articles of confederation essay outline

The Articles of Confederation — America’s First Constitution

March 1, 1781–1789

The Articles of Confederation was America's first constitution. It was in effect from March 1, 1781, to March 4, 1789, when it was replaced by the United States Constitution.

John Dickinson, a delegate from Delaware, was the principal author of the draft of the Articles of Confederation. Image Source: New York Public Library Digital Collections .

Articles of Confederation Summary

As the delegates to the Second Continental Congress were drafting the Declaration of Independence , they were also developing a plan for unifying the 13 Colonies to defeat Great Britain. In the summer of 1776, a committee composed of one delegate from each colony drafted the Articles of Confederation — America’s first constitution. Although the document created a weak central government compared to the federal government established by the current Constitution, the Articles successfully created a “firm league of friendship” that guided the new nation through its early years.

Articles of Confederation Dates

• On June 11, 1776, the Second Continental Congress appointed a committee, composed of one representative from each colony, to draft a document forming a confederation of the 13 colonies.
• The Articles of Confederation were adopted by Congress on November 15, 1777.
• The Articles went into effect when they were ratified by the 13th and final state (Maryland) on March 1, 1781.
• In May 1787, following events such as Shays’ Rebellion, a convention was held in Philadelphia to revise the Articles. However, the convention resulted in the United States Constitution.
• The Articles were replaced by the Constitution on March 4, 1789.

Facts About the Articles of Confederation

• John Dickinson, a delegate from Delaware, was the principal writer of the draft document.
• As adopted, the articles contained a preamble and 13 articles.
• The Articles established a Confederation Congress with each state having one vote.
• Measures passed by Congress had to be approved by 9 of the 13 states.
• It did not establish federal executive or judicial branches of government.
• Each state retained “every Power…which is not by this confederation expressly delegated to the United States.”
• Provided Congress with the powers to conduct foreign affairs, declare war or peace, maintain an army and navy, print money, resolve disputes between states, and a variety of other lesser functions.
• Denied Congress the power to collect taxes, regulate interstate commerce, and enforce laws.
• All 13 states had to agree to any amendment of the federal government’s power.

Articles of Confederation — A Brief History of America’s First Constitution

The Articles of Confederation outlined the functions of the first national government of the United States, after gaining independence from Great Britain. The Articles created a limited central government that, to a certain extent, restricted individual states from conducting their own foreign diplomacy.

Albany Plan of Union

Just before the outbreak of the French and Indian War, the Albany Plan of Union was developed It was the first attempt to unite the colonies from New England to South Carolina. However, the plan was rejected for various reasons, including concerns the individual colonies had about granting authority to a central colonial government. 

However, as the American Revolution progressed and became the American Revolutionary War, many leaders recognized the benefits of a centralized government to coordinate the war effort. 

New York’s Plan of Unification

In June 1775, the First New York Provincial Congress submitted a proposal for a united government to the Continental Congress. Like the Albany Plan, New York’s “Plan of Accommodation between Great Britain and America” acknowledged the authority of the British Crown, which was unpopular with the faction of Congress that leaned toward independence. 

Benjamin Franklin’s Articles of Confederation

Outside of the proceedings of Congress, some delegates explored the idea of a permanent union between the colonies, other than the temporary Continental Congress. 

Benjamin Franklin drafted a plan titled “Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union.” Although key delegates such as Thomas Jefferson endorsed Franklin’s proposal, it faced opposition. Franklin introduced his plan to Congress on July 21, emphasizing it should be considered a draft, which should be revised at a later date. The delegates agreed and decided to set the plan aside at that time.

Congress Agrees on Independence

Ultimately, Congress adopted Virginia’s “Resolution for Independence,” which was introduced by Richard Henry Lee on June 7, 1775. Also known as the “Lee Resolution,” it proposed three important initiatives:

• Called for Congress to declare independence.
• Form foreign alliances.
• Prepare a plan to unite the colonies.

The Committee of Thirteen

On June 11, Congress set up three committees — one for each of the initiatives. The committee assigned to “prepare a plan to unite the colonies” is known as the “Committee of Thirteen.” It included one delegate from each state:

• John Dickinson, Pennsylvania, Chairman
• Samuel Adams, Massachusetts
• Josiah Bartlett, New Hampshire
• Button Gwinnett, Georgia
• Joseph Hewes, North Carolina
• Stephen Hopkins, Rhode Island
• Robert R. Livingston, New York
• Thomas McKean, Delaware
• Thomas Nelson, Virginia
• Edward Rutledge, South Carolina
• Roger Sherman, Connecticut
• Thomas Stone, Maryland
• Francis Hopkinson, New Jersey

The Committee Introduces the Articles of Confederation

On July 22, the committee presented its report to Congress. The Articles included. 

