, mathematics, and metallurgy.

Administratively, the Gupta kingdom was divided into provinces, and these in turn were divided into smaller units called pradesha s or vishaya s. The provinces were governed by high imperial officers or members of the royal family. A decentralized system of authority is indicated by the composition of Gupta-era municipal boards.

The first ruler of the empire was Chandra Gupta I , who united the Guptas with the Licchavis by marriage. His son, the celebrated Samudra Gupta , expanded the empire through conquest. It would seem that his campaigns extended Gupta power in northern and eastern India and virtually eliminated the oligarchies and the minor kings of central India and the Ganges valley , regions which then came under the direct administrative control of the Guptas. The empire’s third ruler, Chandra Gupta II (or Vikramaditya, “Sun of Valour”), was celebrated for extending the empire to Ujjain , but his reign became more associated with cultural and intellectual achievements than with military conquest. His successors— Kumara Gupta , Skanda Gupta , and others—saw the gradual demise of the empire with the invasion of the Hunas (a branch of the Hephthalites ). By the mid-6th century, when the dynasty apparently came to an end, the kingdom had dwindled to a small size.

Gupta Empire

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The Gupta Empire stretched across northern, central and parts of southern India between c. 320 and 550 CE. The period is noted for its achievements in the arts, architecture , sciences, religion , and philosophy . Chandragupta I (320 – 335 CE) started a rapid expansion of the Gupta Empire and soon established himself as the first sovereign ruler of the empire. It marked the end of 500 hundred years of domination of the provincial powers and resulting disquiet that began with the fall of the Mauryas. Even more importantly, it began a period of overall prosperity and growth that continued for the next two and half centuries which came to be known as a “Golden Age” in India's history. But the seed of the empire was sown at least two generations earlier than this when Srigupta, then only a regional monarch, set off the glory days of this mighty dynasty in circa 240 CE.

Gupta Period – Early Days to the Zenith

Not much is known about the early days of this Gupta dynasty. The travel diaries and writings of Buddhist monks who frequented this part of the world are the most trustworthy sources of information we have about those days. The travelogues of Fa Hien (Faxian, circa 337 – 422 CE), Hiuen Tsang (Xuanzang, 602 – 664 CE) and Yijing (I Tsing, 635 – 713 CE) prove to be invaluable in this respect. The Gupta Empire during the rule of Srigupta (circa 240 – 280 CE) comprised only Magadha and probably a part of Bengal too. Like the Mauryas and other Magadha kings who preceded him, Srigupta ruled from Pataliputra, close to modern day Patna. Srigupta was succeeded to the throne by his son Ghatotkacha (circa 280 – 319 CE).

Chandragupta I

From the Kushans, the Gupta kings learned the benefit of maintaining a cavalry and Chandragupta I, son of Ghatotkacha, made effective use of his strong army. Through his marriage with Licchhavi Princess Kumaradevi, Chandragupta I received the ownership of rich mines full of iron ore adjacent to his kingdom. Metallurgy was already at an advanced stage and forged iron was not only used to meet the internal demands, but also became a valuable trade commodity. The territorial heads ruling over various parts of India could not counter the superior armed forces of Chandragupta I and had to surrender before him. It is conjectured that at the end of his reign, the boundary of the Gupta Empire already extended to Allahabad.

Samudragupta

Samudragupta (circa 335 – 375 CE), Chandragupta I's son who ascended the throne next, was a military genius and he continued the growth of the kingdom. After conquering the remainder of North India, Samudragupta turned his eyes to South India and added a portion of it to his empire by the end of his Southern Campaign. It is generally believed that during his time the Gupta Empire spanned from the Himalayas in north to the mouth of Krishna and Godavari rivers in the South, from Balkh, Afghanistan in the west to the Brahmaputra River in the east.

Samudragupta was very attentive to rajdharma (duties of a king) and took special care to follow Kautilya 's (350 – 275 BCE) Arthashastra (an economic, social and political treatise that has clear instructions about how a monarchy should be governed) closely. He donated large sums of money for various philanthropic purposes, including the promotion of education. Besides being a courageous king and able administrator, he was a poet and musician. The large number of gold coins circulated by him showcases his multifaceted talent. An inscription, probably commissioned by subsequent Gupta kings, known as the Allahabad Pillar is most eloquent about his humane qualities. Samudragupta also believed in promoting goodwill among various religious communities. He gave, for example, Meghavarna, king of Ceylon, permission and support for the construction of a monastery in Bodh Gaya .

Chandragupta II

A short struggle for power appears to have ensued after the reign of Samudragupta. His eldest son Ramagupta became the next Gupta king. This was noted by 7th century CE Sanskrit author Banbhatta in his biographical work, Harshacharita . What followed next forms a part of Sanskrit poet and playwright Visakh Dutta's drama Devi Chandra Guptam . As the story goes, Ramagupta was soon overcome by a Scythian king of Mathura. But the Scythian king, besides the kingdom itself, was interested in Queen Dhruvadevi who was also a renowned scholar. To maintain peace Ramagupta gave up Dhruvadevi to his opponent. It is then Ramagupta's younger brother Chandragupta II with a few of his close aides went to meet the enemy in disguise. He rescued Dhruvadevi and assassinated the Scythian king. Dhruvadevi publicly condemned her husband for his behaviour. Eventually, Ramagupta was killed by Chandragupta II who also married Dhruvadevi sometime later.

Like Samudragupta, Chandragupta II (circa 380 – 414 CE) was a benevolent king, able leader and skilled administrator. By defeating the satrap of Saurashtra, he further expanded his kingdom to the coastline of the Arabian Sea. His courageous pursuits earned him the title of Vikramaditya. To rule the vast empire more efficiently, Chandragupta II founded his second capital in Ujjain. He also took care to strengthen the navy. The seaports of Tamralipta and Sopara consequently became busy hubs of maritime trade. He was a great patron of art and culture too. Some of the greatest scholars of the day including the navaratna (nine gems) graced his court. Numerous charitable institutions, orphanages and hospitals benefitted from his generosity. Rest houses for travellers were set up by the road side. The Gupta Empire reached its pinnacle during this time and unprecedented progress marked all areas of life.

Politics & Administration

Great tact and foresight were shown in the governance of the vast empire. The efficiency of their martial system was well known. The large kingdom was divided into smaller pradesha (provinces) and administrative heads were appointed to take care of them. The kings maintained discipline and transparency in the bureaucratic process. Criminal law was mild, capital punishment was unheard of and judicial torture was not practised. Fa Hien called the cities of Mathura and Pataliputra as picturesque with the latter being described as a city of flowers. People could move around freely. Law and order reigned and, according to Fa Hien, incidents of theft and burglary were rare.

The following also speaks volumes about the prudence of the Gupta kings. Samudragupta acquired a far greater part of southern India than he cared to incorporate into his empire. Therefore, in quite a few cases, he returned the kingdom to the original kings and was satisfied only with collecting taxes from them. He reckoned that the great distance between that part of the country and his capital Pataliputra would hinder the process of good governance.

Socio-economic Conditions

People led a simple life. Commodities were affordable and all round prosperity ensured that their requirements were met easily. They preferred vegetarianism and shunned alcoholic beverages. Gold and silver coins were issued in great numbers which is a general indicative of the health of the economy . Trade and commerce flourished both within the country and outside. Silk , cotton, spices, medicine , priceless gemstones, pearl, precious metal and steel were exported by sea. Highly evolved steelcraft led everyone to a belief that Indian iron was not subject to corrosion. The 7 m (23 ft) high Iron Pillar in Qutub complex, Delhi, built around 402 CE, is a testimony to this fact. Trade relations with Middle East improved. Ivory, tortoise shell etc. from Africa , silk and some medicinal plants from China and the Far East were high on the list of imports. Food, grain, spices, salt, gems and gold bullion were primary commodities of inland trade.

Gupta kings knew that the well-being of the empire lie in maintaining a cordial relationship between the various communities. They were devout Vaishnava (Hindus who worship the Supreme Creator as Vishnu ) themselves, yet that did not prevent them from being tolerant towards the believers of Buddhism and Jainism . Buddhist monasteries received liberal donations. Yijing observed how the Gupta kings erected inns and rest houses for Buddhist monks and other pilgrims. As a pre-eminent site of education and cultural exchange Nalanda prospered under their patronage. Jainism flourished in northern Bengal, Gorakhpur, Udayagiri and Gujarat. Several Jain establishments existed across the empire and Jain councils were a regular occurrence.

Literature , Sciences & Education

Sanskrit once again attained the status of a lingua franca and managed to scale even greater heights than before. Poet and playwright Kalidasa created such epics as Abhijnanasakuntalam , Malavikagnimitram , Raghuvansha and Kumarsambhaba . Harishena, a renowned poet, panegyrist and flutist, composed Allahabad Prasasti , Sudraka wrote Mricchakatika , Vishakhadatta created Mudrarakshasa and Vishnusharma penned Panchatantra . Vararuchi, Baudhayana, Ishwar Krishna and Bhartrihari contributed to both Sanskrit and Prakrit linguistics, philosophy and science .

Varahamihira wrote Brihatsamhita and also contributed to the fields of astronomy and astrology. Genius mathematician and astronomer Aryabhata wrote Surya Siddhanta which covered several aspects of geometry, trigonometry and cosmology. Shanku devoted himself to creating texts about Geography. Dhanvantri's discoveries helped the Indian medicinal system of ayurveda become more refined and efficient. Doctors were skilled in surgical practices and inoculation against contagious diseases was performed. Even today, Dhanvantri's birth anniversary is celebrated on Dhanteras , two days before Diwali. This intellectual surge was not confined to the courts or among the royalty. People were encouraged to learn the nuances of Sanskrit literature, oratory, intellectual debate, music and painting. Several educational institutions were set up and the existing ones received continuous support.

Art, Architecture & Culture

What philosopher and historian Ananda Coomaraswamy said in The Arts & Crafts of India & Ceylone , about the art of the region must be remembered here,

The Hindus do not regard the religious, aesthetic, and scientific standpoints as necessarily conflicting, and in all their finest work, whether musical, literary, or plastic, these points of view, nowadays so sharply distinguished, are inseparably united.

The finest examples of painting, sculpture and architecture of the period can be found in Ajanta , Ellora, Sarnath, Mathura, Anuradhapura and Sigiriya. The basic tenets of Shilpa Shasrta (Treatise on Art) were followed everywhere including in town planning. Stone studded golden stairways, iron pillars (The iron pillar of Dhar is twice the size of Delhi's Iron Pillar), intricately designed gold coins, jewellery and metal sculptures speak volumes about the skills of the metalsmiths. Carved ivories, wood and lac-work, brocades and embroidered textile also thrived. Practicing vocal music, dance and seven types of musical instruments including veena (an Indian musical stringed instrument), flute and mridangam (drum) were a norm rather than exception. These were regularly performed in temples as a token of devotion. In classic Indian style, artists and litterateurs were encouraged to meditate on the imagery within and capture its essence in their creations. As Agni Purana suggests, “O thou Lord of all gods, teach me in dreams how to carry out all the work I have in my mind.”

Decline of the Empire

After the demise of his father Chandragupta II, Kumaragupta I (circa 415 – 455 CE) ruled over the vast empire with skill and ability. He was able to maintain peace and even fend off strong challenges from a tribe known as Pushyamitra. He was helped by his able son Skandagupta (455 – 467 CE) who was the last of the sovereign rulers of the Gupta Dynasty. He also succeeded in preventing the invasion of the Huns (Hephthalites). Skandagupta was a great scholar and wise ruler. For the well being of the denizens he carried out several construction works including the rebuilding of a dam on Sudarshan Lake, Gujarat. But these were the last of the glory days of the empire.

After Skandagupta's death the dynasty became embroiled with domestic conflicts. The rulers lacked the capabilities of the earlier emperors to rule over such a large kingdom. This resulted in a decline in law and order. They were continuously plagued by the attacks of the Huns and other foreign powers. This put a dent in the economic well-being of the empire. On top of this, the kings remained more occupied with self-indulgence than in preparing to meet with the challenges of their enemies. The inept ministers and administrative heads also followed suit. Notably, after the defeat and capture of Mihirakula, one of the most important Hephthalite emperors of the time, Gupta King Baladitya set him free on the advice of his ministers. The Huns came back to haunt the empire later and finally drew the curtains on this illustrious empire in circa 550. The following lines of King Sudraka's Mricchakatika (The Little Clay Cart) aptly sum up the rise and fall in the fortune of the Gupta Dynasty.

Fate plays with us like buckets at the well, Where one is filled, and one an empty shell, Where one is rising, while another falls; And shows how life is change - now heaven, now hell.

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Bibliography

• Banerji, R.D. Prehistoric Ancient And Hindu India. Nabu Press, 2011.
• Chandra, R., Altekar, Anant Sadashiv. (eds.) Majumdar. The Vakataka - Gupta Age. Motilal Banarsidass, 1967.
• Coins of Samudragupta , accessed 1 Dec 2016.
• Coomaraswamy, A.K. The Arts & Crafts of India & Ceylone. T N Foulis, London & Edinburgh, 1913
• Fa-Hien; Translated By James Legge. Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms, Being an Account by the Chinese Monk Fa- hien of His Travels.. Oriental Publishers, 1971.
• Mookerji, R. The Gupta Empire. Motilal Banarsidass, 2007.
• Shudraka. The Little Clay Cart. NYU Press, 2009.

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Social and Cultural life during Gupta Empire

The social and cultural life of this age was characterized by elements of continuity and change. While some of the essential institutions & practices continued from previous ages. At the same time number of new elements emerged in society during this period.

The family was the primary unit of society the same as before. Varna Ashrama Dharma was followed in society. But have also largely a theoretical model. The Varna Ashram regulations were not followed rigidly. As per the Varna Ashram Dharma system, Brahmana is supposed to indulging in learning & religion. But contemporary reference that Brahmanas involved in trade & commerce as well. Charudatta the hero of Mrushhakatikum was a Brahmana but he was also famous traders of age.

According to Dharmashastra trade & commerce was an Aapdharma (ceremony occasion for Brahmanas). According to Brihaspatismriti trade & commerce was a normal profession for Shudras. According to Mrushhakatikum, there were Shudras officials in Ujjain.

Kayasthas emerged as a new social group of caste during this period. Their emergence was the outcome of the practice of land grants. This was the case of the land record keeper. 1 st reference of Kayasthas found in Yajnavalkya smriti .

A new form of social classification/differentiation emerged in this age on basis of the size of the house. According to Brihatsamhita of Varaha Mihir , the house of a Brahmana was to have 5 rooms , Kshatriya 4 rooms , and Vaisya 3 & Shudras 2 rooms . The status of Shudras improved significance in society during this age social outcome towards them changed quite a lot because Shudras were allowed to indulge in agriculture, arts & crafts, Trade & Commerce.

Reference of Brihaspati, Trade & Commerce normal profession of Shudras. Shudras were appointed as officials. Shudras were allowed to hear Epics & Puranas. Shudras of marriage as before new elements. According to Brihaspati, Widow’s re-marriage was not allowed but Narad Smriti allowed widow remarriage.

Child marriage was absent. The normal marriageable age for girls was 12-13 years. The status of women in society was high but some negative practices associated with women commenced during this age. According to the Upanayana ceremony (initiation ceremony for education) was not allowed for girls. The Devdasi system commenced during this age. According to Kalidas, a large number of Devdasi’s were maintained in Mahakal temple of Ujjain for the entertainment of temple deity with music & dance.

Practice of Veiling

The practice of veiling also commenced during this age. Women from a high-status family used to cover their faces while going in public. The practice of Sati was also prevalent. Earn inscription of 510 AD provides the 1 st written evidence of this practice. The women enjoyed the right to Stridhana as well as share in the movable property of the father.

While Narada allows women rights to Stridhana Katyayana (smriti) allowed women to share in both movable as well as immovable property of the father. Prostitution was also prevalent in society Vatsyayana prostitution was trained professionally in music & dance. Slavery was prevalent in society. According to Narad Smriti, there were 15 types of slaves.

Untouchability was prevalent. In fact, this practice had expanded when compared with the previous period. Untouchable was categorized into two types Nirvasita (excluded) & Anirvasita (non-excluded) . Nirvasita included in an unclean profession such as the lifting of dead animal & cleaning of drainage. They used to live outside the village/town.

Fahian wrote that Chandalas used to live on the outskirts of the city. They used to make sound by hitting a log of wood on the ground to warm others to get aside to avoid pollution. Nalanda University was founded by King Kumar Gupta I. It was the world-famous center of Buddhist learning. Taxila University had continued. Banaras was a famous center of medical science . Sushruta was a famous teacher at Banaras (Sushruta Samhita). Guilds & Gurukulas also continued.

Social Developments

Land grants to the Brahmana on a large scale suggest that the Brahmana supremacy continued in Gupta times. The term dvija was now beginning to be used increasingly for the Brahmana. The greater the emphasis on Brahmana purity the greater was the stress laid on the impurity of the outcaste. The Varna system seems to have been considerably modified owing to the proliferation of castes.

The Kshatriya caste swelled up with the influx of the Hunas and subsequently of the Gurjars who joined their ranks as Rajputs. The increase in the number of Shudra castes and untouchables was largely due to the absorption of backward forest tribes into the settled Varna society. Often guilds of craftsmen were transformed into castes.

It has been suggested that transfers of lands or land revenues gave rise to a new caste, that of the Kayastha (scribes) who undermined the monopoly of the Brahmana as scribes. The position of the Shudras improved in this period and they were now permitted to listen to the epics and the Puranas. They were also allowed to perform certain domestic rites which naturally brought fee to the priests.

All this can be attributed to a change in the economic status of the Shudras. The practice of untouchability became more intense than in the earlier period. Penance was provided to remove the sin arising out of touching a chandala. Fa-Hien informs us that the chandala, entering the gate of a city or market place, would strike a piece of wood to give prior notice of his arrival so that men could avoid him.

The Varna system did not always function smoothly. The Shanti Parva of the Mahabharata, which may be assigned to the Gupta period, contains at least nine verses that stress the need for combina­tion of the Brahmanas and the Kshatriyas; these may indicate some kind of concerted opposition from the vaishyas and Shudras.

The Anushashana Parva of the Mahabharata represents the Shudras as a destroyer of the king. Most of the legal texts of the period took the Dharmashastra of Manu as their basis and elaborated upon it. Several such works were written during this period, the best know being those of Yajnavalkya, Narada, Brihaspati, and Katyayana. The joint family system, which be­came an essential feature of Hindu caste-society, was prevalent at the time.

Status of Women

The status of women continued to decline. In a patriarchal set-up, the men began to treat women as items of property, so much so that a woman was expected to follow her husband to the next world. The practice of sati (self-immolation at the funeral pyre of the husband) gained the approval of the jurists.

But it seems to have been confined to the upper classes. The first memorial is found at Eran in Madhya Pradesh. Lawgivers of the period almost unanimously advocated early marriage; some of them preferred even pre-puberty marriage. Celibacy was to be strictly observed by widows. Women were denied any right to the property except for stridhana in the form of jewelry, gar­ments, and similar other presents made to the bride on the occasion of her marriage.

They were not entitled to formal education. In the Gupta period, like Shudras, women were also allowed to listen to epics and the Puranas and advised to worship Krishna. But women of higher orders did not have access to independent sources of livelihood in pre-Gupta and Gupta times. The fact that women of the two lower varnas were free to earn their livelihood gave them considerable freedom, which was denied to women of the upper varnas.

Culture of the Gupta Age

The Gupta period is called the Golden Age of ancient India. This may not be true in the political and socio-economic fields because of several unhappy developments during the period. However, it is evident from the archaeological findings that the Guptas possessed a large amount of gold, whatever might be its source, and they issued the largest number of gold coins.

Princes and richer people could divert a part of their income for the support of those engaged in art and literature. Both Samudragupta and Chandragupta II were patrons of art and literature. Samudragupta is represented on his coins playing the lute (veena) and Chandragupta II is credited with maintaining in his court nine luminaries or great scholars. The Gupta period witnessed the Golden Age only in the fields of art, literature, etc.

The art of painting reached its height of glory and splendor in this age. The most important examples of the Gupta paintings are to be found on the wall frescos of the Ajanta caves, the Bagh caves. The Gupta painters also painted incidents from the life of Buddha during the Gupta period. Cave No. XVI at Ajanta has the scene known as “Dying Princess”. Cave no. XVII has been called a picture gallery. At Ajanta, other prominent cave paintings are cave no. XIX, I, and II.

Gupta Literature

Sanskrit language and literature after centuries of evolution, through lavish royal patronage, reached to the level of classical excellence. Sanskrit was the court language of the Guptas. The Puranas had existed much before the time of the Guptas in the form of bardic literature; in the Gupta age, they were finally compiled and given their present form.

The period also saw the compilation of various Smritis or the law-books written in verse. The Smritis of Yajnavalkya, Narada, Katyayana, and Brihaspati was written during this period. The two great epics namely the Ramayana and the Mahabharata were almost completed by the 4th century A.D.

The Gupta period is remarkable for the production of secular literature. Among the known Sanskrit poets of the period, the greatest name is that of Kalidasa who lived in the court of Chandragupta II. The most important works of Kalidasa were the Abhijnanashakuntalam (con­sidered to be one of the best hundred literary works in the world) Ritusamhara, Malavikagnimitra, Kumarasambhava, Meghaduta, Raghuvamsha and Vikrama Urvashiyam. Shudraka wrote the drama Mrichcbhakatika or the little Clay cart.

Vishakadatta is the author of the Mudrarakshasa, which deals with the schemes of the shrewd Chanakya. The Devichandraguptam another drama written by him has survived only in fragments.

The Gupta period also saw the development of Sanskrit grammar based on Panini and Patanjali. This period is particularly memorable for the compilation of the Amarakosha by Amarasimha, who was a luminary in the court of Chandragupta II. A Buddhist scholar from Bengal, Chandragomia, composed a book on grammar, named Chandravyakaranam.

Buddhist and Jaina literature in Sanskrit was also written during the Gupta period Buddhist scholars Arya Deva, Arya Asanga, and Vasubandhu of the Gupta period were the most notable writers. Siddhasena Divakara laid the foundation of logic among the Jainas. The Gupta age witnessed the evolution of many Prakrit forms such as Suraseni used in Mathura and its vicinity, Ardhamagadhi has spoken in Oudh and Bundelkhand, Magadhi in Bihar and Maharashtra in Berar.

Science and Technology

Aryabhatta was the first astronomer to pose the more fundamental problems of astronomy in A.D. 499. It was largely through his efforts that astronomy was recognized as a separate discipline from mathematics. He calculated pi (π) to 3.1416 and the length of the solar year to 365.3586805 days, both remarkably close to recent estimates.

He believed that the earth was a sphere and rotated on its axis and that the shadow of the earth falling on the moon caused eclipses. He is also the author of Aryabhattiyam, which deals with algebra, arithmetic, and geometry. Varahamihira, who lived towards the end of the fifth century wrote several treatises on astronomy and horoscopy. His Panchasiddhantika deals with five schools of astronomy, two of these reflect a close knowledge of Greek astronomy. The Laghu-Jataka, BrihatJataka, and Brihat Samhita are some of his other important works.

Hastayurveda or veterinary science, authored by Palakalpya attests to the advances made in medical science during the Gupta period. The Navanitakam, a medical work, which is a manual of recipes, formula, and prescriptions, was compiled during this period.

Gupta’s Coins

Coins contain the names of King and the dates . This information helped in fixing the chronology of the Gupta dynasty. In fact, the time period of Gupta rulers as known today is based on the date found on the coins. Coins contain the title of a king-like “ Maharajadhiraja ” (King of King) and “Vikramaditya). A title adopted by those Indian rulers. These titles revealed the status & strength of Gupta rulers.

Coins through light on foreign relations of Gupta rulers. Lichahhvi princess Kumardevi is depicted on the coins issued by Chandragupta 1. This implies Chandragupta-1 established matrimonial relation with Lichahhvis & the depiction of the Lichahhvis princess on Gupta coin revealed the significance of this relationship.

Coins issued by Samudra Gupta contain the term Lichachhavidauhitra (Son & daughter of Lichahhvi). This also proved Gupta relation with the Lichahhvi dynasty. Ashwamedha coins issued by Samudra Gupta indicate that he was a great military conqueror. Tiger slayer type of coins issued by Samudra Gupta indicated that he conquered East India tigers found in the forest of East India only at that time.

Social and religious life depicted from Coins

The depiction of Kumardevi on coins indicates that the status of women was high during Gupta’s age. The title of “ Parambhagvata ” found on coins issued by Chandragupta II indicates that he was a follower of Vaishnavism. “Garuda” was the royal emblem of Guptas as revealed by the Garuda emblem found on the coin. This indicates Gupta rulers are followers of Vaishnavism .

Depiction of Goddess Durga riding-lions of Chandragupta I indicate that Shakti worship was practiced. Peacock was the royal emblem of Kumar Gupta I as revealed by his coins. This indicates that he was a worshiper of Kartikeya. Ashwamedha type coins issued by Samudra Gupta indicate that Brahmanical sacrifices were performed by Gupta rulers. Cultural life is revealed by coins. Samudragupta was depicted while playing the veena. Because of different symbols are found on coins. The script of the Gupta period can also be understood on basis of coins because different titles & names are written on coins.

Economic life as revealed by Coins

The metals used in making of coins through light on knowledge of metals & metallurgy. The purity of coins issued by early Gupta rulers indicates that level of prosperity was high & reduction of purity of coins issued by Kumar Gupta I & successor indicate that economy had started declining.

Most gold coins having found in hoards (in number of coins together). This indicates that gold coins were used for the accumulation of wealth. Gold coins discovered so far are from town & cities, very few coins found from villages this indicates that gold coins were not used in villages on a significant scale.

Gold coins were high-value coins so it was useful only for big merchants & traders. It could use only in large transactions. According to Fahiyan metal powder (Churni) & shells (Cauri) were used as a medium of exchange by common people during the Gupta age.

Land revenue was paid as a peasant in kind . This reference suggested that level of monetization of economics was quite low in villages and coins were not of much significance in the life of the common masses. The paucity of coins belonging to the reign of later Gupta rulers (post-Skanda Gupta) indicates that trade & commerce in declining conditions.

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The Gupta Empire of Ancient India

The Gupta Empire of Ancient India is often regarded as one of the high points of Indian civilization. It was not only one of the greatest states in Indian history, it was a period of great achievements in art, literature and science. Some of these achievements rank as some of the most important in world history . It was also a period of change, as Indian civilization evolved from its ancient form to its more modern manifestation.

Society and economy

Science, mathematics, medicine and technology

Centuries prior to the advent of the Gupta empire, the Maurya empire had arisen in 3rd century BCE. This was a huge state, covering the majority of the Indian subcontinent. For several centuries after it had vanished no empire arose in India to take its place. Indeed, whilst the Maurya empire fragmented into several kingdoms, these in turn tended to fragment into ever smaller, more numerous, kingdoms. By the 4th century CE, the subcontinent was covered by a huge numbers of states of varying size and power, with none in a dominant position.

This changed in the 4th century CE, with the rise of the Gupta empire. Although this state never achieved the dimensions of the Maurya, it was, for a century or more, by far the largest state within the Indian subcontinent, and its influence spread over a wide area through diplomacy, marriage alliances and cultural attraction.

The Gupta era is often regarded as the high point of Ancient Indian civilization. It was a period of great achievements in art, literature and science. It was also a period of change, as Indian civilization slowly evolved from its ancient form to its more modern manifestation.

History of the Gupta Empire

Magadha and the rise of the gupta empire.

The Maurya empire was, in essence, a super-sized expansion of the historic kingdom of Magadha. With the decline of the Maurya empire in the 3rd and early 2nd centuries CE, the line of kings of the Maurya dynasty ended, to be followed by a succession of obscure dynasties until the 4th century CE. By then the kingdom had been reduced to the status of just one kingdom amongst many in northern India.

The Gupta dynasty came to power in the late 3rd century CE. Chandragupta I (reigned 318-30) was the first major king of the Gupta dynasty, inheriting the throne of Magadha in 318 AD. He married the heiress of the Lichavvi kingdom, and was thus able to weld together the military resources of the two states. With these, he set about extending his kingdom’s territory by conquering neighboring territories.

Chandragupta’s successor Samudragupta (330-75) continued this process until his kingdom covered the eastern half of the great Ganges plain.He then turned his attention south, and in what must have been a grand procession of conquest far into southern India, brought many kingdoms under his sovereignty,

Chandragupta II

The next of the Gupta emperors, Chandragupta II (375-415), brought the Gupta empire to the height of its power.

He had to spend the first years of his reign quelling rebellions from amongst the subordinate rulers. He then extended his kingdom’s borders in north-central India before mounting a major attack on the Sakas (Western Satraps). He succeeded in destroying their power and bringing their territories under his control.  

Chandragupta II also strengthened the Gupta regime by a judicious marriage alliance with the Vakataka dynasty, the dominant power in the Deccan. His daughter, Prabhavati, married the Vakataka king Rudrasena II, who died soon afterwards. This left Prabhavati as regent for her two young sons in succession for a period of twenty years (c. 390-410). During this time the Vakataka kingdom acted in close alliance with the Gupta.  

By the time of his death, Chandragupta II had brought the Gupta Empire to its widest extent. His son, Kumaragupta (415-54), was able to reign in peace, as all the other kings in India were in awe of the Gupta.

Map of India at the time of the Gupta Empire, c. 500 CE (c. TimeMaps)

Decline of the Gupta Empire

Kumaragupta’s successor, Skandagupta (454-67) had to face an uprising at the beginning of his reign, which he was only able to put down after a bloody fight. Later, his reign saw a development of major importance, which would have a baneful impact of Gupta fortunes. This was the emergence of the Huns , a nomadic people from the steppes of central Asia, to power Afghanistan.  

The Gupta were able to fend off Hun attacks for some time, but after Skandagupta’s death the Gupta empire began a slow decline. A succession of weak kings were unable to control the centrifugal tendencies within the empire which undermined the empire’s cohesion.

When Hun attacks began again in earnest, in the 6th century, they finished off what remained of the empire. By about the mid-century mark it had vanished altogether.

Government of the Gupta Empire

Politically, the Gupta empire consisted of two kinds of territory. The central core of the empire was made up of territory directly governed by the Gupta king.

In this area, a hierarchy of royal officials formed a chain of command which reached down from the monarch, his ministers and court, through provincial governors (of whom there were twenty six at one time, presumably at the empire’s height), to district officials. These latter were assisted by a district council made up of local notables. The individual villages which made up the district were under local headmen.

Tributary kindoms

The other portion was made up of a large number of tributary kingdoms. These had at one time or another been defeated by the Gupta, or in some case voluntarily submitted to Gupta overlordship. Instead of annexing kingdoms, and wiping them off the map, the Gupta allowed their kings to keep their thrones and remain responsible for administering affairs within their own territories.

So long as they remained loyal, and continued to send tribute to the imperial court, these kings kept their thrones as subject, or tributary, kings.

This arrangement was in marked contrast to the political situation in other regions of the world. Both the Roman empire in the West and the Han empire of China were predominantly administered by centrally-appointed officials of the emperors. The Gupta empire was not at all uncommon in India, however; it was in fact the norm.

The great ambition of successful Indian rulers was to be seen as a “King of Kings”. Their aim was to have as many kings subordinate to them as possible. This was what gave them the greatest prestige, in an Indian context. They seem not to have been motivated by annexing as much territory as they could to rule directly.

Political dynamics within the Gupta Empire

This state of affairs tended to mean that large states were often short-lived in India. The Gupta empire was lucky in that, for several generations, it was ruled by a line of able rulers who enjoyed the loyalty and obedience of their subordinate kings.  

Even the Gupta dynasty was in danger on the death of a king. In these transitions of power, when a youth took his place on the Gupta throne, unknown and untested, some subordinate kings took this opportunity to rebel and try to break away from Gupta rule.

Fortunately for the Gupta, as we have seen, until the later 5th century, their emperors are largely successful in putting these rebellions down.

The Gupta army

To what extent the Gupta army was similar to other Indian armies of the time is difficult to assess, given the state of the evidence. However, it was different from earlier armies, for example that of the Mauryan empire, in certain key respects.  

There was the same emphasis on infantry, which formed the bulk of the army. And like the Mauryan army , there was strong corps of elephants. There was a much larger cavalry arm, however, and this was more heavily armed. Unlike in Mauryan times, when the horsemen had mainly fought with bows and arrows, the Gupta cavalry had picked up the ways of central Asian horsemen in that they wore heavy armor (and so were presumably mounted on heavier and stronger horses), and their main weapons were lances and swords. This implies that they fought up close with the enemy rather than from a distance, as had been the case in earlier times.

Another contrast with the Mauryan military was that the Gupta had a strong navy. The Maurya certainly had warships, but these seemed to have played little part in battles. The Gupta navy, on the other hand, formed one of the five branches of the military establishment (the others being elephants, cavalry, chariots and infantry), and must therefore have had a role of real significance. Whether this was for troop transport or in battle, or on rivers or oceans, is unfortunately not known.

Religion at the time of the Gupta empire

Hinduism, as a religion with specific doctrines, had yet to emerge properly from the broad Vedic practices and beliefs of ancient India. There was still therefore a wide religious space in which different belief systems, such as Buddhism and Jainism, could flourish. Gupta kings endowed the establishments of both Buddhism and Hinduism with equal generosity.

Things were beginning to change, however. Vedic sacrifices, still an integral part of royal ritual, seem to have been losing their hold on ordinary people’s spiritual lives during the Gupta period. More emotional cults, often local in character and involving personal devotion to a deity, were becoming more popular.  

These local deities became increasingly associated with mainstream deities, above all Shiva and Vishnu, whose cults (Shaiva and Vaishnava respectively) started their rise to prominence across India at this time. The great set of religious writings called the Puranas were reworked at this time to promote the worship of Shiva and Vishnu; and the ancient Vedic epics, hitherto transmitted orally from generation to generation, began to be recast and written down during the Gupta era. For example one of the seminal Hindu texts, called the Bhagavad Gita, was incorporated into the great Mahabharata epic probably in the 4th or 5th centuries CE.

These developments were beginning to transform the Vedic tradition into what we can recognize as Hinduism. The new cults were given sanction by the Brahman priestly caste, which successfully brought them under its authority.

This process of change was deeply influenced by Buddhist beliefs and practices. Buddhist teachings emphasizing compassion (alien to ancient Vedic tradition) and practices involving meditation began to enter Hinduism. Whereas the ancient Vedic emphasis had been on the propitiation of the gods, there was now, as noted above, a growing emphasis on a more personal devotion to a deity.

With the rise of this new, more popular kind of Hinduism, Buddhism began a long decline  in the Indian subcontinent. This process would take many centuries to complete, but the early stages in the rise of Hinduism in its modern form were already detectible at the time of the Gupta Empire.

In the Gupta period, however, Buddhism was still very widespread. The Chinese monk Faxian , who travelled extensively in India at the end of the fourth century and the beginning of the fifth, reported seeing large numbers of monasteries, which together housed thousands of monks.

Society and economy at the time of the Gupta empire

The growing influence of Hinduism – and of its guardians, the Brahmin caste – can be seen in various ways within Indian society under the Guptas.

Developments in the caste system

The ancient four-fold varna system of castes – the Brahmins (priests), Kshatrya (warriors), Vaishya (merchants) and Shudras (peasants) – began to become more rigid in Gupta times. In particular, the Brahmin caste strengthened its influence over Indian society.  

In early Gupta times, the caste system was comparatively fluid. Brahmins were not restricted to following the priestly calling, and some Khastriyas were involved in trade and commerce. As time went on, however, the Brahmins called on their fellow Hindus to have a greater concern for ritual purity. Living and working outside one’s own caste environment therefore became more difficult. For example, it was in this period that it Brahmins stated that overseas travel and trade were to be avoided ( see below, trade ). This was because foreign travel would lead to contact with foreigners, who were, by definition, outside the caste system and therefore a source of spiritual pollution.

At the bottom of Indian society, the status of the millions of outcastes declined, again due to the   concern for ritual purity. Contact with them polluted those of caste, and outcastes were increasingly made to live outside the walls of cities.

In comparison with the outcastes, there are indications that the status of the Shudras (peasants) increased, as at least they were within the bounds of the caste system.

Occupation groups

The influence of the Brahmins can be seen in the growing rigidity, not just of social groups but of occupational ones as well. Up to now these had allowed some movement between them, but in Gupta times they started on the road to becoming exclusively hereditary sub-castes within the broader varna system.

The status of women

Another trend in Indian society at the time of the Gupta, which was also attributable to Brahmin influence, was that society became increasingly patriarchal. The senior male’s position as master of the house was enhanced, and the status of women declined. Girls were forced into earlier marriages at this time.

This decline in women’s status was not just apparent within households, but also in the public sphere. There are indications that women had been able to sit on local village and district councils in early Gupta times; later, however, membership became restricted entirely to men.

From this period, also, the idea began to spread, at least in higher levels of Hindu society, that a virtuous widow should throw herself onto her husband’s funeral pyre.

Ironically, these developments went hand in hand with the growing popularity of the worship of the Mother Goddess, and the idealization of women in literature.

Sacred cows

One final development within society at this time which was the result of increased Brahminic influence was that the status of cows as sacred animals rose – related to which, vegetarianism seems to have become more widespread.

Cities in the Gupta empire

The mass of the population of India lived in farming villages – a fact true of all societies around the world in pre-industrial times. However, there were many large cities in Gupta India. Some of these were ports and trading centers (for example Broach and Sopara on the west coast of India, and Tamralipta on the east coast), and others were centers of pilgrimage (for example Varanasi and Mathura).  

Pataliputra, the capital (the modern city of Patna), was by far the largest, and one of the biggest cities in the world. The Chinese monk Faxian, visiting the city in early Gupta times, was awe-struck by its magnificent palaces and temples, as well as by the many Buddhist monasteries there. He also noted the presence of free hospitals and other charitable institutions for the poor, paid for by wealthy citizens.

Trade at the time of the Gupta Empire

The Gupta period was a time of prosperity, with trade reaching its peak in ancient India at this time.  

One interesting indication of this is that the rate of interest on trading voyages had decreased from 240% per voyage in earlier times to 20% now. This reflects much greater confidence in such voyages, and the greater numbers of voyages over which risks could be spread.

At this time, Indian merchants and seamen dominated the Indian Ocean trade routes. They had trading links as far afield as the Sasanian empire  of Persia and the Byzantine empire , in the west, and with South East Asia and China in the east.

The State naturally benefitted from the revenues flowing into its treasury from the custom duties at the numerous ports, such as Broach and Sopara. Unsurprisingly, the Gupta regime sought to encourage trade by various means – for example by maintaining rest houses for travelers on the highways, and building safe docks and even lighthouses at ports.  

Sadly, the seeds of Indian leadership in overseas trade was being sown at this time, another manifestation of growing Brahmin influence ( see above ).  

It was in the Gupta period that Brahminical law began to state that travel by sea was impure, and the participation of Hindus in overseas trade began to diminish. This was left increasingly to Buddhist traders. As we have seen, however, this could not be a long term trend as Buddhism itself was in decline in the subcontinent.  

Over the next few centuries Muslim traders would come to dominate maritime trade in the Indian Ocean region.

Cultural developments at the time of the Gupta Empire

Under the Gupta empire the culture of ancient India reached its peak. It was a time of tremendous achievement in a wide range of fields.  

The impression given is that culture was given high priority in Gupta India. The great Gupta emperors were certainly a prolific fount of patronage of learning and culture. They endowed many cities with wonderful Hindu temples and Buddhist monasteries, along with the abundant statuary with which they were furnished. The great university of Nalanda, which would become the leading international center of Buddhist learning, was founded by one of later Gupta emperors.

Faxian noted seeing large numbers of Buddhist monasteries in northern India, housing thousands of monks. Many monks were well known scholars, and monasteries famous for their leaning attracted students from all over India. Faxian himself spent three years studying Sanskrit language and Buddhist scriptures at Pataliputra.

Hindu scholars were also prolific at this time, with major achievements to their name. They often lived and worked in cities, close to centers of power. The best-known worked at the Gupta court, under the patronage of the emperors themselves. Their Buddhist contemporaries, meanwhile, tended to remain in their monasteries, often located in isolated places far removed from the distractions of power and wealth.

Literature under the Gupta Empire

During the Gupta period regional languages continued their long-term evolution as literary languages. But it was Sanskrit that was the language of scholarship, official records and courtly conversation. Although it was understood by only a tiny minority of people, any work with any pretensions to scholarly or literary credibility throughout the subcontinent would have to be written in, or translated into, Sanskrit.

At the highest levels, Indian culture was remarkably homogenous. This was in fact the high water mark of ancient Indian literature. In poetry and drama, the great figure of Kalidasa looms over the period, even though the dates in which he lived are disputed. He is universally compared with Shakespeare as giant in world literature. Like Shakespeare, he wrote both plays and poems. It was Kalidasa’s achievement to ensure that Sanskrit remained the dominant medium of high literary culture in India.