• A government consisting solely of a unicameral legislature without an executive or judicial branch.
• It would have limited powers to deal with foreign affairs, defense, and treaty-making.
• The government did not have the authority to levy national taxes or regulate interstate trade. 
• Any laws it created were nonbinding unless states chose to enforce them. 

The Articles were intended to balance the political ideas embraced in the American Revolution, such as “No Taxation Without Representation” and the necessity of conducting the war. However, there were significant issues that needed to be addressed, including:

• Representation. The issue was resolved by giving all states equal status and one vote.
• Appropriation. This was settled by having states contribute money to Congress based on the value of privately owned land. 
• Control of western lands. Some states, like Virginia, claimed large territories that stretched across the frontier, to the west. Others, like Maryland, had no claims and insisted that such territories should be ceded to Congress beforehand. This issue was not resolved until much later.

The issues postponed the final debates on the Articles of Confederation until October 1777.

Congress Agrees to the Articles of Confederation

By October 1777, the situation was urgent, as British forces had captured Philadephia in September, forcing the members of Congress to flee to Lancaster, Pennsylvania, and then to York, Pennsylvania. On November 15, 1777, During the sessions in York, the delegates finally agreed to a framework for the Articles of Confederation. 

Congress forwarded the Articles to the states for ratification in late November. While most delegates recognized the Articles as a flawed compromise, they believed it was preferable to having no formal national government at all.

12 States Ratify the Articles of Confederation

Virginia led the way by ratifying the Articles of Confederation on December 16, 1777. Subsequently, other states followed suit during the early months of 1778. However, when Congress reconvened in June 1778, it was revealed that Maryland, Delaware, and New Jersey had not succeeded in ratifying the Articles. 

The Articles required unanimous approval from all states, and the states that were holding out insisted the others needed to abandon their western land claims before they would ratify the document. 

Ultimately, with the war at a crucial point, the “landed” states — those with western land claims, like Virginia — indicated they would cede the lands. New Jersey and Delaware were satisfied and agreed to the terms of the Articles.

• New Jersey ratified the Articles on November 20, 1778.
• Delaware ratified the Articles on February 1, 1779. 

Maryland’s Path to Ratification

Maryland was not convinced the states would follow through on ceding lands and was the last holdout to ratify the Articles of Confederation.

Maryland’s reluctance was frustrating to the other state governments. Some even passed resolutions in favor of establishing a national government without Maryland. 

However, some politicians, like Congressman Thomas Burke of North Carolina, argued against such a measure. Burke and others insisted that without the unanimous approval of all 13 States, the nation would be vulnerable, divided, and susceptible to foreign interference and manipulation.

In 1780, British forces carried out raids on Maryland towns located along the Chesapeake Bay, alarming state officials. Maryland responded by contacting the French Minister, Anne-César De la Luzerne, and requesting French naval support. Luzerne responded by encouraging Maryland to ratify the Articles of Confederation. 

Virginia’s Governor, Thomas Jefferson , also agreed to cede all western land claims to Congress.

Finally, the Maryland legislature ratified the Articles of Confederation on March 1, 1781. On that date, the Articles of Confederation formally transformed the United States from a collection of 13 loosely connected states into a confederation government

Weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation

Unfortunately, the Articles did not grant Congress the necessary authority to force the states to comply with its decisions, including the provisions in the 1783 Treaty of Paris .

The Treaty of Paris allowed British creditors to sue debtors for pre-Revolutionary debts, a clause many state governments simply ignored. In response, British forces continued to occupy forts in the Great Lakes Region. 

Additional issues that were caused by the weakness of the Articles of Confederation included:

• Without the ability to raise funds, the Confederation Congress was financially limited and dependent on the states for revenue, and the States often failed to provide funds.
• States also disregarded laws meant to standardize interstate commerce. 
• Congress did not have the power to regulate foreign trade, allowing nations like Britain to impose trade restrictions without fear of retaliation. 
• Congress had no way to force states to provide military forces during a time when the military was needed to deal with Indian unrest in the Northwest Territory .

Similar issues, along with the Confederation government’s inadequate response to Shays’ Rebellion in Massachusetts, convinced national leaders of the need to make changes to the Articles of Confederation. This ultimately led to the Philadelphia Convention of 1787 , which drafted the Constitution of the United States.

Accomplishments Under the Articles of Confederation

Despite its limited authority, the Confederation Congress was able to accomplish some important feats that led to the growth and development of the nation.

1783 Treaty of Paris

The 1783 Treaty of Paris was one of a series of treaties, collectively known as the Peace of Paris, or the Treaty of Versailles of 1783, that established peace between Great Britain and the allied nations of France, Spain, and the Netherlands. The Treaty of Paris was negotiated as a separate treaty between Great Britain and the United States, the primary provisions of the Treaty of Paris established the independence of the United States and ended hostilities between the two nations. Other provisions dealt with defining borders, restitution for Loyalist property confiscated by Americans during the war, the return of slaves confiscated by the British, and the removal of British troops from American soil. Congress ratified the treaty on January 14, 1784.

Ordinance of 1784

The Ordinance of 1784 was a bill passed by the Congress of the Confederation that served as an initial blueprint for governing the territory Britain ceded to the United States after the American Revolutionary War.

Land Ordinance of 1785

The Land Ordinance of 1785 was a bill passed by the Congress of the Confederation. It made adjustments to the Ordinance of 1784 and introduced squares. If first divided the land into six-mile-square townships. It also required the land to be surveyed and for some of it to be given to veterans of the Continental Army.

Northwest Ordinance of 1787

The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 , also known as the Ordinance of 1787, set up the rules and guidelines for governing the Northwest Territory, including a bill of rights and prohibition of slavery. It also set up the process for a territory to become a state and join the Union, with equal status to the 13 Original States.

Presidents Under the Articles of Confederation

The following men served as President from 1781 to 1789 under the Articles of Confederation. The position was officially called “President of the United States in Congress Assembled.” 

Contrary to some sources, these men did not hold the office of President of the United States. It was an entirely different office. 

• Samuel Huntington served from March 2, 1781, to July 6, 1781, when he retired.
• Thomas McKean served from July 10, 1781, to October 23, 1781. During his term as President, Congress received the news of the British surrender at Yorktown .
• John Hanson was the first President to serve a full term and served from November 5, 1781, to November 3, 1782. Hanson is sometimes referred to as the first President of the Confederation Congress. However, he is recognized as the third President by the Office of the Historian of the United States House of Representatives.
• Elias Boudinot was President from November 4, 1782, to November 3, 1783. During his term, the British evacuated Charleston in January 1783, and the Treaty of Paris of 1783 was signed in September 1783, which officially ended the American Revolutionary War.
• Thomas Mifflin was President from November 3, 1783, to November 30, 1784. During his term, George Washington resigned from the army. On December 23, 1783, in a ceremony in Annapolis, Maryland, Washington handed his commission and resignation speech to Mifflin.
• Richard Henry Lee served from November 30, 1784, to November 4, 1785.
• John Hancock was appointed President and held the title from November 23, 1785, to June 6, 1786. However, Hancock was ill and he could not perform the duties of the office. His duties were carried out by David Ramsay from November 23, 1785, to May 15, 1786, and then by Nathaniel Gorham from May 15 to June 5, 1786. Ramsay and Gorham were Chairman of the Confederation Congress.
• Nathaniel Gorham served as President from June 6, 1786, to November 2, 1786.
• Arthur St. Clair served as President and served from February 2, 1787, to October 5, 1787.
• Cyrus Griffin was the last President of the Congress Assembled and served from January 22, 1788, to March 2, 1789.

Articles of Confederation Significance

The Articles of Confederation are important to United States history because they served as the first Consitution of the United States. Although the Articles had many weaknesses, the Confederation Congress was able to make some key legislative decisions that helped the nation develop. Ultimately, the lessons learned during the time the nation operated under the Articles helped develop its replacement, the United States Constitution.

Articles of Confederation APUSH, Review, Notes, Study Guide

Use the following links and videos to study the Articles of Confederation, the Confederation Congress, and the Confederation Era for the AP US History Exam. Also, be sure to look at our Guide to the AP US History Exam .

Articles of Confederation Definition APUSH

The Articles of Confederation is defined as the first written constitution of the United States, adopted in 1781. The articles established a weak federal government with limited powers, with most decision-making power reserved for the individual states. The articles were in effect until 1789 when they were replaced by the United States Constitution.

Articles of Confederation Video — Explained for APUSH and AP Gov

This video from Heimler’s History discusses the Articles of Confederation, one of the Foundational Documents for APUSH and AP Gov.