Other dramatists and poets were also highly regarded. Dramas were often risqué and action-packed, while poems were courtly and elegant. In sacred literature too this was an extremely important time. The great set of religious writings called the Puranas were reworked at this time to promote the worship of Shiva and Vishnu; and the ancient Vedic epics, hitherto transmitted orally from generation to generation, began to be recast and written down during the Gupta era. For example one of the seminal Hindu texts, called the Bhagavad Gita, was incorporated into the great Mahabharata epic probably in the 4th or 5th centuries CE.

Art under the Gupta Empire

This process of change was deeply influenced by Buddhist beliefs and practices. For example, whereas the Vedic cults had not traditionally used statues in worship, this was changing by the time of the Guptas. Statues began to become central to Hindu ritual and worship.

The Gupta age is usually regarded as one of the great periods of Indian art. The influence of Buddhist Gandhara art can be clearly seen in the sculpture off the time, in the folds of the clothing for example, and the purity of form. Gupta sculpture is known for its serenity of countenance and grace of pose. These qualities can be clearly seen in the erotic sculptures in the Khajuraho temples.  

Painting was also an important art form, but hardly any examples survive – and those that do are much damaged. Some fragments of frescoes from the cave temples of Ajanta hint at the high standards achieved, and from texts of the period we know that painting was regarded as a respected profession, and a desirable social accomplishment for the elite.

Science, mathematics, medicine and technology under the Gupta Empire

The Gupta period was a high point in the development of Indian science. Important works on astronomy and medicine were produced.  

Aryabhata, the most famous scholar in Gupta times, showed that the Earth is a sphere, and revolves around its axis each day. He believed that is circles round the Sun, not vice versa, and that the stars’ motions are caused by the Earth’s own movements rather than the sky’s. He identified eclipses as the shadow of the moon falling on the Earth.

Gupta scholars calculated the length of the solar year with a precision not matched by any other ancient civilization, including the Greeks.  

Above all, Indian mathematics was probably the most advanced in the world at this time. A step of enormous importance for human progress was taken with the perfection of the decimal system and the discovery of the mathematical concept of zero. At a more exalted level, the solution was found to certain determinate equations; pi was successfully calculated to four decimal places.

All this learning was written in Sanskrit, the classical language of ancient India. It was thus inaccessible to all but a very few. Ordinary artisans, for example, had no knowledge of these exalted works, and no known treatises were written on subjects to do with craft production.

Nevertheless, Indian artisans of the time achieved extraordinarily high levels of skill. For example, the metal smiths who fashioned the 7 m. high ‘Iron Pillar’ in Delhi, noted not only for its enormous size but for its anti-corrosive qualities, were clearly masters of their craft.

Links to Timemaps resources:

The article on  Ancient India  places the Gupta empire in the wider contect of India’s ancient history.

Premium Link:   India in the Classical Age, 250 CE  is the first of a sequence of maps showing the rise and decline of the Gupta empire.

More articles on Ancient India:

The Indus Valley Civilization of Ancient India

The Vedic Age of Ancient India

The Classical Age of Ancient India

The Maurya Empire of Ancient India

The Gandhara civilization of Ancient India

The Deccan empires of Ancient and Medieval India

History maps

Ancient India and South Asia in 3500 BCE: Prehistory

Ancient India and South Asia in 2500 BCE: Indus Valley Civilization

Ancient India and South Asia in 1500 BCE: The Aryan Migrations

Ancient India and South Asia in 1000 BCE: The Vedic Age

Ancient India and South Asia in 500 BCE: India at the time of the Buddha

Ancient India and South Asia in 200 BCE: The Mauryan empire

Ancient India and South Asia in 30 BCE: India after the Mauryan empire

Ancient India and South Asia in 200 CE: Fragmented India

Ancient India and South Asia in 500 CE: The Gupta Empire

External links:

Click on this link for an attractive, interactive visual survey of the Gupta empire .

The Indian Civil Service website page on Gupta society  gives an interesting overview of Indian society and culture in Gupta times.

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8e. The Gupta Period of India

The Gupta Period of India was not characterized by enormous material wealth or by elaborate trade activity.

It was defined by creativity. Flourishing arts, fabulous literature, and stupendous scholars are just a few of the things that marked the period.

In 185 B.C.E., the Mauryan empire collapsed when the last of the Mauryan kings was assassinated. In its place, small kingdoms arose throughout India.

For nearly 500 years, the various states warred with each other. In the northern territories, a new empire arose when a ruler named Chandragupta I ascended the throne in 320 C.E. He revived many principles of Mauryan government and paved the way for his son, Samudragupta, to develop an extensive empire.

Victory at Any Cost

Samudragupta was a great warrior and conquest was his passion. He sought to unite all of India under his rule and quickly set out to achieve this goal by waging wars across much of the Indian subcontinent.

Hoping for mercy, many potential victims offered tribute and presents to Samudragupta as he swept through the territories. But little mercy was granted. One by one, he defeated nine kings in the north and twelve in the south. In addition to the human devastation countless horses were slaughtered to celebrate his victories.

The Gupta territories expanded so greatly under Samudragupta's reign that he has often been compared to great conquerors such as Alexander the Great and Napoleon. But of course he did not achieve military success singlehandedly. Local squads — which each consisted of one elephant, one chariot, three armed cavalrymen, and five foot soldiers — protected Gupta villages from raids and revolts. In times of war, the squads joined together to form a powerful royal army.

Gupta Achievements

But Samudragupta was more than a fighter; he was also a lover of the arts. Engraved coins and inscribed pillars from the time of his reign provide evidence of both his artistic talent and his patronage. He set the stage for the emergence of classical art, which occurred under the rule of his son and successor Chandragupta II.

Chandragupta II gave great support to the arts. Artists were so highly valued under his rule that they were paid for their work — a rare phenomenon in ancient civilizations. Perhaps it is due to this monetary compensation that such considerable progress was made in literature and science during the period.

Much of the literature produced during the Gupta dynasty was poetry and drama. Narrative histories, religious and meditative writing, and lyric poetry emerged to enrich, educate, and entertain the people. Formal essays were composed on subjects ranging from grammar and medicine to math and astronomy. The best-known essay of the period is the Kamasutra , which provides rules about the art of love and marriage according to Hindu laws.

Two of the most famous scholars of the era were Kalidasa and Aryabhatta. Kalidasa, the greatest writer of the empire, brought plays to new heights by filling them with humor and epic heroism. Aryabhatta, a scientist ahead of his time, went out on a limb and proposed that earth was a rotating sphere centuries before Columbus made his famous voyage. Aryabhatta also calculated the length of the solar year as 365.358 days — only three hours over the figure calculated by modern scientists.

Alongside these scholarly achievements, magnificent architecture, sculpture, and painting also developed. Among the greatest paintings of this period are those that were found on the walls of the Ajanta Caves in the plains of southern India. The paintings illustrate the various lives of the Buddha. An 18-foot statue of the Hindu god Shiva was also found within a Gupta-dynasty rock temple near Bombay.

A Lasting Inspiration

Although the Gupta rulers practiced Hindu rituals and traditions, it is clear from these discoveries that the empire was characterized by religious freedom. Evidence of a Buddhist university within the region is further proof of the peaceful coexistence between Hindus and Buddhists.

The Gupta dynasty flourished immensely under Chandragupta II, but rapidly weakened during the reign of his two successors. A wave of invasions launched by the Huns, a nomadic group from central Asia, started in 480 C.E. Two decades later, Gupta kings had little territory left under their control. Around 550 C.E., the empire perished completely.

Though India was not truly unified again until the coming of the Muslims, the classical culture of the Guptas did not disappear. The flourishing arts of the region, which were unrivaled in their time, left more than a legacy. They left descendants of the Guptas with continuous inspiration to create.

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8. South Asia: India and Beyond

8e. the gupta period of india.

The Gupta Period of India was not characterized by enormous material wealth or by elaborate trade activity.

It was defined by creativity. Flourishing arts, fabulous literature, and stupendous scholars are just a few of the things that marked the period.

In 185 B.C.E., the Mauryan empire collapsed when the last of the Mauryan kings was assassinated. In its place, small kingdoms arose throughout India.

For nearly 500 years, the various states warred with each other. In the northern territories, a new empire arose when a ruler named Chandragupta I ascended the throne in 320 C.E. He revived many principles of Mauryan government and paved the way for his son, Samudragupta, to develop an extensive empire.

Victory at Any Cost

Samudragupta was a great warrior and conquest was his passion. He sought to unite all of India under his rule and quickly set out to achieve this goal by waging wars across much of the Indian subcontinent.

Hoping for mercy, many potential victims offered tribute and presents to Samudragupta as he swept through the territories. But little mercy was granted. One by one, he defeated nine kings in the north and twelve in the south. In addition to the human devastation countless horses were slaughtered to celebrate his victories.

The Gupta territories expanded so greatly under Samudragupta’s reign that he has often been compared to great conquerors such as Alexander the Great and Napoleon. But of course he did not achieve military success singlehandedly. Local squads — which each consisted of one elephant, one chariot, three armed cavalrymen, and five foot soldiers — protected Gupta villages from raids and revolts. In times of war, the squads joined together to form a powerful royal army.

Gupta Achievements

But Samudragupta was more than a fighter; he was also a lover of the arts. Engraved coins and inscribed pillars from the time of his reign provide evidence of both his artistic talent and his patronage. He set the stage for the emergence of classical art, which occurred under the rule of his son and successor Chandragupta II.

Chandragupta II gave great support to the arts. Artists were so highly valued under his rule that they were paid for their work — a rare phenomenon in ancient civilizations. Perhaps it is due to this monetary compensation that such considerable progress was made in literature and science during the period.

Much of the literature produced during the Gupta dynasty was poetry and drama. Narrative histories, religious and meditative writing, and lyric poetry emerged to enrich, educate, and entertain the people. Formal essays were composed on subjects ranging from grammar and medicine to math and astronomy. The best-known essay of the period is the Kamasutra , which provides rules about the art of love and marriage according to Hindu laws.

Two of the most famous scholars of the era were Kalidasa and Aryabhatta. Kalidasa, the greatest writer of the empire, brought plays to new heights by filling them with humor and epic heroism. Aryabhatta, a scientist ahead of his time, went out on a limb and proposed that earth was a rotating sphere centuries before Columbus made his famous voyage. Aryabhatta also calculated the length of the solar year as 365.358 days — only three hours over the figure calculated by modern scientists.

Alongside these scholarly achievements, magnificent architecture, sculpture, and painting also developed. Among the greatest paintings of this period are those that were found on the walls of the Ajanta Caves in the plains of southern India. The paintings illustrate the various lives of the Buddha. An 18-foot statue of the Hindu god Shiva was also found within a Gupta-dynasty rock temple near Bombay.

A Lasting Inspiration

Although the Gupta rulers practiced Hindu rituals and traditions, it is clear from these discoveries that the empire was characterized by religious freedom. Evidence of a Buddhist university within the region is further proof of the peaceful coexistence between Hindus and Buddhists.

The Gupta dynasty flourished immensely under Chandragupta II, but rapidly weakened during the reign of his two successors. A wave of invasions launched by the Huns, a nomadic group from central Asia, started in 480 C.E. Two decades later, Gupta kings had little territory left under their control. Around 550 C.E., the empire perished completely.

Though India was not truly unified again until the coming of the Muslims, the classical culture of the Guptas did not disappear. The flourishing arts of the region, which were unrivaled in their time, left more than a legacy. They left descendants of the Guptas with continuous inspiration to create.

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• History - Gupta, the Mughals and Great Indian Dynasties

GUPTA CULTURE, ART, EDUCATION, SCIENCE AND LITERATURE

Gupta culture.

The Gupta era saw the emergence of the classical art forms and development of various aspects of Indian culture and civilisation. Erudite treatises were written on a multiplicity of subjects ranging from grammar, mathematics, astronomy and medicine, to the Kama Sutra, the famous treatise on the art of love. This age registered considerable progress in literature and science, particularly in astronomy and mathematics. The most outstanding literary figure of the Gupta period was Kalidasa whose choice of words and imagery brought Sanskrit drama to new heights. Aryabhatta, who lived during this age, was the first Indian who made a significant contribution to astronomy.

Rich cultures developed in south India in the Gupta era. Emotional Tamil poetry aided the Hindu revival. Art (often erotic), architecture and literature, all patronized by the Gupta court, flourished. Indians exercised their proficiency in art and architecture. Under the Guptas, Ramayana and the Mahabharta were finally written down in the A.D. 4th century. India's greatest poet and dramatist, Kalidasa, acquired fame expressing the values of the rich and powerful. [Source: Library of Congress]

Steven M. Kossak and Edith W. Watts from The Metropolitan Museum of Art wrote: “ Under royal patronage, this period became India’s classical age of literature, theater, and visual art. The aesthetic canons that came to dominate all the arts of later India were codified during this time. Sanskrit poetry and proseflourished, and the concept of zero was conceived which led to a more practical system of numbering. Arab traders adapted and further developed the concept, and from western Asia the system of “Arabic numerals” traveled to Europe. [Source: Steven M. Kossak and Edith W. Watts, The Art of South, and Southeast Asia, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York]

The question arises: What were the causes of this outburst of intellectual and artistic activity? According to Dr. Vincent Smith, it was “mainly due to contact with foreign civilisations. The fact that India was then in constant communication with China and the Western world may, of course, be readily accepted. For devout pilgrims, like Fahian, came to the land of the Buddha in almost a regular stream; and India on her part sent out eminent sages of the type of Kumatajlva (383 A.D.) to the celestial empire on Buddhist missions. Moreover, with the extension of the Gupta dominions to the seaports of Saurastra and Gujarat India’s foreign trade with the West increased; and this led, it is believed, to a flow of ideas, which produced important reactions on the Indian mind. But the most potent stimulus to progress must have been the beneficent rule of Gupta Emperors who were men of catholic culture. It was largely due to their liberal patronage of art and learning that such brilliant and fruitful results followed. [Source: “History of Ancient India” by Rama Shankar Tripathi, Professor of Ancient Indian History and Culture, Benares Hindu University, 1942]

See Separate Articles: GUPTA EMPIRE factsanddetails.com ; GUPTA RULERS factsanddetails.com

Literature and the Revival of Sanskrit in the Gupta Era

Gupta literature consists of fables and folktales written in Sanskrit. These stories spread west to Persia, Egypt, and Greece, and became the basis for many Islamic literary works such as, Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves and Aladdin and his Magic Lamp. The Panchatantra and Kamasutra were written during this period. The greatest writer of the time was Kalidasa. Poetry in the Gupta age tended towards a few genres: religious and meditative poetry, lyric poetry, narrative histories (the most popular of the secular literatures), and drama. The Nalanda University in Bihar, came to fame during the Gupta rule. [Source: Glorious India]

Side by side with the renovation of Brahmanism the use and influence of Sanskrit grew apace. An early stage in its revival was marked by the long Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman, dated 72 (Sakai) ~ijo A.D. but now it was uniformly given the place of honour as the official language of epigraphic documents and coin legends. Even Buddhist writers of the day, like Vasubandhu and Dignaga, preferred Sanskrit to Pali, the earlier vehicle of expression. [Source: “History of Ancient India” by Rama Shankar Tripathi, Professor of Ancient Indian History and Culture, Benares Hindu University, 1942]

The Gupta period has generally been compared to the Periclean age in the history of Greece, or to the Elizabethan epoch in that of England. It was distinguished by a number of intellectual celebrities, whose contributions vastly enriched the different branches of Indian literature. The Gupta monarchs encouraged learning, and were themselves highly cultured, we have already noted the evidence of the Allahabad pillar inscription about Samudragupta’s poetical attainments and. proficiency in music. Besides, the universal tradition which associates the nine gems (nava-ratna) with the legendary Vikramaditya, shows what a profound impression the brilliant literary coterie of Chandragupta II Vikramaditya’s court created in the popular mind, Its most shining light was, of course,Kalidasa, the famous poet and dramatist, who was perhaps a native of Malwa.

Although eclipsed by the genius of Kalidasa, there were many other poets of repute during the Gupta times. Harisena and Vatsabhatti, contemporaries of Samudragupta and Kumaragupta II respectively, have left to us their compositions permanently incised on stone. Presumably to the same period belong Visakhadatta, author of the Mudra-rdksasa', the lexicographer Amarasirnha, who wrote the Amarkosa; the celebrated physician Dhanvantari; and the great Buddhist scholars whom we have mentioned in the preceding para. Furthermore, the Hindus now retouched and rearranged their literature in order to bring it into harmony with the feelings of their growing followers, and strengthen their hold over them. The Puranas, which refer to the Gupta dynasty last of all, were recast into their present form; so also was the Manusmriti. Other Smritis, like the Yajnavalkya-smriti and the B hasyas or commentaries on the Sutras were written to give canonical sanction to the new changes that had taken place. Astronomy and Mathematics were Assiduously cultivated; and Aryabhata (bom in 476 A.D.), Varahamihira (505-87 A.D.), and Brahmagupta (born in 598 A.D.) made remarkable contributions to the development of these branches of scientific literature. They appear to have been acquainted with Greek astronomy, for their works contain many Greek technical names.

Kalidasa is arguably India’s most famous writer. He lived in the A.D. fourth or fifth century and was a Sanskrit poet and dramatist. The best known plays that have survived from this era are Shakuntala and The Little Clay Cart, the former written by Kalidasa and the latter a comedy also perhaps written by him. Kalidasa is believed to have been a native of Malwa. Unfortunately, his date is still open to doubt, and some scholars persist in the view that he was living in 57 B.C. But there are strong grounds to believe that he flourished in the Gupta age, and that he was a contemporary of Chandragupta II or Kumaragupta I. Indeed, an allusion to the conquests of the former may be detected in the exaggerated description of Raghu’s “digvijaya” in the Raghtwamia. Another epic poem by Kalidasa is the Kumdra-sambhava, while the RJtusamhara and the Aleghaduta present two excellent examples of lyrical poetry. Of his plays, we know the Mdlavikdgnimitra, Vikramorvasi and Sakuntala, the last being so superb as to win the appreciation of the greatest literary critics of the world. [Source: “History of Ancient India” by Rama Shankar Tripathi, Professor of Ancient Indian History and Culture, Benares Hindu University, 1942]

According to PBS: Kalidasa is best known for several plays, written in the 4th and early 5th century CE, the earliest of which is probably the Malavikaagnimitra (Malavikaa and Agnimitra), a work concerned with palace intrigue. It is of special interest because the hero is a historical figure, King Agnimitra, whose father, Pushhpamitra, wrested the kingship of northern India from the Mauryan king Brihadratha about 185 B.C. and established the Shunga dynasty, which held power for more than a century. The Vikramorvashiiya (Urvashii Won Through Valor) is based on the old legend of the love of the mortal Pururavaas for the heavenly damsel Urvashii. The legend occurs in embryonic form in a hymn of the Rig Veda and in a much amplified version in the Shatapathabrahmana. [Source: PBS, The Story of India, pbs.org/thestoryofindia]

“The third play, Abhijnanasakuntala (Shakuntalaa Recognized by the Token Ring), is the work by which Kalidasa is best known not only in India but throughout the world. It was the first work of Kalidasa to be translated into English from which was made a German translation in 1791 that evoked the often quoted admiration by Goethe. The influence of the Shakuntala outside India is evident not only in the abundance of translations in many languages, but also in its adaptation to the operatic stage by Paderewski, Weinggartner, and Alfano. In addition to these three plays Kalidasa wrote two long epic poems, the Kumaarasambhava (Birth of Kumaara) and the Raghuvamsha (Dynasty of Raghu). Finally there are two lyric poems, the Meghaduuta (Cloud Messenger) and the Ritusamhaara (Description of the Seasons).

The Kama Sutra is the famous guidebook on fulfilling “kama”, sensual pleasure, with a particular emphasis on sex, probably produced during the Gupta period. It was written by a celibate yogi named Mallanaga Vatsyayana in the A.D. 4th or 5th century. In the West, it is perhaps best known for the 64 love making positions in recommends, some of which only contortionists can perform, and the sexual art and instructive paintings that often accompanied them.

According to PBS: “Kama means love, desire, or pleasure in Sanskrit, and the Sutra is the earliest surviving example of the kama shastra, or science of erotica genre, that would become popular in later centuries. The Kama Sutra is composed of seven books with two or more chapters each, and much of the book gives advice to the urban male or nagaraka about courtship. Women were encouraged to learn 64 practices of the kama shastra, including singing, dancing, and even carpentry, and solving riddles. The Kama Sutra treats sex as both an art and a science and divides men and women into sexual types, discusses sexual positions, details appropriate conduct for married women and provides advice for courtesans. The Kama Sutra became the archetype for subsequent works on the subject of erotic love in India and influenced later Sanskrit erotic poetry.” [Source: PBS, The Story of India, pbs.org/thestoryofindia]

Kama is one of the three basic ingredients for living a balanced life during the family phase of the four stages of a Hindu man’s life. The other two are “dharma” (moral and social duties) and “artha” (the pursuit of wealth and power to support one’s family). A sutra is a scripture or a religious text. "Sutra" literally means a thread or line that holds things together

The Kama Sutra describes 17 types of kisses, 12 kinds of embraces and eight kinds of nail marks. But it also says sex should only be performed in the context of marriage. According to the Kama Sutra sexual preference vary from place to place in India: “The women of the central countries dislike pressing the nails and biting, the women of Aparitka are full of passion, and make slowly the sound, ‘Seeth.’”

According to Indohistory.com: “The Kama Sutra (or Kamasutra) is a famous Hindu text, which is widely considered to be a classic work on human sexual behavior. It was originally written in Sanskrit by Vatsyayana. A portion of the literature consists of practical advice on sexual intercourse. The text is written largely in prose form, with many inserted anustubh (quatrain of four lines) poetry verses.. But a more metaphorical meaning of the word refers to an aphorism (or line, rule, formula). It is a common perception in the west that Kama Sutra (Kamasutra) is sex manual, but it actually a guide to a virtuous and gracious living that discusses the nature of love, family life and other aspects pertaining to pleasure oriented faculties of human life. [Source: Indohistory.com]

The Kama Sutra is one of the most notable pieces text from a group of texts known as Kama Shastra (or Kamashastra). Traditionally, the first transmission of Kama Shastra or "Discipline of Kama" is attributed to the sacred bull of Shiva. He was his doorkeeper and is known by the name Nandi. He overheard the lovemaking of the Lord Shiva and his wife Parvati and later recorded his utterances for the benefit of mankind. Historians suggest that Kama Sutra was composed sometime between 400 B.C. and A.D. 200. John Keay believes that the Kama Sutra is a compendium that was collected into its current form in the A.D. 2nd century. The famous English adventurer Sir Richard Burton did a well-known English translation of the Kama Sutra published in 1883.

In the realm of painting also a high degree of proficiency was attained, as appears from the Ajanta (Hyderabad State) caves, whose interiors were freely decorated with frescoes. They range in date from the first to the seventh century A.D. and thus some of them fall within the scope of this period. In the opinion of a learned connoisseur the work of Ajanta is “so accomplished in execution, so consistent in convention, so vivacious and varied in design, and full of such evident delight in beautiful form and colour, ” that one cannot help ranking it with the best art of the ancient world. The Ajanta school further extended its operations to the caves at Bagh in the Gwalior State, and these paintings also display high merit and infinite variety.

The wall-paintings of Ajanta Cave in the central Deccan are considered among the greatest and most powerful works of Indian art. The paintings in the cave represent the various lives of the Buddha, but also are the best source we have of the daily life in India at the time. There are forty-eight caves making up Ajanta, most of which were carved out of the rock between 460 and 480, and they are filled with Buddhist sculptures. The rock temple at Elephanta (near Bombay) contains a powerful, eighteen foot statue of the three-headed Shiva, one of the principle Hindu gods. Each head represents one of Shiva's roles: that of creating, that of preserving, and that of destroying. The period also saw dynamic building of Hindu temples. All of these temples contain a hall and a tower. [Source: Glorious India]

The discoveries at Sarnath and other places show that the plastic art reached a high level of perfection during the Gupta age. It gradually liberates itself from Gandharan influences, and the statues of the Buddha are now characterised by decorated haloes, close-fitting transparent garments, and peculiar arrangement of the hair. Among the numerous Gupta sculptures, found at Sarnath, the most pleasing and graceful perhaps is the seated Buddha in the preaching attitude (dharma cakra-mudra). Besides depicting scenes from the Master’s life, incidents from Pauranic mythology are treated with remarkable freshness. On the whole, the work of the Gupta artists is distinguished by vitality, freedom from extravagance, and exquisite technique. [Source: “History of Ancient India” by Rama Shankar Tripathi, Professor of Ancient Indian History and Culture, Benares Hindu University, 1942]

The craftsmen of the Gupta age were experts in working metals. This is evident from the discovery of several colossal copper statues of the Buddha and an iron pillar at Mehrauli near Delhi. It represents the triumph of Gupta metallurgical skill, and the wonder is that in spite of exposure for centuries to sun and rain the column has not yet rusted.

Buddhist Art in the Gupta Period

The Gupta periodwitnessed the creation of an "ideal image" of the Buddha. This was achieved by combining selected traits from the Gandharan region with the sensuous form created by Mathura artists. Gupta Buddhas have their hair arranged in tiny individual curls, and the robes have a network of strings to suggest drapery folds (as at Mathura) or are transparent sheaths (as at Sarnath). With their downward glance and spiritual aura, Gupta Buddhas became the model for future generations of artists, whether in post-Gupta and Pala India or in Nepal, Thailand, and Indonesia. Gupta metal images of the Buddha were also take by pilgrims along the Silk Road to China. [Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art]

Over the following centuries there emerged a new form of Buddhism, which involved an expanding pantheon and more elaborate rituals. This later Buddhism introduced the concept of heavenly bodhisattvas as well as goddesses, of whom the most popular was Tara. In Nepal and Tibet, where exquisite metal images and paintings were produced, an entire set of new divinities were created and portrayed in both sculpture and painted scrolls. Ferocious deities were introduced in the role of protectors of Buddhism and its believers. Images of a more esoteric nature, depicting god and goddess in embrace, were produced to demonstrate the metaphysical concept that salvation resulted from the union of wisdom (female) and compassion (male). Buddhism had traveled a long way from its simple beginnings.

Ajanta Cave

Ajanta Caves (62 miles from Aurangabad) is a set of 30 man-made caves overlooking a wide horseshoe-shaped gorge. Designated by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, the caves features hundred of paintings and murals made between 200 B.C. and A.D. 650, which are considered to be some of the finest Indian painting and the most important Buddhist art in the world.

The caves were formed through the erosive action of nearby rivers and enlarged with chisels and hammers by Buddhist monks into residences, temples and schools. Each cave is adorned with statuary. Many contain wall paintings that record episodes in Buddha’s life and major Buddhist events.

The paintings are mostly frescoes made on a layer of plaster rather than directly on the cave wall. The cave paintings were made by applying mud plaster in two coats on the rock walls. The first was used to fill in the pores of the rough rocks. The plaster for this layer was made of rice husks and other organic materials mixed with mud and covered by sieved gypsum. The second coat was lime plaster that could be painted on. The outlines of the paintings were made with red ocher and filled in with brown, deep red and black. The pigments came mostly from local minerals, many local volcanic rocks, with the exception of bright blues which came from lapiz lazuli from Afghanistan.

The painting at Ajanta Caves offer insight into the clothing, body ornamentation and court life of the period in which they were painted. Among the best works are the Bodhisattva Padmapani, an expressive work of a male figure with large, soulful eyes and lotus flower in one hand; and a 1,500-year-old work showing a princess getting the bad news that her husband has renounced his crown to covert to Buddhism. In a mural in Cave 10, fifty elephants are painted in different poses.

The paintings are known for their fluid yet form lines, sweeping brush strokes, subtle color gradations. The later painting feature bold color washes and shadowing and color used to highlight facial expressions and create a sense of depth.

See Separate ArticleAURANGABAD AREA AND ELLORA AND AJANTA CAVES factsanddetails.com

Gupta Architecture

Gupta architecture was dedicated to building stone temples to the various Hindu gods. Also, Buddhists built shrines to house the remains of select holy people. These structures were called Stupas. This form of architecture made its way to China where it was altered slightly and renamed the pagoda.Unfortunately, very few monuments built during Gupta reign survive today. Examples of Gupta architecture are found in the Vaishnavite Tigawa temple at Jabalpur (in Madhya Pradesh state) built in A.D. 415 and another temple at Deogarhnear Jhansi built in A.D. 510. Bhita in Uttar Pradesh State has a number of ancient Gupta temples, most are in ruins. [Source: Regents Prep]

The Gupta rule gave a great impetus to architecture, although owing to a combination of causes the extant remains of this age are not many. Most of the Gupta edifices perished owing to the ravages of nature; some of them later provided materials for the building needs of the people; others that lay in the track of the Muslim armies fell a prey to their iconoclastic fury. Our knowledge is, therefore, limited to a few survivals only, and they too are not secular structures, but were all consecrated to religion.

Dr. Vincent Smith refers to two such temples — the one at Deogadh (Jhansi district) contains fine pieces of sculpture on the panels of the walls, and the other of brick at Bhitargaon (Cawnpore district) is noted for its well-designed figures in terra-cotta. We may add here that the achievements of the Gupta art are further illustrated by the Ajanta caves. No doubt, they were mostly hewn and carved out of solid rock in different periods, but there are some which were perhaps excavated during the centuries under survey, and they certainly bear eloquent testimony to the skill of Gupta engineers. [Source: “History of Ancient India” by Rama Shankar Tripathi, Professor of Ancient Indian History and Culture, Benares Hindu University, 1942]

Gupta Science and Astronomy

The most significant achievements of this period, however, were in religion, education, mathematics, art, and Sanskrit literature and drama. The religion that later developed into modern Hinduism witnessed a crystallization of its components: major sectarian deities, image worship, devotionalism, and the importance of the temple. Education included grammar, composition, logic, metaphysics, mathematics, medicine, and astronomy. These subjects became highly specialized and reached an advanced level. [Source: Library of Congress *]

According to PBS: “Astronomy, astrology, mathematics, and religion were closely linked in ancient India. Astronomy developed out of the need to determine solstices, equinoxes, and phases of the moon for Vedic rituals. Eighteen early astronomical texts or siddhantas, of which only the Surya-Siddhantha, written around 400 B.C., survives, discuss topics including lunar and solar eclipses, astronomical instruments, and the phases of the moon. The Vedanga Jyotisha composed by the astronomer Lagadha about 500 B.C. outlines a calendar based on a five-year cycle or yuga with 62 lunar months and 1,830 days. India's earliest calendar, the Saptarshi calendar is broken into 2,700-year cycles and a version counting back to 3076 B.C. is still in use in parts of India today. [Source: PBS, The Story of India, pbs.org/thestoryofindia]

“Astronomy flourished under the Gupta Empire (c. 320-550 CE) during which time Ujjain in central India emerged as a center for astronomical and mathematical research. In 499 CE, Aryabhata, an Indian astronomer and mathematician who was also head of the university at Nalanda in Magadha (an ancient region located in what is now Bihar), composed the Aryabhatiya, a significant treatise about mathematics and astronomy written in Sanskrit. Aryabhata described a spherical Earth that rotates on its own axis and the orbits of planets in relation to the sun. He dated the universe to approximately 4,320,000 years and calculated the length of the solar year. India's first space satellite, launched in 1975, was named Aryabhata in his honor.

Gupta Mathematics and the Advent of Zero and Base-10 Numbers

The Indian numeral system — sometimes erroneously attributed to the Arabs, who took it from India to Europe where it replaced the Roman system — and the decimal system are Indian inventions of this period. Aryabhatta's expositions on astronomy in 499, moreover, gave calculations of the solar year and the shape and movement of astral bodies with remarkable accuracy. In medicine, Charaka and Sushruta wrote about a fully evolved system, resembling those of Hippocrates and Galen in Greece. Although progress in physiology and biology was hindered by religious injunctions against contact with dead bodies, which discouraged dissection and anatomy, Indian physicians excelled in pharmacopoeia, caesarean section, bone setting, and skin grafting. *

The use of zero and decimal numbers based on the number 10 was pioneered under the Gupta. Advances were in veterinary science; Pi was calculated to four decimal places; and the solar year was calculated to eight places. The greatest Mathematician of India Aryabhatta also belongs to this age.

Gupta mathematicians created a number writing system that was later adopted by the Islamic Empire. This system became known as Arabic Numerals, but is really a Gupta achievement. This is the number writing system used throughout the world today. Gupta physicians developed herbal remedies to treat various illnesses. They also developed a form of plastic surgery for the treatment of facial injuries. Physicians vaccinated against smallpox, a practice later used in China (10th century) and Europe (17th century.) [Source: Regents Prep]

Book: Stewart, Melissa, Science in Ancient India . New York: Franklin Watts, 1999.

Life and Economic Issues in the Gupta Empire

Literary and archeological evidence dating from this period depicts a ruling class as interested in cultural developments as they were in expanding their political control. In fact the Gupta period is considered something of a golden age, marked by great achievements in literature, music, art, architecture, and philosophy. Fa Xian, a Chinese pilgrim who traveled to Gupta India in the early fifth century, wrote of beautiful cities, fine hospitals and universities, and described a content and prosperous people. [Source: University of Washington]

Frank E. Smitha wrote in his blog Macrohistory: “Like the Cynics during Rome's golden age, a few ascetics in India entertained pessimistic views of life and maintained that asceticism would benefit all of humanity. But laregly many Indians were pursuing pleasure and enjoying life. In the cities were wealthy and middle class people who enjoyed their gardens, music, dancing, plays and various other entertainment. They enjoyed a daily bath, artistic and social activities and a variety of food, including rice, bread, fish, milk, fruits and juices. And despite religious prohibitions, the Indians – especially the aristocrats – drank wine and stronger alcoholic beverages. [Source: Frank E. Smitha, Macrohistory /+]

“The middle class prospered. Greater wealth accrued to those who already had wealth. Big estates grew with the help of dependent labor and slave labor. The poor stayed poor, but apparently there was little dire want. The caste system still existed. So too did the inferior status of women. But charities abounded. The Gupta kings were autocrats who liked to think of themselves as servants to all their subjects. Hospitals offered care free of charge to everyone, rich and poor. There were rest houses for travelers along India's highways, and the capital-city had a hospital with free care created by the charity of the wealthy. /+\

”With the increase in prosperity came a greater liberality. The cruel punishments during the Mauryan Dynasty had been abolished. Although the Gupta's were more organized in their administrations, people no longer had to register with government authorities or carry a passport when traveling within the empire. The government operated without the system of espionage often practiced by Roman emperors and by Mauryan rulers. Law breaking was punished without death sentences – mainly by fines. Punishments such as having one's hand cut off were applied only against obstinate, professional criminals. /+\

“Among civilians, the avoidance of killing that had been a part of Buddhism and Jainism was widely observed. Across India most people had become vegetarians, except for fish which was widely consumed in Bengal and places to its south. And unlike parts of the Roman Empire, a traveler in India had little reason to fear robbery. A visitor from China, Fa-hien (Faxian), traveled about in India for eleven years and recorded that he was never molested or robbed.” /+\ The earliest gold coins of Samudragupta (or of Chandragupta I?), weighing 1x8-122 grains, closely follow the Kushan standard and types. The influence of foreign coinage is also proved by the use in the Gupta inscriptions of the Kushan name of Dinara, derived from Latin Denarius. However, in the time of Chandragupta II, whose coins are of 124 to 132 grains there began a deviation from the Kushan (Roman) weight until it was given up by Skandagupta in favour of the Hindu standard of Suvarna (146 grains). After the conquest of the Ksatrapa territories, the Guptas too issued silver coins on the Saka standard of 32 grains, which was subsequently' raised by Skandagupta to that of the Karsapana. It may be added that the copper coinage of the Guptas is very scarce, perhaps because small transactions were then made in cowrie-shells, as observed by Faxian. [Source: “History of Ancient India” by Rama Shankar Tripathi, Professor of Ancient Indian History and Culture, Benares Hindu University, 1942]

Education in the Gupta Period

The intellectual output of the Gupta age shows that the system of education, then in vogue, must have been sound. Unhappily, however, our information on this topic is disappointingly meagre. According to inscriptions, the teachers were then known as Acaryas and Upadhyayas, but sometimes the title of Bhatta was also applied to the learned Hindus. They were supported by the grant of villages and the charities of the generous public. The religious disciples, called Sisyas or Brahmacarins, were grouped round Sakhas and Caranas, i.e., Vedic schools following a particular recension of any one of the Vedas. [Source: “History of Ancient India” by Rama Shankar Tripathi, Professor of Ancient Indian History and Culture, Benares Hindu University, 1942]

Among these recensions the inscriptions mention Maitrayaniya, Taittiriya, Vajasneya, and several others. Regarding the subjects of study, we learn of the fourteen sections 6f science (caturdahvidya), comprising the four Vedas, six Vedangas^' the Purdnas, the MImarisa, Nyaya, and Dharma or Law. There are also references to the Vyakarana (Astddhyayi) of Salaturiya (Panini) and the Satasahairi-samhitd or the Mahabharata. In addition to these, instruction must have been imparted in the large mass of secular literature.

The catholicity of the age may further be judged from the fact that Nalanda, the great centre of Buddhist learning, was founded about the middle of the fifth century A.D. by Sakraditya, probably Kumaragupta I, who endowed a monastery there. Additional grants to the establishment were made by Budhagupta, Tathagatagupta, Baladitya, and other Gupta monarchs. Nalanda followed a very comprehensive curriculum of studies, and in due course it rose to such eminence that students from all parts of India, and even from beyond its frontiers, flocked here in order to satisfy their mental and spiritual thirst.

Nalanda University

Nalanda University in India is regarded as the world's oldest university by far. Describing by the Xuan Zang's 7th century record of his journey to the West, it flourishing for centuries before it was destroyed by Afghan invaders in the 12th century. For over 700 years, it was a center of learning for a wide range of subjects, including philosophy, science, mathematics and public health. In 2011, the Indian Parliament passed a bill reestablishing Nalanda University as an international university.[Source: George Yeo, Global Viewpoint, April 12, 2011]

According to UNESCO World Heritage website: “Nalanda is one of the most ancient international centers of education and learning equivalent to modern universities, with a very rich library. An inscribed seal written "Sri-Nalandamahavihariy-Arya-Bhikshu-Sanghasya" identifies the site as Nalanda Mahavihara. Nalanda has a very ancient history and goes back to the days of Mahavira and Buddha in sixth and fifth centuries B.C. Many references in the Pâli Buddhist literature mention about Nâlandâ. It is said that in course of his journeys Buddha often halted at this place. It is also the place of birth and nirvana of Sariputra, one of the famous disciples of Buddha. [Source: UNESCO World Heritage website]

“The place rose into prominence in 5th Century A.D. as a great monastic-cum-educational institution for oriental art and learning in the whole Buddhist world, attracting students from like Hiuen Tsang and I-Tsing from China and other distant countries. The galaxy of luminaries associated with it includes Nagarjuna, Aryadeva, Vasubandhu, Dharmapala, Suvishnu, Asanga, Silabhadra, Dharmakirti, Shantarakshita. Another important mention in history, is that around second century, Suvishnu built one hundred and eight temples at Nalanda to prevent the decline of the Hînayâna and Mahâyâna schools of Buddhism.

“Various subjects like theology, sabda-vidyâ grammar, hetu-vidyâ (logic), astronomy, metaphysics, chikitsâ-vidyâ medicine and philosophy were taught here. The accounts of pilgrim state that Nâlandâ was bustling with literary activities. Nâlandâ had now acquired a celebrity spread all over the east as a centre of Buddhist theology and educational activities. This is evident from the fact that within a short period of thirty years following Hiuen Tsang's departure, no less than eleven Chinese and Korean travelers are known to have visited Nalanda.

“Life lead by Nalanda monks is regarded as the ideal to be followed by the Buddhist all over the world. This celebrity status persisted through ages. It is also attributed that a detailed history of Nalanda would be the history of Mahayanist Buddhism. The institution was maintained by the revenue collected from the villages bestowed specifically for the purpose by the contemporary rulers as evident from inscriptions. Royal patronage was therefore the key note of the prosperity and efficiency of Nâlandâ.

See Separate Article NALANDA: INDIA'S ANCIENT BUDDHIST — AND THE WORLD'S — UNIVERSITY factsanddetails.com

Life, Culture and Education Under Harsha

Under Harshavardhana (Harsha, r. 606-47), North India was reunited briefly with the center of the empire in Kanauj. According to the Columbia Encyclopedia: “ Gupta splendor rose again under the emperor Harsha of Kanauj (c.606–647), and N India enjoyed a renaissance of art, letters, and theology. It was at this time that the noted Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang (Hsüan-tsang) visited India. [Source: Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed., Columbia University Press]

The prosperity and importance of Kanauj, so well begun during the time of the Maukharis, grew tremendously under Harsha; and it now easily became the premier city of Northern India supplanting Pataliputra, the older centre, through which the main currents of political life had flowed since the days of the Buddha. To the observant eyes of a foreigner it must have appeared a great cosmopolitan town whose inhabitants were almost equally divided between orthodoxy and heterodoxy. There were one hundred Buddhist monasteries with Qaore than 10,000 brethren belonging to both the “Vehicles”. The “Deva temples” amounted to about two ‘hundred, and the non-Buddhists were several thousands in number. The city itself (twenty li or about 5 miles in length and five li in breadth) was strongly defended by both nature and art. It was well planned, and had beautiful gardens and tanks of clear water. The houses were, on the whole, clean, comfortable and simple, or, in the words of Xuanzang, “sumptuous inside and economical outside”. The people wore “a refined appearance”, and the rich were “dressed in glossy silk attire”. [Source: “History of Ancient India” by Rama Shankar Tripathi, Professor of Ancient Indian History and Culture, Benares Hindu University, 1942]

Praising the citizens Xuanzang says: “They are pre-eminently explicit and correct in speech, their expressions being harmonious and elegant, like those of the Devas, and their intonation clear and distinct, serving as rule and pattern for others.” Xuanzang adds : “They will not take anything wrongfully, and theyyield more than fairness requires. They fear the retribution for sins in other lives, and make light of what conduct produces in this life. They do not practise deceit and they keep their sworn obligations” 83).