• Written by Randal Rust

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History Resources

The Articles of Confederation, 1777

A spotlight on a primary source by the second continental congress.

More of a treaty—or a "firm league of friendship"—than a constitution, the Articles of Confederation in no way infringed upon the sovereignty of the original thirteen states. Each state held "its sovereignty, freedom, and independence, and every power, jurisdiction, and right, which is not by this confederation expressly delegated to the United States, in Congress assembled." The Congress, the primary organ of the new national government, only had the power to declare war, appoint military officers, sign treaties, make alliances, appoint foreign ambassadors, and manage relations with the American Indians. All states were represented equally in Congress, and nine of the thirteen states had to approve a bill before it became law. Amendments required the approval of all the states.

The Articles of Confederation represented an attempt to balance the sovereignty of the states with an effective national government. Under the Articles, the states, not Congress, had the power to tax. Congress could raise money only by asking the states for funds, borrowing from foreign governments, and selling western lands. In addition, Congress could not draft soldiers or regulate trade. There was no provision for national courts or a chief executive.

Importantly, the Articles did not establish a genuinely republican government. Power was concentrated in a single assembly, rather than being divided, as in the state governments, into separate houses and branches. Further, members of the Confederation Congress were selected by state governments, not by the people.

The Articles served as the nation’s plan of government until the US Constitution was ratified in 1788.

A full transcript is available.

Of Confederation and perpetual Union between the States of New-Hampshire, Massachusetts-Bay, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New-York, New-Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North-Carolina, South-Carolina and Georgia.

ARTICLE 1. The Stile of this confederacy shall be "The United States of America".

ART. II. Each state retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence, and every power, jurisdiction, and right, which is not by this confederation expressly delegated to the United States, in Congress assembled.

ART. III. The said states hereby severally enter into a firm league of friendship with each other, for their common defense, the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist each other, against all force offered to, or attacks made upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, sovereignty, trade, or any other pretense whatever.

ART. IV. The better to secure and perpetuate mutual friendship and intercourse among the people of the different states in this union, the free inhabitants of each of these states, paupers, vagabonds, and fugitives from justice excepted, shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of free citizens in the several states; and the people of each state shall have free ingress and regress to and from any other state, and shall enjoy therein all the privileges of trade and commerce, subject to the same duties, impositions, and restrictions as the inhabitants thereof respectively, provided that such restrictions shall not extend so far as to prevent the removal of property imported into any state, to any other state, of which the owner is an inhabitant; provided also that no imposition, duties or restriction shall be laid by any state, on the property of the united states, or either of them.

If any person guilty of, or charged with, treason, felony, or other high misdemeanor in any state, shall flee from justice, and be found in any of the united states, he shall, upon demand of the Governor or executive power of the state from which he fled, be delivered up and removed to the state having jurisdiction of his offense.

Full faith and credit shall be given in each of these states to the records, acts, and judicial proceedings of the courts and magistrates of every other state.

ART. V. For the more convenient management of the general interests of the united states, delegates shall be annually appointed in such manner as the legislature of each state shall direct, to meet in congress on the first Monday in November, in every year, with a power reserved to each state to recall its delegates, or any of them, at any time within the year, and to send others in their stead, for the remainder of the year. . . .

In determining questions in the united states in congress assembled, each state shall have one vote.

Freedom of speech and debate in congress shall not be impeached or questioned in any court or place out of congress, and the members of congress shall be protected in their persons from arrests or imprisonments, during the time of their going to and from, and attendence on congress, except for treason, felony, or breach of the peace. . . .

Questions for Discussion

Read the introduction and the document and apply your knowledge of American history in order to answer the following questions.

• Locate four provisions within the Articles of Confederation that indicate the concerns of the founding generation with the powers of a central government.
• How accurate is the following statement? The experience of having lived under a monarchy was largely responsible for the emphasis on sovereignty of the states under the Articles of Confederation.
• Critics of the Articles pointed out its weaknesses and shortcomings. Identify and explain four such areas in the Articles that were changed, altered, removed, or added in the Constitution.
• To what extent does the debate continue today over the power of the federal government? 

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About the Articles of Confederation

The war between the Thirteen American colonies and Great Britain was underway. The First Continental Congress, which had met in Philadelphia from September to October 1774, had organized to launch a collective affront to British taxation and unite in an economic boycott on all British goods. The Second Continental Congress, which formed on May 10, 1775, did not just organize an embargo but organized a de facto government in order to fight one of the largest militaries and political superpowers in Europe. Congress adopted the “ Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms ” to establish their military intent against Britain.