Great as was Harsha as a ruler and conqueror, he was greater still in the arts of Peace that “hath her victories no less renowned than War”. One of them was the convocation of a grand assembly at Kanauj to give the utmost publicity to the doctrines of the Manayana. Harsha marched from his camp with accustomed pomp and pageantry along the southern bank of the Ganges, accompanied by Xuanzang and Bhaskaravarman, king of Kamarupa, and in the course of ninety days reached his destination.' Plere Harsha was received by the “kings of eighteen countries” of the Five Indies 2 and several thousand priests belonging to the various sects, who had gathered together in response to the royal summons to join in the deliberations. Harsha had previously ordered the construction of two thatched halls, each to accommodate one thousand persons, and a huge tower, in the middle of which was placed a golden statue of the Buddha, “of the same height as the king himself.” [Source: “History of Ancient India” by Rama Shankar Tripathi, Professor of Ancient Indian History and Culture, Benares Hindu University, 1942]

One of the claims of Harsha to remembrance rests on his liberal patronage of learning. Xuanzang says that Harsha used to earmark a fourth of the revenue from the crown lands for rewarding men of intellectual distinction. According to the Life, he generously assigned “the revenue of eighty large towns of Orissa” to a noted Buddhist scholar, named Jayasena, who, however, thankfully declined even this tempting offer.’ 6 Harsha also made munificent endowments to Nalanda, the great centre of Buddhist learning, [Source: “History of Ancient India” by Rama Shankar Tripathi, Professor of Ancient Indian History and Culture, Benares Hindu University, 1942]

Its lofty structures, its inspiring instruction imparted through discussion, its comprehensive curriculum, its large assemblage of students from far and near, 7 and above all, the noble character and deep scholarship of its teachers and alumni, were then matters of pride to the entire Buddhist world; and kings vied with one another in their liberality to equip and endow this great institution. Harsha’s interest in literature is further evident from his patronage of authors like Banabhatta, who wrote the Harshacarita, first part of the Kadambarl, Candldataka, etc.; Mayura, whose chief contribution was the Suryaiataka\ and also Matanga-Divakara, a shadowy bard.

Large Celebrations Under Harsha

The proceedings of large assembly witnessed by Xuanzang started with a solemn procession, and the main object of attraction was a golden statue of the Buddha, three feet high, which was carried on a gorgeously caparisoned elephant. Both Harsha and Bhaskaravarman attended it, dressed in the guise of Sakra and Brahma respectively. They were followed on elephants by a brilliant train of princes, priests, and prominent state officials. After the termination of the procession Harsha performed a ceremonial worship of the image, and gave a public dinner. This being over, the conference opened with Xuanzang as “lord of the discussion”. He dwelt on the merits of the Mahayana, and challenged those present to assail his arguments. But none came forward, and he remained in undisputed possession of the field for five days, when his theological rivals entered into a conspiracy to take the pilgrim’s life. Getting a scent of it, Harsha at once issued a stern proclamation threatening to behead anybody causing the least hurt to his celebrated guest. The announcement had the desired effect, and for eighteen days there was none to oppose him in debate. Thus, though according to the Life the programme was gone through successfully to the utter confusion of all heretics and the joy of the Mahayanists, the account preserved in the Si-yu-ki avers that the convocation concluded with startling incidents. The great tower suddenly caught fire, and there was an atfempt to assassinate Harsha on account of his indifferent treatment of the assembled “heretics”. He then got five hundred Hindus arrested, and deported them. To the rest he extended mercy.

Whichever of the two accounts may be true, it is certain that the victory of Xuanzang in this assembly of public disputation considerably enhanced his prestige and influence over Harsha, who honoured and reverenced him more than ever by precious gifts, but the pilgrim in a rare religious spirit respectfully declined to accept any of them.

When the special assembly at Kanauj broke up, Harsha invited Xuanzang to witness his sixth quinquennial distribution of alms (Maba-moksa Parisad) at Prayaga at the sacred confluence of the Ganges and the Jumna. The latter, although homesick, agreed to be present at that unique function, which was attended by Dhruvabhata, “king of South India”, Kumararaja (Bhaskaravarman) of Assam and other royalties, besides a vast concourse of people amounting to about 500,000— Sramanas, heretics, Nirgranthas, the poor, the orphans and the bereaved of the Five Indias, who had been summoned by an Imperial decree. The “Great distribution Arena” was the immense sandy plain between the rivers, and the proceedings lasted for seventy-five days, commencing with an impressive procession. The religious services were of the curiously eclectie kind, so characteristic of Hindu society and worship. [Source: “History of Ancient India” by Rama Shankar Tripathi, Professor of Ancient Indian History and Culture, Benares Hindu University, 1942]

On the first day the statue of the Buddha was set up in one of the temporary shrines built upon the sands, and was honoured by costly offerings and lavish distributions. On the second day the image of Adityadcva (Sun) was worshipped and on the third day the idol of Isvara-deva (Siva) was offered adoration, but in each case the gifts bestowed were only half the value of those consecrated to the Buddha on the opening day. On the fourth day generous gifts were given to Buddhist monks. During the next twenty days Hindus were the recipients of Harsha’s bounty. Then ten days were spent in bestowing largess on the “heretics”, i.e. Jains and members of other sects. The same number of days was reserved for giving alms to the mendicants, while it took a month to distribute charity to the poor, the orphans, and the destitute. By this time the accumulated treasures were exhausted, and then Harsha gave away even his personal “gems and goods”. Thus, he established a record in individual liberality hardly equalled in history.

Image Sources:

Text Sources: New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Times of London, Lonely Planet Guides, Library of Congress, Ministry of Tourism, Government of India, Compton’s Encyclopedia, The Guardian, National Geographic, Smithsonian magazine, The New Yorker, Time, Newsweek, Reuters, AP, AFP, Wall Street Journal, The Atlantic Monthly, The Economist, Foreign Policy, Wikipedia, BBC, CNN, and various books, websites and other publications.

Last updated September 2020

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• IAS Preparation
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• NCERT Notes Legacy And Decline Of Gupta Empire

Legacy & Decline of The Gupta Empire [NCERT Ancient Indian History For UPSC]

During the reign of the Gupta empire, their administrative structure reflected relations of paramountcy and subordination. Similarly, craft production, guilds, and trade were also significant features of the Gupta Empire . Hence, the age of the Guptas is called the classical age of art. The decline of the Gupta empire is reasoned on various factors like competition from Vakatakas, the rise of Yashodharman of Malwa, and also the Huna invasions.

This article will provide you with the key facts about the art and culture of the Gupta empire and the reasons for its decline, for the IAS Exam (Prelims, Mains GS-I and Optional.)

Candidates can read articles related to the Gupta Empire from the links provided in the table below:

Gupta Empire – The Golden Age of India

Legacy and Decline of Gupta Empire (UPSC Notes):- Download PDF Here

The Gupta age in ancient India has been called the ‘Golden Age of India’ because of the many achievements in the field of arts, science, and literature that Indians made under the Guptas. The prosperity under the Guptas initiated a period of splendid accomplishments in arts and sciences. The Gupta Empire lasted from 320 CE to 550 CE.

Gupta Empire Literature

• Sanskrit literature flourished under the Guptas. Kalidasa, the great poet, and playwright were in the court of Chandragupta Vikramaditya. He composed great epics such as Abhijnanashaakuntalam, Kumarasambhavam, Malavikagnimitram, Ritusamharam, Meghadootam, Vikramorvashiyam, and Raghuvamsham.
• The celebrated Sanskrit drama Mṛcchakatika was composed during this time. It is attributed to Shudraka.
• Poet Harisena also adorned the court of Chandragupta Vikramaditya. He wrote the Allahabad Prashasti (inscription).
• Vishnu Sharma of Panchatantra fame lived during this era.
• Amarasimha (grammarian and poet) composed a lexicon of Sanskrit, Amarakosha.
• Vishakhadatta composed Mudrarakshasa. Other grammarians who contributed to the Sanskrit language include Vararuchi and Bhartrihari.

Know about poets in ancient India in the linked article.

Legacy of Gupta Empire – Sciences

• In the fields of science, mathematics and astronomy also, the Gupta age saw a lot of interesting advancements.
• Aryabhatta, the great Indian mathematician and astronomer wrote Surya Siddhanta and Aryabhattiya. Aryabhatta is believed to have conceptualised ‘zero’. He also gave the value of Pi. He postulated that the earth is not flat and it rotated around its own axis and also that it revolved around the sun. He also gave the distance between earth and sun which is remarkably close to the actual value. He wrote on geometry, astronomy, mathematics and trigonometry.
• The Indian number system with a base of 10 which is the present numeral system evolved from scholars of this era.
• Varahamihira wrote Brihatsamhita. He was an astronomer and an astrologer.
• The Nalanda University, a centre of Buddhist and other learning attracted students from abroad. The Guptas patronised this ancient seat of learning.

Learn about Buddhist and Jain architecture in India from the linked article.

Legacy of Gupta Empire – Art & Architecture

• Many magnificent temples, palaces, paintings and sculptures were created.
• Dashavatara Temple in Deogarh UP is one of the earliest surviving Hindu temples. It is a fine example of Gupta architecture.
• Mural paintings of Ajanta depicting the life of the Buddha as told in the Jataka tales were created in this period. Places like Ajanta, Ellora, Mathura, Sarnath; and Anuradhapura and Sigiriya in Sri Lanka bear examples of Gupta art and architecture. (Know about Mural Painting in India in the linked article.)
• Classical Indian music and dance took shape at this time.
• The Gupta legacy in arts can be seen in Southeast Asia also today.
• The Bronze Buddha which is 7.5 feet high and found at Sultanganj is a product of the Gupta age.
• The iron pillar at Mehrauli, Delhi is a marvellous creation of this period. It is a 7 m long pillar and it is made up of a composition of metals such that it is rust-free. This is a testimony to the metallurgical skills of Indians of that time.

Get important art and culture notes for UPSC in the linked article.

Legacy of Gupta Empire – Social Culture & Religion

• The Hindu epics were given their final touches during this time. The Hindu religion also received an impetus under the Guptas and it flourished and expanded throughout India.
• Although the Gupta kings were Vaishnavas they were tolerant of Buddhism and Jainism. They patronized Buddhist art. (Learn the difference between Buddhism and Jainism from the linked article.)
• The Shakti cult rose up around this time.
• Occult practices like tantrism also emerged during this time.
• The game of chess is said to have originated from this time. It was called Chaturanga meaning the four divisions (of the military such as infantry (pawn), cavalry (knight), elephantry (bishop), and chariots (rook).

Decline of the Gupta Empire

• The Gupta decline started during the reign of Skandagupta, the grandson of Chandragupta II. He was successful in retaliating against the Huns and the Pushyamitras, but his empire was drained of finances and resources because of this.
• The last recognised king of the Gupta line was Vishnugupta who reigned from 540 to 550 AD.
• Internal fighting and dissensions among the royal family led to its weakening.
• During the reign of a Gupta king, Budhagupta, the Vakataka ruler Narendrasena of western Deccan attacked Malwa, Mekala and Kosala. Later on, another Vakataka king Harishena conquered Malwa and Gujarat from the Guptas.
• During Skandagupta’s reign, the Huns invaded northwest India but were restricted. But in the sixth century, they occupied Malwa, Gujarat, Punjab and Gandhara. The Hun invasion weakened the Gupta hold in the country.
• Independent rulers emerged all over the north like Yasodharman of Malwa, the Maukharis of U.P., the Maitrakas in Saurashtra, and others in Bengal. The Gupta Empire was restricted to Magadha only. (Yasodharman had joined forces with Narasimhagupta to successfully retaliate against the Hun chief Mihirakula.)
• The later Guptas’ following of Buddhism rather than Hinduism unlike their ancestors also weakened the empire. They did not focus on empire-building and military conquests. (Read the difference between Buddhism and Hinduism in the linked article.)
• So weak rulers along with incessant invasions from foreign as well as native rulers caused the decline of the Gupta Empire.
• By the beginning of the sixth century, the empire had disintegrated and was ruled by many regional chieftains.

Frequently Asked Questions on Legacy and Decline of Gupta Empire

Q 1. did art and culture flourish during the gupta reign, q 2. why was gupta age known as the ‘golden age of india’.

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24 Rise and Growth of the Gupta Empire

• Published: January 2007
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The Gupta Empire established control over a substantial part of the former dominions of the Kushans. The sharman , varman , gupta , and dasa are the different titles recommended for the different varnas. The first important king of the Gupta dynasty was Chandragupta I. He started the Gupta era in ad 319–20, which marked the date of his accession. This kingdom was also enlarged enormously by Samudragupta. The places and the countries conquered by him can be divided into five groups. Chandragupta II extended the limits of the empire by matrimonial alliance and conquest. It was also during his reign that the Chinese pilgrim Fa-hsien visited India and wrote an elaborate account of the life of its people. The successors of Chandragupta II had to face an invasion by the Hunas from Central Asia in the second half of ad fifth century. The Gupta Empire was further undermined by the rise of the feudatories.

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History of the Gupta Empire

Read this article to learn about the whole history of the Gupta Empire. It’s Foundation, Rulers, Administration, Economy, Social Developments, Culture and Literature !

After centuries of political disintegration an empire came to be established in A.D. 319, under the Guptas. Although the Gupta Empire was not as large as the Maurya Empire, it kept north India politi­cally united for more than a century, from A. D. 335 to 455.

The ancestry and early history of the Gupta family are little known, and have naturally given rise to various speculations.

But very likely they were initially a family of landowners who acquired political control in the region of Magadha and parts of eastern Uttar Pradesh. Uttar Pradesh seems to have been a more important province for the Guptas than Bihar, because early Gupta coins and inscriptions have been mainly found in that region.

Image source; coinindia.com/Samudra-4791.5-438.02.jpg

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Hence Uttar Pradesh seems to have been the place from where the Guptas operated and fanned out in different directions. Probably with their centre of power at Prayag they spread in the neighbouring regions. The Guptas were possibly the feudatories of the Kushanas in Uttar Pradesh, and seem to have succeeded them without any wide time-lag.

The Guptas enjoyed certain material advantages. The centre of their operations lay in the fertile land of Madhyadesha covering Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. They could exploit the iron ores of central India and south Bihar. Further, they took advantage of their proximity to the areas in north India which carried on silk trade with the Byzantine Empire.

On account of these favourable factors, the Guptas set up their rule over Anuganga (the middle Gangetic basin), Prayag (modern Allahabad), Saket (modern Ayodhya) and Magadha. In course of time this kingdom became an all-India empire.

The Early Guptas :

An inscription tells us that Sri Gupta was the first king and Ghatotkacha was the next to follow him with the title Maharaja. This title was often borne by feudatory chiefs. The Poona copper plate inscrip­tion of Prabhavati Gupta describes Sri Gupta as the Adhiraja of the Gupta dynasty.

In the Riddhapura copper plate inscription, it is stated that Sri Gupta belonged to the Dharan Gotra.

Chandragupta I (A.D. 319-320 to 335):

The first Gupta ruler of consequence was Chandragupta I, son of Ghatotkacha. By marrying a Lichchhavi Princes Kumaradevi he sought to gain in prestige, though Vaishali does not appear to have been a part of his kingdom. His rule remained confined to Magadha and parts of eastern Uttar Pradesh (Saketa and Prayaga). He took the title of Maharajadhiraja, and his accession in about A.D. 319-20 marked the beginning of Gupta era.

Samudragupta (A.D. 335-380):

Chandragupta I was succeeded by his son Samudragupta probably in A.D. 325. Samudragupta became the ruler after subduing his rival Kacha, an obscure prince of the dynasty. His conquests are known from a lengthy eulogy composed by his court-poet Harishena and inscribed on an Asokan pillar at Allahabad. This account contains a long list of states, kings and tribes which were conquered and brought under various degrees of subjugation.

The list can be divided into four categories:

1. The first category includes the twelve states of Dakshinapatha with the names of their kings who were captured and then liberated and reinstated. They were Kosala, Mahakantara, Kaurata, Pishtapura, Kottura, Erandapalli, Kanchi, Avamukta, Vengi, Palakka, Devrashtra and Kushthalpura.

2. The second category includes the names of the eight kings of Aryavarta, who were violently exterminated; prominent of them were Rudradwa, Ganapatinaga, Nagasena, etc.

3. The third category consists of the rulers of the forest states (atavirarajyas) who were reduced to servitude and the chief of the five Border States (pratyantas) and nine tribal republics that were forced to pay all kinds of taxes obey his orders and came to perform obeisance.

The five Border States were Samtata (South-east Bengal), Kamarupa (Assam), Nepala (Nepal), Davaka (Assam) and Kartipura (Kashmir). The nine tribal republics were the Malavas, Yaudheyas, Madrakas, Abhiras, Prarjunas, Arjunayanas, Sarakinakas, Kavas and Kharaparikas.

4. The fourth category consists of the Daivaputra Shahi Shahanushahi (Kushanas), the Shaka-, Murundas, the dwellers of Sinhala (Ceylon) and all the other islands who paid tribute to the King.

Harishena, the court poet of Samudragupta rightly describes him as the hero of a hundred battles, and Vincent Smith calls him the ‘Napoleon of India’. But inspite of his preoccupation with political and military affairs, he cultivated music and poetry. Some of his gold coins represent him as playing on the lyre.

The Guptas were followers of the Brahmanical religion and Samudragupta performed the Asvamedha sacrifice. However, he fully maintained the tradition of religious toleration. According to a Chinese source, Meghavarman, the ruler of Sri Lanka was granted permission by Samudragupta to build a monastery at Bodha Gaya.

Chandragupta II (A.D. 380-412):

Samudragupta was succeeded by his younger son Chandragupta II. But, according to some scholars, Samudragupta who died shortly before A. D. 380 was succeeded by his eider son Ramagupta. The drama Devichandraguptam of Vishakhadatta suggests that Ramagupta suddenly attacked by the Sakas, made peace with them on condition that his queen Dhruvadevi was to be surrendered to the Saka chief.

This infuriated his younger brother Chandragupta, who went himself in the disguise of the queen to the Saka chief and killed him. Then he murdered his royal brother Ramagupta and married the queen. The official records of the Guptas, however do not refer to Ramagupta and trace the succes­sion directly from Samudragupta to Chandragupta II.

Devichandraguptam of Vishakhadatta:

The reign of Chandragupta II saw the high watermark of the Gupta Empire. He extended the limits of the empire by marriage alliance and conquests. Chandragupta II married Kuberanaga of the Naga family. The Nagas were a powerful ruling clan and this matrimonial alliance helped the Gupta ruler in expanding his empire.

The marriage of his daughter Prabhavati by his wife Kubernaga with the Vakataka king Rudrasena II helped him to establish his political influence in the Deccan. With his great influence in this area, Chandragupta II conquered western Malwa and Gujarat from the Shaka Kshatrap, Rudrasimha III.

The conquest gave Chandragupta the Western sea coast, famous for trade and com­merce. This contributed to the prosperity of Malwa, and its chief city Ujjain. Ujjain seems to have been made the second capital of Chandragupta II.

‘King Chandra’ whose exploits has been mentioned in the Mehrauli Iron Pillar Inscription, which is located in the Qutub-Minar complex in Delhi is identified by many scholars with Chandragupta II. According to this inscription, Chandra crossed the Sindhu region of seven rivers and defeated Valhikas (identified with Bacteria). It also mentions Chandragupta’s victory over enemies from Vanga (Bengal).

Chandragupta II adopted the title of Vikramaditya which had been first used by an Ujjain ruler in 57 B.C. as a mark of victory over the Saka Kshatrapas of western India. An important incident which took place during his reign was the visit of Fa-Hien, a Chinese pilgrim, who came to India in search of Buddhist texts. The court of Chandragupta II at Ujjain was adorned by numerous scholars including Kalidasa and Amarasimha.