On June 14, 1775, they created the Continental Army . In one last show of goodwill, Congress drafted the Olive Branch Petition to implore Britain to peacefully end the conflict and grant the Thirteen Colonies their independence. The Petition was not acknowledged by King George III . As the conflict progressed, Congress began drafting a document that further unified the colonies, gave guidelines on how Congress should operate, and legitimized the budding nation in the eyes of the world. This document was the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union.  

Known simply as the “Articles of Confederation,” this document preserved the independence and sovereignty of the States while unifying them under one Constitution obligation. These articles were separate from the Declaration of Independence , although both written around the same time. The Declaration of Independence, drafted by Thomas Jefferson , was the formal explanation of why the Thirteen Colonies had declared independence from Great Britain. While the previous Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms outlined why the Thirteen Colonies were starting an armed conflict, the Declaration of Independence established why the Thirteen Colonies wanted sovereignty and independence from their former ruler. The document is comprised of a list of grievances against King George III and the ideologies of the new country. Today several accepted American values and tenants come from this document, such as:  

“We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness.” 

The Declaration of Independence was officially ratified on July 4, 1776. Because of the importance of this document, America’s Independence Day is celebrated on July 4th every year.  

The Articles of Confederation took longer to write. Unlike the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation were to be the guiding principles of governing the new United States of America and the pragmatic instructions on how to run a country.  The Continental Congress struggled and debated issues regarding state sovereignty, what powers a centralized government should hold, how congress should vote, and whether states could claim “unclaimed” western lands. While these issues were debated, pressing issues regarding the military and money required Congress’s attention as they traveled from city to city escaping the escalating military conflict. After drafting and redrafting the document, the final draft of the Articles of Confederation was completed on November 15, 1777.  

Twelve states ratified the Articles by February 1779, fourteen months after the submission of its completed draft. These ratifications occurred with little alteration to the Articles and the Continental Congress adopted the Articles as its de facto governmental procedures. Maryland, the lone holdout, worried that Virginia could claim large swaths of land west of the Ohio River. Hoping to limit the size of their neighboring state, Maryland refused to ratify unless all states ceded their claims to Western land and relented them to the national interest. If the land was in the national domain then these lands required congressional approval to be distributed to states. Almost four years after the Articles of Confederation were drafted, Maryland ratified the Articles on February 2, 1781. On March 1, the Articles became the official ruling document of the United States.  

The document, although long in approval, was far from perfect. The Article contained thirteen articles that divvied power between the central Congress and the individual states based on the idea of friendship between the states. In Article Three, Congress defines this friendship: 

"The said States hereby severally enter into a firm league of friendship with each other, for their common defense, the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist each other, against all force offered to, or attacks made upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, sovereignty, trade, or any other pretense whatever." 

The Articles, in general, gave limited power to the central government. Congress could sign treaties and alliances with foreign nations; could regulate post offices, appoint officers in the military, and regulate armed forces; could request requisitions from the states; and could do other administrative functions. Congress could not declare war or peace with other nations without the consent of a super-majority of the states; could not levy taxes on states; could not require states send soldiers to fight in a national army; and could not interfere with state’s sovereignty. Congress was granted only the power that Great Britain had previously held over the Thirteen Colonies before the Intolerable Acts were issued. These limits were deliberate. The United States was reluctant to establish a strong central government while fighting a war against the ideas of “tyranny.”  

The shortcomings of the Articles of the Confederation impeded the United States from properly governing the new country. The Treaty of Paris , which officially ended the conflict between the United States and Great Britain, was signed by delegates of the United States and Great Britain in Paris on September 3, 1783. However, the United States didn’t officially approve this treaty for another year as state delegates missed Congressional meetings. Quorum, the minimum number of delegates needed to proceed with Congressional meetings, was routinely not reached in order to approve the Treaty. These absences impacted Congress’s ability to pass any legislation. In addition to lacking the ability to force state delegates to attend Congress meetings, Congress lacked the ability to raise money to pay the veterans of the Revolutionary War. This procedural stall in payment resulted in Shays’ Rebellion, the name for numerous small rebellions that came to a peak on January 25, 1787. On that day, four thousand veterans, led by Daniel Shays, attempted to seize weapons from the Springfield Armory in Springfield, Massachusetts to protest lack of veteran payments and excessive taxation.  Congress, unable to allocate money toward national troops, relied on the Massachusetts state militia and private militias to quell the rebellion. Even though the rebellion was quelled, Congress was powerless to provide solutions for the farmers’ qualms. On a foreign front, the United States was unable to secure treaties with foreign nations. With little ability to control individual state actions, foreign representatives in Europe could not guarantee compliance with potential treaties. Without these guarantees, foreign governments were reticent to trade the budding nation or strengthen the nation with political friendships.  