Kumaragupta I (412-454 A.D.) :

Chandragupta II died about A.D. 413 and was succeeded by his son Kumaragupta who enjoyed a long reign of more than forty years. He performed the Asvamedha sacrifice, but we do not know of any military success achieved by him.

He maintained intact the vast empire built up by his two predeces­sors. Towards the close of his reign the empire was menaced by hordes of the Pushyamitras probably a tribe allied to the Hunas which were defeated by the Crown prince Skandagupta.

Skandagupta (454-467 A.D.):

Skandagupta, who succeeded Kumaragupta I, was perhaps the last powerful Gupta monarch. To consolidate his position he had to fight the Pushyamitras, and the country faced Huna invasion from access the frontiers in the north-west. However, Skandagupta was successful in throwing the Huns back.

This heroic feat entitled him, like Chandragupta II, to assume the title of Vikramaditya. It appears that these wars adversely affected the economy of the empire, and the debased gold coinage of Skandagupta bears testimony to these. Moreover, he appears to have been the last Gupta ruler to mint silver coins in western India.

The Junagarh inscription of his reign tells us about the public works undertaken during his times. The Sudarsana lake (originally built during the Maurya times) burst due to excessive rains and in the early part of his rule his governor Parnadatta and his son Chakrapalita got it repaired. The last known date of Skandagupta is 467 A.D. from his silver coins.

The last days of the Gupta Empire :

Skandagupta died about A.D. 467 and the line of succession after him is very uncertain. Purugupta, a son of kumaragupta, ruled for some time and was succeeded by his son Budhagupta whose earliest known date is A. D. 477 and the latest A.D. 495. He was succeeded by his brother Narasimhagupta Baladitya.

A king named Kumaragupta II is known to have reigned in A.D. 474. This indicates internal dissension which continued after the end of Budhagupta’s reign. He was succeeded by his son and grandson, Kumaragupta III and Visnugupta – the three reigns covered the period A.D. 500-550. Two otherkinos, Vainyagupta (A.D. 507) and Bhanugupta (A.D. 510) ruled in Samatataand Nalandaand in Eran respectively. The Guptas continued to rule till about 550 A.D., but by then their power had already become very insignificant.

Fall of the Empire :

The successors of Chandragupta II had to face an invasion by the Hunas from Central Asia in the second half of the fifth century A.D. Although in the beginning, the Gupta king Skandagupta tried effectively to stem the march of the Hunas into India; his successors proved to be weak and could not cope with the Huna invaders. By 485 A.D. the Hunas occupied eastern Malwa and a good portion of Central India. Thus, the Huna attacks caused a major blow to the Gupta authority particularly in northern and western regions of the empire.

The Huna power was soon overthrown by Yashodharman of Malwa, who successfully challenged the authority of the Guptas and set up, in 532 A.D., pillars of victory commemorating his conquest of J almost the whole of northern India. Yashodharman’s rule was short-lived, but it meant a severe blow to the Gupta Empire.

The policy adopted by the Guptas in the conquered areas was to restore the authority of local chiefs or kings once they had accepted Gupta suzerainty. In fact, no efforts were made to impose a strict and effective control over these regions. Hence it was natural that whenever there was a crisis of succession or a weak monarchy within the Gupta Empire these local chiefs would re-establish their independent authority.

Divisions within the imperial family, concentration of power in the hands of local chiefs or governors, loose administrative structure of the empire, decline of foreign trade, growing practice of land grants for religious and other purposes, etc. contributed towards the disintegration of the Gupta Empire.

Gupta Administration :

Unlike the Mauryas, the Guptas adopted such pompous titles as Parameshvara Maharajadhiraja, Paramabhattaraka, etc., which imply the existence of lesser kings with considerable authority within the empire. Besides, the Guptas added other epithets claiming for themselves super-human qualities which raised them almost to the level of gods. In fact, in the Allahabad Pillar Inscription, Samudragupta is referred to as a god dwelling on earth. Kingship was hereditary, but royal power was limited by the absence of a firm practice of primogeniture.

Council of Ministers and other officials :

The Guptas continued the traditional machinery of bureaucratic administration but it was not as elaborate as that of the Mauryas. The Mantri (chief-minister) stood at the head of civil administration. Among other high imperial officers were included the Mahabaladikrta (commander-in-chief), the Mahadandanayaka (general) and the Mahapratihara (chief of the palace guards).

The Mahabaladhikrta, probably corresponding to the Mahasenapati of the Satavahana kings, controlled a staff or subordinate officers such as the Mahashvapati (chief of cavalry), Mahapilupati (officer in charge of elephants), Senapati and Baladhikrta. A high ranking official, heard for the first time in the Gupta records was the Sandhivigrahika (the foreign minister).

A link between the central and the provincial administration under the Guptas is furnished by the class of officers called Kumaramatyas and Ayuktas. The Kumaramatyas were the high officers and the personal staff of the emperor and were appointed by the king in the home provinces and possibly paid in cash. Recruitment was not confined to the upper varnas only and several offices came to be com­bined in the hands of the same person, and posts became hereditary.

This naturally weakened the royal control. The Ayuktas were entrusted with the task of restoring the wealth of kings conquered by the emperor and sometimes placed in charge of districts or metropolitan towns.

The numerical strength of the Gupta army is not known. In contrast to the Mauryas, the Guptas do not seem to have possessed a big organized army. Probably troops supplied by the feudatories constituted the major portion of the Gupta military strength. Also, the Guptas did not enjoy a monopoly of elephants and horses, which were essential ingredients of military machinery.

All this lead to the increasing dependence on feudatories, who wielded considerable authority at least on the fringes of the empire. Chariots receded into the background, and cavalry came to the forefront.

The Mahabaladhikrta (commander-in-chief) controlled a staff or subordinate officers as mentioned above. The army was paid in cash and its needs were well looked after by an officer-in-charge of stores called Ranabhandagarika.

Revenue Administration :

Land revenue was the main source of the state’s income besides the fines. In Samudragupta’s time we hear of an officer Gopasramin working as Akshapataladhikrita whose duty was to enter numerous matters in the accounts registers, recover royal dues, to check embezzlement and recover fines.

Another prominent high official was Pustapala (record-keeper). The Gupta kings maintained a regular department for the proper survey and measurement of land as well as for the collection of land revenue.

Provinces, Districts and Villages :

The provinces or divisions called bhuktis were governed by Uparikas directly appointed by the kings. The province was often divided into districts known as Vishayas which were ruled by Kumaramatyas, Ayuktas or Vishayapatis. His appointment was made by the provincial governors.

Gupta inscriptions from Bengal shows that the Municipal board – Adhisthanadhikarana associated with itself renresentation from major local communities: the Nagarasresthi (guild president), the chief merchant Sarthavaha, the chief artisan – Prathama Kulika and the chief scribe – Prathama Kayastha. Besides them were the Pustapalas – officials whose work was to manage and keep records.

The lowest unit of administration was the village. In eastern India, the vishayas were divided into vithis, which again was divided into villages. The Gramapati or Gramadhyaksha was the village head­man. The Gupta inscriptions from north Bengal show that there were other units higher than the villages such as the Rural Board – Asthakuladhikarana which comprised of the village elders – Mahattaras and also included the village headman – Gramika and the householders Kutumbins.

With the absence of any close supervision of the state, village affairs were now managed by the leading local elements. No land transactions could be affected without their consent. The village disputes were also settled by these bodies with the help of Grama-vriddhas or Mahattaras (village elders). The town administration was carried on by the mayor of the city called Purapala.

Gupta Economy:

Agriculture :.

The agricultural crops constituted the main resources which the society produced and the major part of the revenue of the state came from the agriculture. It is argued by many scholars that the state was the exclusive owner of the land. The most decisive argument in favour of the exclusive state ownership of land is in the Paharpur copper plate inscription of Buddhagupta. It appears that though the land was to all intents and purposes that of the peasants, the king claimed its theoretical owner­ship.

Various types of land are mentioned in the inscriptions; land under cultivation was usually called Kshetra, Khila was the uncultivable land, Aprahata was the jungle or forest land, Gopata Sarah was the pasture land and Vasti was the habitable land.

Different land measures were known in different regions such as Nivartana, Kulyavapa and Dronavapa. The importance of irrigation to help agriculture was recognized in India from the earliest times. According to Narada, there are two kinds of dykes the bardhya which protected the field from floods and the Khaya which served the purpose of irrigation.

The canals which were meant to prevent inundation were also mentioned by Amarasimha as jalanirgamah. The tanks were variously called, according to their sizes, as the vapi, tadaga and dirghula. Another method for irrigation was the use of ghati-yantra or araghatta.

Land Grants :

The sources of the Gupta period suggest that certain important changes were taking place in the agrarian society. Feudal development surfaced under the Guptas with the grant of fiscal and adminis­trative concessions to priests and administrators. Started in the Deccan by the Satavahanas, the practice became a regular affair in Gupta times.

Religious functionaries were granted land, free of tax, forever, and they were authorised to collect from the peasants all the taxes which could have otherwise gone to the emperor. Religious grants were of two types: Agrahara grants were meant for the Brahmanas which meant to be perpetual, hereditary and tax-free, accompanied with the assignment of all land revenue.

The Devagrahara grants were made to secular parties such as writers and merchants, for the purpose of repair and worship of temples. The secular grants were made to secular parties and are evident from a grant made by the Uccakalpa dynasty.

According to it, two villages were bestowed as a mark of favour, in perpetuity with fiscal and administrative rights upon a person called Pulindabhatta. Epigraphic evidence of land grants made to officers for the administrative and military services is lacking, though such grants cannot be ruled out.

In fact, certain designations of administrative officers such as bhagika and bhogapalika suggest that some of the state officials may have been remuner­ated by land grants.

Position of Peasantry :

The land grants paved the way for feudal development in India. Several inscriptions refer to the emergence of serfdom, which meant that the peasants were attached to their land even when it was given away. Thus in certain parts of the country the position of independent peasants were under- mined, and they were reduced to serfs or semi-serfs. The repression of the peasantry was also caused by the right of subinfeudation granted to the recipients of land grants.

They were often authorised to enjoy the land, to get it enjoyed, to cultivate it or get it cultivated. The donated land could thus be assigned to tenants on certain terms. This also implied the donee’s right to evict the tenants from their land. The practice of subinfeudation therefore reduced the permanent tenants to the position of ten- ants-at-will. The position of peasants was also undermined from the Gupta period onwards on account of the imposition of forced labour (Vishti) and several new levies and taxes.

Crafts Production and Industry :

Crafts production covered a wide range of items. Texts like Amarakosha of Amarasimha and Brihat Samhita which are generally dated to this period, list many items, give their Sanskrit names and also mention different categories of craftsmen who manufactured them.

Many important sites like Taxila, Ahichchhatra, Mathura, Rajghat, Kausambi and Pataliputra have yielded many craft products like earthen wares, terracottas, beads made of different stones, objects of glass, items made of metals, etc.

Different varieties of silk, cloth, called Kshauma and Pattavastra are mentioned in the text of this period. An inscription of fifth century from Mandasor in western Malwa refers to a guild of silk weavers who had migrated from south Gujarat and settled in the Malwa region. Among the various industries that flourished in the Gupta period, mining and metallurgy certainly occupied the top posi­tion.

The Amarakosha gives a comprehensive list of metals. Of all the metals, iron was the most useful, and blacksmiths were only next to the peasants in the rural community. The most eloquent evidence of the high stage of development which metallurgy had attained in the Gupta period is the Mehrauli iron pillar of King Chandra, usually identified as Chandragupta II.

Contemporary literature also testifies to the wide use of jewellery by the people of the time. A significant development of the period in metal technology was the manufacture of seals and statues, particularly of the Buddha.

Ivory work remained at a premium, as did stone cutting and carving, sculpture being very much in favour at this time. The cutting, polishing and preparing of a variety of precious stones – jasper, agate, carnelian, quartz, lapis – lazuli, etc., were also associated with foreign trade.

Pottery remained a basic part of industrial production, though the elegant black – polished ware was no longer used, instead an ordinary red ware with a brownish slip was produced in large quantities, some of it being made to look more opulent by the addition of mica in the clay which gave the vessels a metallic finish.

Trade and Commerce :

There was not much material change in the trade routes, commercial organization, currency systems, trade practices, etc. during the period. Like the previous phase, we have reference to two types of merchants in the Gupta period, namely Sresthi who was usually settled at a particular place and enjoyed an eminent position and the Sarthavaha who was a caravan trader. The articles of internal trade included all sorts of commodities for everyday use, chiefly sold in villages and town markets.

On the other hand, luxury goods formed the principal articles of long distance trade. Narada and Brihaspati laid down many regulations to govern the trade practices of the time. Compared to the earlier period, there was a decline in long-distance trade. Silk and spices were the chief Indian export articles of Indo-Roman trade. But by the middle of the sixth century silk worms were secretly brought overland from China and introduced into the Byzantine Empire. This produced an adverse effect on India’s trade with the west.

Later, the expansion of the Arabs under the banner of Islam may have further disrupted India’s trade. Indian merchants meanwhile had begun to rely more heavily on the South-East Asian trade. The establishment of Indian trading stations in various parts of South-east Asia meant the diversion of income to this region. The commercial prosperity of the Gupta era was the concluding phase of the economic momentum which began in the preceding period.

Guilds, (nigama, sreni) continued as the major institution in the manufacture of goods and in commercial enterprise. They remained almost autonomous in their internal organization, the govern­ment respecting their laws which were generally drafted by a larger body, the corporation of guilds, of which each guild was a member.

Each guild had a president called Prathama or Pravara. Some of the industrial guilds, such as the silk weaver’s guilds had their own separate corporation which was re­sponsible for large-scale projects, such as endowments for building a temple, etc.

The Buddhist church or Sangha was by now rich enough to participate in commercial activities. The rate of interest on loans varied according to the purpose for which money was required. The high rates demanded during the Mauryan period on loans to be used for overseas trade were no longer demanded, indicating an increased confidence in overseas trade. The average rate was now twenty percent per annum as against two hundred and forty of the earlier period. The lowering of the rate of interest also indicates the greater availability of goods and the consequent decrease in rates of profit.

Commercial decline is indicated by the paucity of coins of common use. The Guptas issued the largest number of gold coins (dinaras) in ancient India; but these hardly flowed into day-to-day private economic relations. Copper and silver coins of the period are few. Fa-Hien tells us that cowries became the common medium of exchange.

It is, therefore argued that economy in the Gupta period was largely based on self-sufficient units of production in villages and towns, and that money economy was gradu­ally becoming weaker at this time.

Languishing trade explains the decline of urban centres at least in the Gangetic plains, which formed the heartland of the Gupta Empire.

Social Developments:

Land grants to the brahmanas on a large scale suggest that the brahmana supremacy continued in Gupta times. The term dvija was now beginning to be used increasingly for the brahmanas. The greater the emphasis on brahmana purity the greater was the stress laid on the impurity of the outcaste. The Varna system seems to have been considerably modified owing to the proliferation of castes.

The khastriya caste swelled up with the influx of the Hunas and subsequently of the Gurjars who joined their ranks as Rajputs. The increase in the number of shudra castes and untouchables was largely due to the absorption of backward forest tribes into the settled Varna society. Often guilds of craftsmen were transformed into castes.

It has been suggested that transfers of lands or land revenues gave rise to a new caste, that of the kayasthas (scribes) who undermined the monopoly of the brahmanas as scribes. The position of the shudras improved in this period and they were now permitted to listen to the epics and the Puranas. They were also allowed to perform certain domestic rites which naturally brought fee to the priests.

All this can be attributed to a change in the economic status of the shudras. The practice of untouchability became more intense than in the earlier period. Penance was provided to remove the sin arising out of touching a chandala.

Fa-Hien informs us that the chandala, entering the gate of a city or market place, would strike a piece of wood to give prior notice of his arrival so that men could avoid him. The Varna system did not always function smoothly. The Shanti Parva of the Mahabharata, which may be assigned to the Gupta period, contains at least nine verses which stress the need of combina­tion of the brahmanas and the kshatriyas; these may indicate some kind of concerted opposition from the vaishyas and shudras.

The Anushashana Parva of the Mahabharata represents the shudras as destroyer of the king. Most of the legal texts of the period took the Dharmashastra of Manu as their basis and elaborated upon it. A number of such works were written during this period, the best know being those of Yajnavalkya, Narada, Brihaspati and Katyayana. The joint family system, which be­came an essential feature of Hindu caste-society, was prevalent at the time.

Status of Women :

The status of women continued to decline. In a patriarchal set-up the men began to treat women as items of property, so much so that a woman was expected to follow her husband to the next world. The practice of sati (self-immolation at the funeral pyre of the husband) gained approval of the jurists.

But it seems to have been confined to the upper classes. The first memorial of a saf/dated A.D. 510 is found at Eran in Madhya Pradesh. Lawgivers of the period, almost unanimously advocated early marriage; some of them preferred even pre-puberty marriage. Celibacy was to be strictly observed by widows.

Women were denied any right to property except for stridhana in the form of jewellery, gar­ments, and similar other presents made to the bride on the occasion of her marriage. They were not entitled to formal education.

In the Gupta period, like shudras, women were also allowed tolisten to epics and the Puranas, and advised to worship Krishna. But women of higher orders did not have access to independent sources of livelihood in pre-Gupta and Gupta times. The fact that women of the two lower varnas were free to earn their livelihood gave them considerable freedom, which was denied to women of the upper varnas.

Social life :

Prosperous town dwellers seem to have lived in comfort and ease. The Kamasutra describes the life of a well-to-do citizen as one devoted to the pleasures and refinements of life. Theatrical entertair- ment was popular both in court circles and outside. Dance performances and music concerts were held mainly in the homes of the wealthy and the discerning.

Gambling, animal fights, athletics and gymnastics were an important part of sporting events. Amusements of various kinds in which the general public participated were essential to the various festivals, whether religious or secular.

Con­trary to Fa-Hien’s statement that vegetarianism was customary in India, meat was commonly eaten. Drinking of wine and the chewing of betel-leaf was a regular practice.

Culture of the Gupta Age :

The Gupta period is called the Golden Age of ancient India. This may not be true in the political and socio-economic fields because of several unhappy developments during the period.

However, it is evident from the archaeological findings that the Guptas possessed a large amount of gold, whatever might be its source, and they issued the largest number of gold coins.

Princes and richer people could divert a part of their income for the support of those engaged in art and literature. Both Samudragupta and Chandragupta II were patrons of art and literature. Samudragupta is represented on his coins playing the lute (veena) and Chandragupta II is credited with maintaining in his court nine luminaries or great scholars. The Gupta period witnessed Golden Age only in the fields of art, literature etc.

Gupta Arts and Architecture :

Religion was intimately connected with the developments in architecture and plastic arts.

Earlier developments in plastic arts seem to have culminated in the Gupta sculpture. The most important contribution of Gupta sculpture is the evolution of the perfect types of divinities, both Bud­dhist and Brahmanical.

A large number of Buddha images have been unearthed at Sarnath, and one of them is justly regarded as the finest in the whole of India. Stone and bronze images of Buddha have also been found at Mathura and other places.

The images of Siva, Vishnu and other Brahmanical gods are sculptured in some of the finest panels of the Deogarh temple (Jhansi district). Of the Brahmanical images perhaps the most impressive is the Great Boar (Varaha), at the entrance of a cave in Udayagiri.

The art of casting metals reached a degree of development. Fa-Hien saw an over 25 metre high image of the Buddha made of copper, but it is not traceable now. The Bronze Buddha, found at Sultanganj, is 71/2 feet high and is a fine piece of sculpture. The Iron Pillar of Delhi, near the Qutub-Minar, is a marvellous work belonging to the early Gupta period.

Architecture:

The Gupta period was poor in architecture. The doctrine of bhakti and the growing importance of image worship led to the construction of the free standing temple with its sanctuary (garbha griha), in which the central cult image was placed. The Gupta period marks the beginning of Indian temple architecture. The temples are simple and impretentious structures, but their bearing upon later devel­opments is of great significance. The following well defined types may be recognized.

1. Flat roofed, square temple with a shallow pillared porch in front.

2. Flat rooted, square temple with a covered ambulatory around the sanctum and proceeded by a pillared porch, sometimes with a second story above.

3. Square temple with a low and squat sikhara (tower) above.

4. Rectangular temple with an apsidal back and a barrel – vaulted roof above.

5. Circular temple with shallow rectangular projections at the four cardinal faces.

The first three types of may be regarded as the forerunners of medieval Indian temple styles. Representative examples of the first include temple No. XVII at Sanchi, Kankali Devi temple at Tigawa and Vishnu and Varaha temples at Eran.