With a list of grievances growing, Congress began deliberations to write a new guiding document. This new document was the Constitution of the United States , the guiding document of the United States to this day. On September 28, 1787, the new Constitution was presented to Congress. Within a year, the Constitution had been ratified by all Thirteen States. On March 4, 1789, the Constitution was officially effective as rule of law in the United States and the Articles of Confederation was retired. While the Articles of Confederation was not inherently bad or ill-advised, it wasn’t the appropriate governing document for the United States. At the States became an independent nation and transitioned from wartime to peace, Congress recognized the strengths and the weakness of the Articles. Learning from their experiences, Congress used the Articles of Confederation as a steppingstone creating a productive government for their budding nation. 

Further Reading

Founding Brothers: The Revolutionary Generation  By: Joseph J. Ellis

The Quartet: Orchestrating the Second American Revolution, 1783-1789  By: Joseph J. Ellis

The Articles of Confederation  By: Elizabeth Carol Sonneborn

The Path to the Declaration

Constitutional Convention

Bill of Rights

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Articles of Confederation

Engrossed and corrected copy of the Articles of Confederation, showing amendments adopted, November 15, 1777, Papers of the Continental Congress, 1774-1789; Records of the Continental and Confederation Congresses and the Constitutional Convention, 1774-1789, Record Group 360; National Archives.

After considerable debate and alteration, the Articles of Confederation were adopted by the Continental Congress on November 15, 1777. This document served as the United States' first constitution, and was in force from March 1, 1781, until 1789 when the present day Constitution went into effect.

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Historyplex

Articles of Confederation Summary

A summary of the Articles of Confederation, which will not just help you get a better understanding of this agreement, but also help you differentiate its guidelines from those of the Constitution.

Not many people know this, but the Articles of Confederation was used as the first constitution of the United States of America. It was used as the supreme law for a brief period in the American history between March 1, 1781, and March 4, 1789. Even though it was written by the same people who wrote the Constitution, you can see a great deal of difference between the two.

Summary of the Articles of Confederation

The Articles of Confederation was a five-page written agreement, which laid the guidelines of how the national government of America would function. The preamble of the Articles stated that all the signatories “ agree to certain Articles of Confederation and perpetual Union ” between the thirteen original states. It had a total of thirteen articles which formed the guidelines for the functioning of then Federal government along with a conclusion and a signatory section for the states to sign. Given below is the summary of these thirteen articles which will put forth brief information on each of them with special emphasis on what they imply.

• Article I: It gave the new confederacy a name―the ‘United States of America’, which is followed even today.
• Article II: It gave all the states sovereignty, freedom, and independence, alongside all those powers which were not specifically given to the national government.
• Article III: It implied that the different states should come together to facilitate common defense, secure each other’s liberties, and work for each other’s welfare.
• Article IV: It granted the freedom of movement to all the citizens of the nation as a whole which allowed people to move freely between the states and also entitled them to get the rights established by the particular state. It also spoke about the need of respecting each other’s laws and a clause to extradite criminals.
• Article V: It spoke about the national interests of the United States and asked each state to send delegates to discuss the same in the Congress. It gave each state one vote in Congress and restricted the period for which a person would serve as a delegate. It also gave the members of Congress the power of free speech and ruled out their arrests, unless the crime was something serious, such as treason or felony.
• Article VI: It put some restrictions on the states and disallowed them from getting into any sort of treaty or alliance with each other or waging a war without the consent of the Congress. It also disallowed the states from keeping a standing army, but did give them permission to maintain the state militia.
• Article VII: It gave the state legislature the power of appointing all officers ranked colonel and above, whenever the states were to raise an army for the purpose of self defense.
• Article VIII: It stated that each state was to pay a particular sum of money―in proportion to the total land area of that state―to the national treasury and added that all the national expenses including war costs were to be deducted from this common treasury.
• Article IX: It highlighted all the powers given to the Congress of the Confederation, including the right to wage wars and make peace, govern army and navy, enter into treaties and alliances, settle dispute between states, regulate the value of coins, etc.
• Article X: It laid the guidelines for the formation of an executive committee which would work when the Congress was not in session.
• Article XI: It stated that the approval of nine of the thirteen original states was mandatory to include a new state in the Union.
• Article XII: It declared that America takes full responsibility for all debts which were incurred before the Articles came into existence.
• Article XIII: It declared that it would be mandatory for all the states to abide by the decisions made by the Congress of the Confederation. It also declared that the Union would be perpetual. Most important of all, it put forth the stipulation that if any changes were to be made to the Articles of the Confederation it would require the approval of Congress and ratification by the states.