The nucleus of a Temple (garbha – griha) with a single entrance and a porch (mandapa) appears for the first time as an integrated composition in this type of Gupta temples. The second type is represented by Parvati temple at Nachna Kuthara and the Siva temple at Bhumara (both in M P). This group of temples shows many of the characteristic features of the dravida style.

Notable examples of the third type are seen in the so called Dasavatara Temple at Deogarh (Jhansi district) and the brick temple at Bhitargaon (Kanpur district). The importance of this group lies in the innovation of a shikhara or tower that caps the sanctum, the main feature of the nagara style.

The fourth type is represented by a temple at Ter (Sholapur district) and the Kapoleshvara temple at Aihole. The fifth is represented by a solitary monument known as Maniyar Matha at Rajgir, Bihar.

The rock-cut caves continue the old forms to a large extent, some of the caves at Ajanta and Ellora (Maharashtra) and Bagh (M.P.) may be assigned to the Gupta period. Both Chaitya and Vihara caves were excavated at Ajanta and the Vihara cave No. XVI and XVII and the Chaitya cave no. XIX are thebest artistic monuments of the Gupta period.

The earliest of the Brahmanical shrines are to be seen in group of caves at Udayagiri (MP.). The caves at Mogulrajapuram, Undavalli and Akkannamadanna in the Andhra country beiong to the Gupta period.

Stupas were also built in large numbers, but the best are found at Sarnath (Dhamekh Stupa), Rajgir (Jarasindha – k.a – Baithak), Mirpur Khan in Sindh and at Ratnagiri (Orissa).

Paintings :

The art of painting reached its height of glory and splendour in this age. The most important examples of the Gupta paintings are to be found on the wall frescos of the Ajanta caves, the Bagh caves. The Gupta painters also painted incidents from the life of Buddha during the Gupta period.

Cave No. XVI at Ajanta has the scene known as “Dying Princess”. Cave no. XVII has been called a picture gallery. At Ajanta other prominent cave paintings are cave no. XIX, I and II.

Gupta Literature:

Sanskrit language and literature after centuries of evolution, through lavish royal patronage reached to the level of classical excellence. Sanskrit was the court language of the Guptas.

1. The Puranas had existed much before the time of the Guptas in the form of bardic literature; in the Gupta age they were finally compiled and given their present form.

2. The period also saw the compilation of various Smritis or the law-books written in verse. The Smritis of Yajnavalkya, Narada, Katyayana and Brihaspati were written during this period.

3. The two great epics namely the Ramayana and the Mahabharata were almost completed by the 4th century A.D.

4. The Gupta period is remarkable for the production of secular literature. Among the known Sanskrit poets of the period, the greatest name is that of Kalidasa who lived in the court of Chandragupta II. The most important works of Kalidasa were the Abhijnanashakuntalam (con­sidered to be one of the best hundred literary works in the world) Ritusamhara, Malavikagnimitra, Kumarasambhava, Meghaduta, Raghuvamsha and Vikrama Urvashiyam. Shudraka wrote the drama Mrichcbhakatika or the little Clay cart. Vishakadatta is the author of the Mudrarakshasa, which deals with the schemes of the shrewd Chanakya.

The Devichandraguptam another drama written by him, has survived only in fragments.

5. The Gupta period also saw the development of Sanskrit grammar based on Panini and Patanjali. This period is particularly memorable for the compilation of the Amarakosha by Amarasimha, who was a luminary in the court of Chandragupta II. A Buddhist scholar from Bengal, Chandragomia, composed a book on grammar, named Chandravyakaranam.

6. Buddhist and Jaina literature in Sanskrit were also written during the Gupta period Buddhist scholars Arya Deva, Arya Asanga and Vasubandhu of the Gupta period were the most notable writers. Siddhasena Divakara laid the foundation of logic among the Jainas. The Gupta age witnessed the evolution of many Prakrit forms such as Suraseni used in Mathura and its vicinity, Ardhamagadhi spoken in Oudh and Bundelkhand, Magadhi in Bihar and Maharashtri in Berar.

Science and Technology :

Aryabhata, was the first astronomer to pose the more fundamental problems of astronomy in A.D. 499. It was largely through his efforts that astronomy was recognized as a separate discipline from mathematics. He calculated n to 3.1416 and the length of the solar year to 365.3586805 days, both remarkably close to recent estimates.

He believed that the earth was sphere and rotated on its axis, and that the shadow of the earth falling on the moon caused eclipses. He is also the author of Aryabhattiyam, which deals with algebra, arithmetics and geometry.

Varahamihira, who lived towards the end of the fifth century wrote several treatises on astronomy and horoscopy. His Panchasiddhantika deals with five schools of astronomy, two of these reflect a close knowledge of Greek astonomy. The Laghu-Jataka, BrihatJataka and Brihat Samhita are some of his other important works.

Hastayurveda or the veterinary science, authored by Palakalpya attests to the advances made in medical science during the Gupta period. The Navanitakam, a medical work, which is a manual of recipes, formula and prescriptions, was compiled during this period.

The Political History of Northern India: Post Gupta Period

The break-up of the Gupta Empire was followed by the rise of a number of independent states. Northern India was divided into three main kingdoms, those of the later Guptas of Magadha, the Maukharis, and the Pushyabhutis.

Related Articles:

• Rise and Growth of the Gupta Empire
• Causes of the Downfall of the Gupta Empire | Indian History
• Available Source Material to Reconstruct the History of the Gupta Age
• Top 8 Rulers of the Gupta Empire | Indian History

The Golden Age of Gupta Empire: Artistic Legacy and Cultural Impact

Table of Contents

Gupta Empire

(relevant for historical section of general   studies paper prelims/mains).

Gupta Sculpture

Geologists suggest that the commencement of the Gupta empire in the 4th century A.D. heralds the dawn of a new era. The rule of the Gupta monarchs persisted until the 6th century in Northern India. During their reign, arts, sciences, and literature thrived significantly. They perfected and standardized the iconographic representations of Brahmanical, Jain, and Buddhist deities, which served as exemplary models of artistic expression not only within India but also beyond its borders. This period witnessed an all-encompassing excellence in domestic life, administration, literature, artistic creations, and religious and philosophical thought, as evident in the works of Kalidasa and the widespread Bhagavata cult, deeply intertwined with an intensive appreciation of beauty.

With the advent of the Gupta era, India entered a phase of classical sculpture. Over centuries, artistic techniques were honed, specific forms were refined, and ideals of beauty were precisely articulated. The period saw an end to experimentation and uncertainty. A clear grasp of art’s genuine objectives and essential principles, along with a well-developed aesthetic sensibility and skilled craftsmanship, yielded remarkable sculptures that became models and inspirations for Indian artists in the future. The Gupta sculptures served as timeless representations of Indian art and influenced artistic ideals even in the Indian colonies located in the Far East.

Gupta Period

During the Gupta period, the trends and inclinations of earlier artistic phases converged into a unified plastic tradition of paramount significance in Indian history. Consequently, Gupta sculpture emerged as a natural progression from the early classical sculptures of Amravati and Mathura. While its plasticity borrowed from Mathura’s style and its grace from Amravati’s, Gupta sculpture seemed to belong to a distinct realm. Gupta artists seemed to be striving for a loftier goal. A novel perspective towards art emerged, one that aimed to forge a closer alignment between artistic expression and intellectual and spiritual insights, inner concepts matching external forms.

Art from Bharhut, Amravati, Sanchi, and Mathura drew closer and coalesced into a unified entity. In compositions, female figures garnered increased attention, while nature receded into the background. However, nature’s continuous and flowing rhythm persisted in the contours of the human form. The human figure, often depicted as an image, became central to Gupta sculpture. A fresh canon of beauty was established, based on a profound understanding of the human body’s innate softness and flexibility.

The supple and yielding bodies of Gupta sculptures, characterized by smooth textures and luminous surfaces, facilitated fluid movement. Even in apparent stillness, these figures exuded an internal energy. This held true not only for depictions of divine beings from Buddhist, Brahmanical, and Jain traditions but also for everyday individuals. The emphasis was on the sensitivity of the sculpted surface, leading to minimal ornamentation, such as drapery and jewellery, to showcase the body.

The prevalence of wet or translucent clinging drapery became a hallmark of this era. However, the sensuous effect of such drapery, particularly in representations of female figures, was balanced by a conscious moral restraint. Nudity, as a rule, was eschewed in Gupta sculpture. The grand artistic achievements of the time displayed graceful contours, understated ornamentation, and dignified tranquillity. Under Gupta patronage, centres like Mathura and Sarnath produced numerous outstanding works. Despite being followers of the Hindu faith, the Guptas were tolerant rulers.

An exquisite example of Gupta craftsmanship is the magnificent red sandstone Buddha image from Mathura, dating back to the 5th century A.D. This image captures the Great Master in his sublime form, standing with his right hand in the abhaya mudra, symbolizing protection, and the left hand holding the garment’s edge. The countenance is serene, with eyes lowered in spiritual ecstasy. The robe draping both shoulders is skill fully rendered, with delicate schematic folds gracefully enveloping the body. The head displays spiral curls with a central prominence, and the ornate halo features concentric bands of elegant decoration.

This mastery of execution and the regal serenity in the Buddha image was embraced and localized by various regions like Siam, Cambodia, Burma, Java, Central Asia, China, and Japan, as these nations adopted the Buddhist faith.

The image of the standing Buddha, found at Sarnath, represents an excellent illustration of mature Gupta artistry. The figure, moulded with softness, stands with its right hand in a protective gesture. In contrast to the intricately carved drapery folds seen in the Mathura Buddha, only the fringes of the diaphanous robe are suggested here. The figure’s flawless execution matches its tranquil spiritual expression, a fitting embodiment of the sublime being.

Sarnath introduced both delicacy and refinement of form, along with a relaxed posture that slightly tilts the standing figure, lending it a litheness and subtle movement. This stands in contrast to the columnar rigidity seen in Mathura works of a similar nature. Even in the case of the seated figure, the slender features exude a sense of motion, with the body echoing the nuanced modeling. Folds of drapery have been largely omitted, with subtle indications surviving as thin lines that suggest the garment’s edges. These loosely falling folds are meticulously rendered with a fabric-like texture. The smooth and shining plasticity of the body takes centre stage in the art of Sarnath.

The zenith of these characteristics culminates in the sublime image of the Master, represented while turning the Wheel of Law. Crafted in Chunar sandstone, the image boasts a surface exuding a smooth shine. Seated in Vijraparyanka, the Master’s hands rest near the chest in Dharmachakrapravartana Mudra.

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Gupta Empire, Indian Sculpture, Art History, Gupta Period, Kalidasa, Bhagavata Cult, Mathura, Sarnath, Classical Sculpture, Aesthetic Principles, Iconography, Buddhist Art, Brahmanical Art, Jain Art, Eastern Influence, Chunar Sandstone, Dharmachakrapravartana Mudra, Gupta Empire, Indian Sculpture, Gupta Empire, Indian Sculpture, Best Sociology Optional Coaching, Sociology Optional Syllabus.

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This decision marks a critical point in your UPSC – CSE journey , potentially determining your success in a career in IAS/Civil Services. Therefore, it’s crucial to choose wisely, whether it’s the optional subject or the best sociology optional teacher . Always base your decision on accurate facts, and never let your emotional biases guide your choices. After all, the search for the best sociology optional coaching is about finding the perfect fit for your unique academic needs and aspirations.

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Gupta Period: Art and Culture

The Gupta period , which lasted from 320 to 550 CE, is considered a golden age of Indian history. The Gupta Empire ruled most of northern India, and its art and culture flourished during this time. Gupta art is characterized by its elegance, refinement, and attention to detail. It is also notable for its diversity, as it includes a wide range of styles and subjects. The Gupta period also saw a flourishing of literature, music, and dance. The Gupta court was a center of learning and culture, and many scholars and artists were patronized by the Gupta emperors.

Table of Content

Historical Background of the Gupta Empire

Features of gupta art and architecture, types of gupta art and architecture, artistic achievements during the gupta period, the literature of the gupta period.

The Gupta Empire, which ruled from approximately 320 to 550 CE, is seen as a landmark period in Indian history, characterized by stability, cultural rebirth, and economic growth. The dynasty, established by Chandragupta I, emerged from the Magadha region and spread through strategic alliances and military conquest. Samudragupta, called the “Napoleon of India,” led the empire to its height, with amazing military victories and diplomatic successes. During Chandragupta II’s reign, trade flourished, as did artistic patronage and intellectual progress. Despite its eventual demise due to invasions and internal fighting, the Gupta Empire’s contributions to art, literature, and government left a lasting mark on Indian civilization, establishing it as a golden age of prosperity and intellectual excellence.

The following are the features of Gupta art and architecture:

• Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism co-exist in the Gupta period. The cave arts carry such examples. Stupas indicate respect for Buddhism even under the reign of Hindu kings.
• The blue color is never used in the paintings of the caves.
• Sculptures were made of sandstone.
• The primary materials of temples were brick, sandstone, and granite. Nagara and Dravidian styles were quite evident in temple architecture.
• The prosperity of literature and science was visible during the reign of the Gupta emperors.

Various categories of architecture grew and got established by the rulers of the Gupta period. We get a vivid idea from the tangible art forms that still exist after long years of establishment. 

Cave Architectures of Gupta

• Udaygiri caves, a group of rock-cut caves carrying Jain and Hindu religious beliefs, were built during the 4th to 5th centuries. These caves are near Vidisha, Madhyapradesh. 
• Ajanta cave, a group of 29 rock-cut caves in Maharashtra, contains paintings exhibiting Buddha’s journey. Here are also instances of mural paintings and fresco technique painting. During the 5th and 6th centuries AD, many rock-cut architectures were built in Ajanta caves.
• Ellora caves in Charanandri hills are a group of thirty-four rock-cut caves that exhibit Brahminical (Hindu), Jain, and Buddhist philosophy through art. All caves were built from the 6th to 12th century. 
• Bagh caves in Dhar district, Madhya Pradesh, consist of nine caves together. These Buddhist caves are also known as Bagh Gupha. 
• Pandav caves (B.C.250- A.D.600) in Nashik are in Trirashmi hill. These caves are magnificent examples of ancient water management systems and buddha sculptures.

Temple Architectures of Gupta

The Gupta royals were originally Brahmins (Hindu). Vishnu, Shiv, and Shakti were three types of deities worshipped by them. 

• Five types of temple architecture evolved during the period. The first kind of temple had square architecture and flat terraces. Pillars surround the hall areas. There was an entrance with garbagriha and also a mandapa area in such types of temples. Kankali Devi temple at Tigwa is an ideal example of it. 
• The second type appeared almost similar to the first type except for the inclusion of a pradakshina area. The establishment of two-storeyed temples started at this time. For example, the Shiva temple in Bhumara.
• The third type had a square shape and shikhara or pyramidical roof pattern. The platform of the temple became higher also. Dasavatara temple comes in this category. There are ten incarnations of Lord Vishnu. 
• The fourth type of temple was built with a rectangular pattern and a hollow roof shape. For example, Kapoteswara temple. 
• The fifth kind of temple had circular architecture. The distinct shape of the four corners creating a rectangular pattern was also visible. Maniyar Math in Rajgir belongs to this category.

Nagara and Dravidian Styles of Gupta

Nagara and Dravidian styles are known as two types of temple architecture. North Indian temples with more than one shikharas are classified as Nagara-styled temples. And South Indian temples with one Shikhara known as Dravidian-styled temples. The Nagara temples have deities inside, whereas the Dravidian ones have outside. Such temple patterns were evident in the Gupta age. 

Sculptures and Pillars of Gupta

• The evidence of the amazing sculpture of the Gupta age is the Buddha statue with Abhaya mudra in Mathura. It is made of red sandstone. The Buddha sculpture of Sarnath shows a calm and peaceful expression of Siddhartha. The cave sculptures are also worth a mention among Buddhist sculptures. 
• The Gupta emperor Samudragupta’s court poet, Harisena’s words are engraved in the Allahabad pillar. It is known as prashasthi or eulogy. Another renowned pillar from the Gupta age is the iron pillar of Delhi. It was built under the patronage of Chandragupta II. This pillar is still rust-free.

Stupas of Gupta

• Mirpur Kha’s stupa in modern Pakistan was built during the Gupta age. The cross-legged Buddha sitting in a meditative posture is an iconic structure to mention. 
• The patterns of the outer area of the Dhamek stupa are believed to be the work of the artists of the Gupta dynasty. The patterns, including animal figures, show instances of Gupta art.  
• The Chaukhandi Stupa is one of the best examples of stupa architecture. It is located in Sarnath. The stupa is believed to be a memoir of Buddha’s meeting with his early disciples.

During the Gupta Period (approximately 320 to 550 CE), India saw a remarkable flourishing of artistic achievements across various domains:

• Gupta sculpture reached its peak, characterized by a sense of naturalism, grace, and elegance.
• Sculptors mastered the depiction of human anatomy, portraying figures with lifelike proportions and expressions.
• The Gupta period is famous for the creation of iconic sculptures of Hindu and Buddhist deities, such as Vishnu, Shiva, Buddha, and Bodhisattvas.
• Notable examples include the famous Gupta sculptures at the caves of Ajanta, Ellora, and Elephanta, as well as the Udayagiri caves in Madhya Pradesh.
• The Ajanta Caves’ beautiful paintings are outstanding examples of Gupta period paintings.
• These paintings show a wide range of themes, including scenes from the life of the Buddha, Jataka tales, royal court scenes, and everyday life.
• Artists used vibrant colors and complex detailing to create wonderful compositions that showcase the depth of Indian artistic expression.

Architecture

• Gupta architecture reflects a blend of indigenous Indian styles with influences from the Gandhara and Mathura schools.
• Temples and stupas were constructed using stone and brick, featuring complexly carved pillars, ornate facades, and elaborate sculptures.
• The Gupta period witnessed the construction of several temples dedicated to Hindu and Buddhist deities, such as the Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh and the Vishnu Temple at Tigawa.
• The Gupta period was a golden age of Indian literature, marked by significant contributions in poetry, drama, and prose.
• Sanskrit literature flourished, with famous poets and playwrights like Kalidasa, Bharavi, and Vishakhadatta producing timeless works.
• Kalidasa’s dramas, such as “Shakuntala” and “Meghaduta,” are famous for their poetic beauty and storytelling, whereas Bharavi’s “Kiratarjuniya” demonstrates era-specific epic poetry.

Metalwork and Coinage

• Gupta artisans excelled in metalworking, producing exquisite sculptures, utensils, and jewelry.
• Gold and silver coins minted during the Gupta period are prized for their artistic craftsmanship and historical significance.
• Gupta coinage often featured images of rulers, deities, and symbols of prosperity, reflecting the empire’s wealth and cultural patronage.

The development of literature during the Gupta period was incredible. Kalidasa was a famous playwright, and his works like Abhijnanashakuntala, Vikramorvasiyam, Meghduta, and Malavikagnimitra are the greatest examples of Gupta literature. Dandin’s Kavyadarshana and Dasakumaracharita are worth a mention. Vishakhadatta’s Mudrarakshasa is an amazing instance of literary work. Vatsyayana is known for his Nyaya Sutra Bhashya and Kamasutra. Magha is recognized for writing Sisupala-vadha. Vyasa’s Vyasabhasya tells about Yoga. Harisena, Bharavi, Bhasa, and Shudraka are also known for their literary contributions.

Conclusion: The remnant evidence of architecture, art, and sculpture is what we mark as the art and culture of the Gupta age. And whatever art, architecture, and literature have been retrieved proved the excellent expertise of the artists, scholars, and genius people of the age. And the initiative of the rulers helped everything to prosper. This is the reason why the Gupta age is called the golden age.

Conclusion – Gupta Period: Art and Culture

The Gupta period (320–647 C.E.) is known as the Golden Age of India because of the tremendous development in the field of arts, architecture, science, and literature. The Gupta Empire was known for its patronage of the arts, and during this time, many great works of art and architecture were created. Some of the most famous examples of Gupta art include the Ajanta Caves, the Ellora Caves, and the Elephanta Caves. These caves are decorated with beautiful paintings and sculptures that depict scenes from Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain mythology. The Gupta period also saw the development of a new style of Indian classical music, which is still popular today.

People Also View:

• Gupta Empire: Facts, Origin, Timeline and History
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• Conquest And Expansion of Samudragupta

FAQs on Gupta Period: Art and Culture

What is the gupta period known for in terms of art and culture.

The Gupta Period is famous for its flourishing artistic achievements and cultural renaissance.

Which major artistic forms thrived during the Gupta era?

Sculpture, painting, architecture, literature, and metalwork flourished during the Gupta Period.

What are some notable examples of Gupta period sculpture?

Iconic sculptures of Hindu and Buddhist deities found in caves such as Ajanta, Ellora, and Elephanta.