Historians are of the opinion that this document had its own strengths and weaknesses. That it brought the thirteen states, which were pitted against each other, on a common platform was its greatest strength. On the other hand, its weaknesses revolved around the fact that it gave states more power than the national government and reduced the latter to a mere spectator.

If the strengths and weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation are weighed against each other, you notice that its weaknesses outweighed its strengths; that explains why it was eventually replaced by the U.S. Constitution―the supreme law in the United States as of today.

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Constitution

By: History.com Editors

Updated: March 28, 2023 | Original: October 27, 2009

The Constitution of the United States established America’s national government and fundamental laws, and guaranteed certain basic rights for its citizens. 

It was signed on September 17, 1787, by delegates to the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia. Under America’s first governing document, the Articles of Confederation, the national government was weak and states operated like independent countries. At the 1787 convention, delegates devised a plan for a stronger federal government with three branches—executive, legislative and judicial—along with a system of checks and balances to ensure no single branch would have too much power. 

The Preamble to the U.S. Constitution

The Preamble outlines the Constitution's purpose and guiding principles. It reads:

The Bill of Rights were 10 amendments guaranteeing basic individual protections, such as freedom of speech and religion, that became part of the Constitution in 1791. To date, there are 27 constitutional amendments.

Articles of Confederation

America’s first constitution, the Articles of Confederation , was ratified in 1781, a time when the nation was a loose confederation of states, each operating like independent countries. The national government was comprised of a single legislature, the Congress of the Confederation; there was no president or judicial branch.

The Articles of Confederation gave Congress the power to govern foreign affairs, conduct war and regulate currency; however, in reality these powers were sharply limited because Congress had no authority to enforce its requests to the states for money or troops.

Did you know? George Washington was initially reluctant to attend the Constitutional Convention. Although he saw the need for a stronger national government, he was busy managing his estate at Mount Vernon, suffering from rheumatism and worried that the convention wouldn't be successful in achieving its goals.

Soon after America won its independence from Great Britain with its 1783 victory in the American Revolution , it became increasingly evident that the young republic needed a stronger central government in order to remain stable.

In 1786, Alexander Hamilton , a lawyer and politician from New York , called for a constitutional convention to discuss the matter. The Confederation Congress, which in February 1787 endorsed the idea, invited all 13 states to send delegates to a meeting in Philadelphia.

Forming a More Perfect Union

On May 25, 1787, the Constitutional Convention opened in Philadelphia at the Pennsylvania State House, now known as Independence Hall, where the Declaration of Independence had been adopted 11 years earlier. There were 55 delegates in attendance, representing all 13 states except Rhode Island , which refused to send representatives because it did not want a powerful central government interfering in its economic business. George Washington , who’d become a national hero after leading the Continental Army to victory during the American Revolution, was selected as president of the convention by unanimous vote.

The delegates (who also became known as the “framers” of the Constitution) were a well-educated group that included merchants, farmers, bankers and lawyers. Many had served in the Continental Army, colonial legislatures or the Continental Congress (known as the Congress of the Confederation as of 1781). In terms of religious affiliation, most were Protestants. Eight delegates were signers of the Declaration of Independence, while six had signed the Articles of Confederation.

At age 81, Pennsylvania’s Benjamin Franklin (1706-90) was the oldest delegate, while the majority of the delegates were in their 30s and 40s. Political leaders not in attendance at the convention included Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) and John Adams (1735-1826), who were serving as U.S. ambassadors in Europe. John Jay (1745-1829), Samuel Adams (1722-1803) and John Hancock (1737-93) were also absent from the convention. Virginia’s Patrick Henry (1736-99) was chosen to be a delegate but refused to attend the convention because he didn’t want to give the central government more power, fearing it would endanger the rights of states and individuals.

Reporters and other visitors were barred from the convention sessions, which were held in secret to avoid outside pressures. However, Virginia’s James Madison (1751-1836) kept a detailed account of what transpired behind closed doors. (In 1837, Madison’s widow Dolley sold some of his papers, including his notes from the convention debates, to the federal government for $30,000.)