Where can one find famous Gupta period paintings?

The Ajanta Caves are famous for their stunning frescoes showing various themes from Indian mythology and daily life.

Who were some prominent literary figures of the Gupta era?

Kalidasa, Bharavi, and Vishakhadatta are celebrated poets and playwrights from the Gupta Period.

What architectural styles are associated with the Gupta period?

Gupta architecture combines indigenous Indian styles with influences from the Gandhara and Mathura schools.

What materials were commonly used in Gupta period metalwork?

Gupta artisans often worked with gold and silver to create wonderful sculptures, utensils, and jewelry.

What role did Gupta coinage play in reflecting the period’s culture?

Gupta coinage featured images of rulers, deities, and symbols of prosperity, showcasing the empire’s wealth and cultural patronage.

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Gupta Period: Golden Age

Post mauryan empire.

We have read about the great Mauryan Empire . Though it was a vast Empire spreading all over the Indian Subcontinent. But after the death of the Great Ashoka, there was no such great ruler. Because of which the Mauryan Empire started declining. Now, it is very simple to understand when the central power is weak then the state can become the victim of external invasion .

Now, it is very simple to understand when the central power is weak then the state can become the victim of external invasion. So, it was true in the case of Mauryan Empire too. As we know that the Mauryan Rulers were Kshatriyas. And due to the Golden age of Buddhism , Brahmanism was in tension during this time. So, as the Great Ashoka died, Brahmin rivals took this as the opportunity to rebuild their status in the society.

So, for this Southern Kingdom of Indian Subcontinent was of Brahmanical Religion . Satvahana were of the Brahmin origin . Though they were not hostile to the Buddhism. But they preached Brahmanical Religion. Satvahanas were the rulers of Southern India just after the demise of Mauryan Empire. Because northern India saw the external invasion.

So, after the Mauryan Empire , the Golden Age of the Ancient History was the Gupta Period .

Sources of Gupta Period

Scriptures related to gupta period.

There are many sources for the Gupta Empire. The most relevant are as follows,

• Purana: The Vishnupurana refers three Gupta Kings Srigupta, Ghatotkacha Gupta and Chandragupta-I. It also states that Srigupta was the founder of Gupta Dynasty in north India.
• Nitishastra by Kamandak also gave pieces of evidence of Gupta Period. This book is equivalent to the Arthashastra of Kautilya.
• Devichandraguptam and Mudrarakshas of Vishakhadutta also give details of the religion of Gupta Period. In Gupta Period temple architecture was at its peak. Many temples of North India were built during this period. All the temples of North India follow Nagara Style of Architecture.
• Ravanbadh or Battikavya by Bhatti also mentions about the Gupta Empire.

Foreign Traveller’s Account

Fa-hein (399-414 ce).

Fa-Hein the Chinese traveler came to visit the Indian Subcontinent during the reign of Chandragupta Vikramaditya . Chandragupta Vikramaditya was the third great ruler of the Gupta Empire. Fa-Hein gave a description of the exchange system during the Gupta Period. The currency by which the transactions were done was Kaudi. He also describes Chandals or Untouchable and their plight condition.

It-Sing (675 CE)

It-Sing too was the Chinese Traveller . He gave a description of Srigupta , the founder of the Gupta Empire.

Inscriptions related to Gupta Period

Allahabad inscription.

The Allahabad inscription gave the details of the Victory of Samudragupta. It is also called Prayag Prashasti . And the court poet Harisena describes his King in this Prashasti . This inscription is engraved in Ashokan Pillar at Allahabad.

Iron Pillar Inscription of Mehrauli

Virsen was the court poet of Chandragupta Vikramaditya . He wrote this inscription. He was a minister of war and peace at Vikramaditya’s reign.

Bhitari Inscription

It is the inscription of Skandagupta . It gives detail of Huna invasion during his reign. Indore Pillar inscription is also the inscription of Skandagupta.

Eran Inscription (510 CE)

The first-ever evidence of Sati was found during the Gupta period. Eran inscription is the first epigraphic-record of the Sati system. This inscription was during the age of Bhanugupta .

Golden Coins

Gupta Rulers had issued the highest number of Golden Coins in India. Though Kushana Rulers started the tradition of Golden coins. But the Gupta period saw the most of the Golden Coins. Chandragupta Vikramaditya also issued the first Silver coin among all Gupta Rulers.

Samudragupta issued 8types of coins. Lion, Ashwamedha Yajna was shown on the coins. Samudragupta was fond of playing the Veena. So, his picture of playing the Veena was also there on coins.

• Golden Coins: called as Nishka or Pala.
• Silver Coins: called Rupak, Satmana, and Pana depending on the value of the coin.
• Copper Coins: Kakini, Ksharpan.

However, the highest number of the remnant of coins of the Gupta Period was found in Bayana of Rajasthan .

Gupta Kings

According to Manusmriti and Vishnupurana Gupta were Vaishyas (traders). Actually, it has been seen that they were feudal of Kushanas. So, after the decline of Kushanas, the accession to the throne.

Though some historians also believe that Guptas were Kshatriya. Because of their matrimonial alliance with the Lichchhavi and Nagas. But it is rather an absurd thing to say that they were Kshatriyas because they had marriage relations with Kshatriya Clan. Because bureaucracy does not believe in the Caste System .

Well, some also believe that they were Brahmins. Because the Chandragupta Vikramaditya married her daughter with a Vakataka Prince, who was Brahmin. So, we do not need to dwell on this detail as it is not important. We are not going to make Biodata of these Kings. 😉 😛

So, we will study about the Gupta Kings as they were the Rulers during the Golden Age of Ancient India .

Emergence of Guptas

Empires of Satvahana and Kushanas came to an end in the middle of 3rd Century CE. So, the new dynasty emerged in north India and it was the Gupta Dynasty.

Allahabad Prashasti of Samudragupta mentioned that his predecessors were Srigupta, Ghatotkach, and Chandragupta-I . So, from here we can know that the Srigupta was the founder of the Gupta Dynasty and Ghatotkach was his successor. Though the foundation stone was laid by Srigupta. But it was the reign of Chandragupta-I during which, Guptas started flourishing.

Chandragupta-I

He adopted the title of Maharajadhiraja and issued Gold coins . He has done many marriage alliances because of which his Empire extended. Chandragupta and his Queen Kumaradevi (Lichchhavi Princess) engraved on the obverse and seated Goddess on the reverse side of a coin of Lichchhavi Republic.

Samudragupta: Napoleon of India

He was the greatest King of the Gupta period. Allahabad Prashasti gives a detailed account of the career and personality of Samudragupta. He adopted the policy of conquest and reinstatement with the Southern Rulers. Historian Vincent A. Smith gave him the name of Napoleon of India because of his conquests. He ruled over his kingdom by two methods.

Samudragupta also performed Ashwamedha Yajna and after this Yajna he adopted the title of Parakramanka. He was fond of writing poems. So, he also earned the title of Kaviraja .

The other important King was Chandragupta Vikramaditya. About him and other rulers, we will read in the upcoming post.

Thank you so much. 🙂 Stay Connected. 🙂

Published by Priyanshi Jajoo

Social Development During Gupta Period - Ancient India History Notes

Amruta Patil

Aug 9, 2024

IAS Exam Latest Updates

• 09 August, 2024 : UPSC Mains Schedule 2024 Out; Exam from September 20

The Gupta Empire was an ancient India empire which existed from the early fourth century CE to the late sixth century CE. Large-scale land allocations to the Brahmanas indicate that their dominance grew during the Gupta era. The Guptas, who were presumably originally vaishya, eventually gained the reputation of being Kshatriyas among the Brahmanas. The Brahmanas presented the Gupta Kings as possessing god-like attributes. In this article, we will discuss Social Development During Gupta Period which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

Caste System During Gupta Period

• The caste system, or varna system, had become rigid during the Gupta period, and the Brahmins occupied the top position in society. The Brahmins received lavish gifts from rulers and other wealthy people.
• The practise of untouchability had begun during the Gupta period. The Chinese traveller Fahien mentions that 'Chandalas' were separated from society.
• The advancement of Brahmanism led to the neglect of Buddhism and Jainism. During this time, religious literature such as Puranas was written.
• Caste determined professions, though not rigidly. Brahmans, for example, pursued professions such as trade, architecture, and service. They'd even ascended to the throne.
• The Vaishya emperors of the Gupta dynasty were Vaishyas. Kshatriyas pursued commercial and industrial careers. Sub-castes were more numerous among the Vaishyas and Sudras than among the higher castes.
• Sudras, like Vaishyas, could become traders and agriculturists. Untouchables lived outside of the main settlements.
• They stroked a piece of wood as they entered the city so that men would be aware of their presence and avoid them. They worked in hunting, fishing, scavenging, and other similar occupations.

Family System During Gupta Period

• In Hindu society, the joint family system was prevalent. Partitions were not permitted during the father's lifetime.
• Property ownership was vested in the father, but the rights of sons and brothers to the property were recognised as well. Adoption was not widely accepted.
• The family unit was governed by the head of the family. The male members of the family dominated the family and society.

Position of Women During Gupta Period

• Women's Position deteriorated during the Gupta period. Women were not permitted to study religious texts such as the Puranas. The subjugation of women to men was highly institutionalised. The practise of 'Swyamvara' was abandoned, and Manusmriti advocated for early marriage for girls.
• Women were subordinate to men in society, but their role was no less important. In literature, women in Gupta society were idealised. Women were educated, but they were unable to recite the Vedic mantras.
• Marriages before puberty were common. Purdah had started among the upper castes. A woman was regarded as the mistress of her household. Widows may remarry at times.
• During that time, the Sati system was uncommon. Woman was ideally regarded as Shakti, the energising principle. Saraswati and Goddess Kali, the creator and destroyer, were both associated with women.
• They not only took part in public life, but there is also mention of female teachers. There have been instances where women have served in governmental and administrative capacities.
• A married woman was forced to live with her husband's many wives. This practise was popular even among the royal family.
• Women were not allowed to own property, and anything she did own could be considered her husband and father's property.
• A woman was always subject to the will of a man at any point in her life. Women were married at the age of 6 or 7 to ensure virginity and chastity.

Dress and Ornaments During Gupta Period

• Males wore an upper garment and a lower dhoti, but the Scythians introduced coats, overcoats, and trousers, which were frequently worn by Indian kings. On special occasions, a headdress was worn.
• Women wore either a petticoat or a sari. A long sari had served both the purposes. A bodice was worn beneath the sari to cover the bust. Silk garments were worn on ceremonial occasions.
• Over the brow, ornaments were worn. The earrings and necklaces had a variety of designs. A gauzy pearl ornament was worn over the breasts and thighs. Armlets, bangles, rings, and anklets were all available.
• Men enjoyed wearing ornaments as well. False hair was used to create various artistic shapes. It was common to use paints, pastes, powders, and lipsticks.

Cities During Gupta Period

• The majority of India's population lived in farming villages, which was true of all pre-industrial societies around the world. However, there were many large cities in Gupta India.
• Some of these were ports and trading centres (for example, Broach and Sopara on India's west coast and Tamralipta on the east coast), while others were pilgrimage sites (for example Varanasi and Mathura).
• Pataliputra, the capital (modern-day Patna), was by far the largest and one of the world's largest cities.
• When the Chinese monk Faxian visited the city in early Gupta times, he was astounded by its magnificent palaces and temples, as well as the numerous Buddhist monasteries.
• He also mentioned the existence of free hospitals and other charitable institutions for the poor, which were funded by wealthy citizens.

Amusement During Gupta Period

• Theatrical entertainments, dances, performances, and musical concerts were among the amusements available.
• Though gambling was a popular pastime, animal fighting, wrestling, and athletics were also popular in Gupta society and were popular in both towns and villages.

Education During Gupta Period

• Education and learning were highly valued in Gupta society. During the Gupta period, education was provided by Brahmanical agraharas and Buddhist monasteries.
• However, no distinction was made between Buddhist and Hindu teachings. Members of the family provided primary education.
• Agraharas, or monasteries, provided formal and higher education. Varanasi, Nasik, and Kanchi were important Brahmanical learning centres. Several universities had sprouted up under the Gupta kings' patronage.
• The legendary Buddhist University of Nalanda provided outstanding education in various fields such as art, philosophy, grammar, humanities, and astrology.

The social conditions of the time show that people were content, well-placed in life, and fond of the finer things in life. Fa Hien, a Chinese traveller who visited India during Chandragupta II's reign, stated "The people are numerous and content. They are not required to register their households or to comply with the rules of any magistrates. The king governs without the use of decapitation or other corporal punishments. People from various sects set up houses of charity where rooms, couches, beds, food, and drink are provided to travellers."

Question: What were the primary characteristics of the Gupta Empire's social organisation?

Religion had a significant impact on the Gupta Empire's social structure. The Gupta Empire's people were divided into five classes according to Hinduism. The highest level was made up of Brahmin (priests and teachers), Kshatriya (rulers and warriors), Vaishya (merchants and artisans), and Sudra (the lowest) (unskilled workers).

Question: What societal changes did land grants make possible during the Gupta era?

The extensive practise of issuing land grants during the Gupta era created the foundation for the emergence of Brahmin feudatories, who carried out administrative duties mostly autonomously from the royal officers.

Question: What was the social status of women during the Gupta period?

Question: In Sanskrit plays written during the Gupta period women and Shudras speak? [UPSC 1995]

(a) Sanskrit

(b) Prakrit

(d) Sauraseni

Answer: (b) See the Explanation

Women and sudras speak Prakrit in Sanskrit plays written during the Gupta period. It is a language family based on Sanskrit and its modern derivatives.

Therefore, option (b) is the correct answer.

Question: Consider the following statements in relation to the social conditions of women during the Gupta period.

• The women were completely barred from pursuing independent sources of income.

Which of the following statement(s) is/are true?

(c) Both 1 and 2

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

• Only women of higher social classes lacked access to independent sources of income during the pre-Gupta and Gupta periods. The fact that women in the two lower varnas were free to earn their living gave them significant freedom that upper varna women did not have. Hence, option (a) is incorrect.
• Women were not allowed to own property, and anything she did own could be considered her husband and father's property. A woman was always subject to the will of a man at any point in her life. Hence, option (b) is correct.

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Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History Essays

Buddhism and buddhist art.

Portrait of Shun'oku Myōha

Unidentified artist Japanese

Fasting Buddha Shakyamuni

Reliquary in the Shape of a Stupa

Standing Buddha Offering Protection

Buddha Maitreya (Mile)

Buddha Maitreya (Mile) Altarpiece

Buddha Offering Protection

Head of Buddha

Buddha, probably Amitabha

Pensive bodhisattva

Avalokiteshvara, the Bodhisattva of Infinite Compassion

Buddha Shakyamuni or Akshobhya, the Buddha of the East

Enthroned Buddha Attended by the Bodhisattvas Avalokiteshvara and Vajrapani

The Bodhisattva Padmapani Lokeshvara

Buddha Vairocana (Dari)

Buddha Amoghasiddhi with Eight Bodhisattvas

Death of the Historical Buddha (Nehan-zu)

Cup Stand with the Eight Buddhist Treasures

Seated Buddha

Vidya Dehejia Department of Art History and Archaeology, Columbia University

February 2007

The fifth and fourth centuries B.C. were a time of worldwide intellectual ferment. It was an age of great thinkers, such as Socrates and Plato, Confucius and Laozi. In India , it was the age of the Buddha, after whose death a religion developed that eventually spread far beyond its homeland.

Siddhartha, the prince who was to become the Buddha, was born into the royal family of Kapilavastu, a small kingdom in the Himalayan foothills. His was a divine conception and miraculous birth, at which sages predicted that he would become a universal conqueror, either of the physical world or of men’s minds. It was the latter conquest that came to pass. Giving up the pleasures of the palace to seek the true purpose of life, Siddhartha first tried the path of severe asceticism, only to abandon it after six years as a futile exercise. He then sat down in yogic meditation beneath a bodhi tree until he achieved enlightenment. He was known henceforth as the Buddha , or “Enlightened One.”

His is the Middle Path, rejecting both luxury and asceticism. Buddhism proposes a life of good thoughts, good intentions, and straight living, all with the ultimate aim of achieving nirvana, release from earthly existence. For most beings, nirvana lies in the distant future, because Buddhism, like other faiths of India, believes in a cycle of rebirth. Humans are born many times on earth, each time with the opportunity to perfect themselves further. And it is their own karma—the sum total of deeds, good and bad—that determines the circumstances of a future birth. The Buddha spent the remaining forty years of his life preaching his faith and making vast numbers of converts. When he died, his body was cremated, as was customary in India.

The cremated relics of the Buddha were divided into several portions and placed in relic caskets that were interred within large hemispherical mounds known as stupas. Such stupas constitute the central monument of Buddhist monastic complexes. They attract pilgrims from far and wide who come to experience the unseen presence of the Buddha. Stupas are enclosed by a railing that provides a path for ritual circumambulation. The sacred area is entered through gateways at the four cardinal points.

In the first century B.C., India’s artists, who had worked in the perishable media of brick, wood, thatch, and bamboo, adopted stone on a very wide scale. Stone railings and gateways, covered with relief sculptures, were added to stupas. Favorite themes were events from the historic life of the Buddha, as well as from his previous lives, which were believed to number 550. The latter tales are called jatakas and often include popular legends adapted to Buddhist teachings.

In the earliest Buddhist art of India, the Buddha was not represented in human form. His presence was indicated instead by a sign, such as a pair of footprints, an empty seat, or an empty space beneath a parasol.

In the first century A.D., the human image of one Buddha came to dominate the artistic scene, and one of the first sites at which this occurred was along India’s northwestern frontier. In the area known as Gandhara , artistic elements from the Hellenistic world combined with the symbolism needed to express Indian Buddhism to create a unique style. Youthful Buddhas with hair arranged in wavy curls resemble Roman statues of Apollo; the monastic robe covering both shoulders and arranged in heavy classical folds is reminiscent of a Roman toga. There are also many representations of Siddhartha as a princely bejeweled figure prior to his renunciation of palace life. Buddhism evolved the concept of a Buddha of the Future, Maitreya, depicted in art both as a Buddha clad in a monastic robe and as a princely bodhisattva before enlightenment. Gandharan artists made use of both stone and stucco to produce such images, which were placed in nichelike shrines around the stupa of a monastery. Contemporaneously, the Kushan-period artists in Mathura, India, produced a different image of the Buddha. His body was expanded by sacred breath ( prana ), and his clinging monastic robe was draped to leave the right shoulder bare.

A third influential Buddha type evolved in Andhra Pradesh, in southern India, where images of substantial proportions, with serious, unsmiling faces, were clad in robes that created a heavy swag at the hem and revealed the left shoulder. These southern sites provided artistic inspiration for the Buddhist land of Sri Lanka, off the southern tip of India, and Sri Lankan monks regularly visited the area. A number of statues in this style have been found as well throughout Southeast Asia.

The succeeding Gupta period, from the fourth to the sixth century A.D., in northern India, sometimes referred to as a Golden Age, witnessed the creation of an “ideal image” of the Buddha. This was achieved by combining selected traits from the Gandharan region with the sensuous form created by Mathura artists. Gupta Buddhas have their hair arranged in tiny individual curls, and the robes have a network of strings to suggest drapery folds (as at Mathura) or are transparent sheaths (as at Sarnath). With their downward glance and spiritual aura, Gupta Buddhas became the model for future generations of artists, whether in post-Gupta and Pala India or in Nepal , Thailand , and Indonesia. Gupta metal images of the Buddha were also taken by pilgrims along the Silk Road to China .

Over the following centuries there emerged a new form of Buddhism that involved an expanding pantheon and more elaborate rituals. This later Buddhism introduced the concept of heavenly bodhisattvas as well as goddesses, of whom the most popular was Tara. In Nepal and Tibet , where exquisite metal images and paintings were produced, new divinities were created and portrayed in both sculpture and painted scrolls. Ferocious deities were introduced in the role of protectors of Buddhism and its believers. Images of a more esoteric nature , depicting god and goddess in embrace, were produced to demonstrate the metaphysical concept that salvation resulted from the union of wisdom (female) and compassion (male). Buddhism had traveled a long way from its simple beginnings.

Dehejia, Vidya. “Buddhism and Buddhist Art.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/budd/hd_budd.htm (February 2007)

Further Reading

Dehejia, Vidya. Indian Art . London: Phaidon, 1997.

Mitter, Partha. Indian Art . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.

Additional Essays by Vidya Dehejia

• Dehejia, Vidya. “ Hinduism and Hindu Art .” (February 2007)
• Dehejia, Vidya. “ Recognizing the Gods .” (February 2007)
• Dehejia, Vidya. “ South Asian Art and Culture .” (February 2007)

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