Debating the Constitution

The delegates had been tasked by Congress with amending the Articles of Confederation; however, they soon began deliberating proposals for an entirely new form of government. After intensive debate, which continued throughout the summer of 1787 and at times threatened to derail the proceedings, they developed a plan that established three branches of national government–executive, legislative and judicial. A system of checks and balances was put into place so that no single branch would have too much authority. The specific powers and responsibilities of each branch were also laid out.

Among the more contentious issues was the question of state representation in the national legislature. Delegates from larger states wanted population to determine how many representatives a state could send to Congress, while small states called for equal representation. The issue was resolved by the Connecticut Compromise, which proposed a bicameral legislature with proportional representation of the states in the lower house ( House of Representatives ) and equal representation in the upper house (Senate).

Another controversial topic was slavery. Although some northern states had already started to outlaw the practice, they went along with the southern states’ insistence that slavery was an issue for individual states to decide and should be kept out of the Constitution. Many northern delegates believed that without agreeing to this, the South wouldn’t join the Union. For the purposes of taxation and determining how many representatives a state could send to Congress, it was decided that enslaved people would be counted as three-fifths of a person. Additionally, it was agreed that Congress wouldn’t be allowed to prohibit the slave trade before 1808, and states were required to return fugitive enslaved people to their owners.

Ratifying the Constitution

By September 1787, the convention’s five-member Committee of Style (Hamilton, Madison, William Samuel Johnson of Connecticut, Gouverneur Morris of New York, Rufus King of Massachusetts ) had drafted the final text of the Constitution, which consisted of some 4,200 words. On September 17, George Washington was the first to sign the document. Of the 55 delegates, a total of 39 signed; some had already left Philadelphia, and three–George Mason (1725-92) and Edmund Randolph (1753-1813) of Virginia , and Elbridge Gerry (1744-1813) of Massachusetts–refused to approve the document. In order for the Constitution to become law, it then had to be ratified by nine of the 13 states.

James Madison and Alexander Hamilton, with assistance from John Jay, wrote a series of essays to persuade people to ratify the Constitution. The 85 essays, known collectively as “The Federalist” (or “The Federalist Papers”), detailed how the new government would work, and were published under the pseudonym Publius (Latin for “public”) in newspapers across the states starting in the fall of 1787. (People who supported the Constitution became known as Federalists, while those opposed it because they thought it gave too much power to the national government were called Anti-Federalists.)

Beginning on December 7, 1787, five states– Delaware , Pennsylvania, New Jersey , Georgia and Connecticut–ratified the Constitution in quick succession. However, other states, especially Massachusetts, opposed the document, as it failed to reserve un-delegated powers to the states and lacked constitutional protection of basic political rights, such as freedom of speech, religion and the press. 

In February 1788, a compromise was reached under which Massachusetts and other states would agree to ratify the document with the assurance that amendments would be immediately proposed. The Constitution was thus narrowly ratified in Massachusetts, followed by Maryland and South Carolina . On June 21, 1788, New Hampshire became the ninth state to ratify the document, and it was subsequently agreed that government under the U.S. Constitution would begin on March 4, 1789. George Washington was inaugurated as America’s first president on April 30, 1789. In June of that same year, Virginia ratified the Constitution, and New York followed in July. On February 2, 1790, the U.S. Supreme Court held its first session, marking the date when the government was fully operative.

Rhode Island, the last holdout of the original 13 states, finally ratified the Constitution on May 29, 1790.

The Bill of Rights

In 1789, Madison, then a member of the newly established U.S. House of Representatives , introduced 19 amendments to the Constitution. On September 25, 1789, Congress adopted 12 of the amendments and sent them to the states for ratification. Ten of these amendments, known collectively as the Bill of Rights , were ratified and became part of the Constitution on December 10, 1791. The Bill of Rights guarantees individuals certain basic protections as citizens, including freedom of speech, religion and the press; the right to bear and keep arms; the right to peaceably assemble; protection from unreasonable search and seizure; and the right to a speedy and public trial by an impartial jury. For his contributions to the drafting of the Constitution, as well as its ratification, Madison became known as “Father of the Constitution.”

To date, there have been thousands of proposed amendments to the Constitution. However, only 17 amendments have been ratified in addition to the Bill of Rights because the process isn’t easy–after a proposed amendment makes it through Congress, it must be ratified by three-fourths of the states. The most recent amendment to the Constitution, Article XXVII, which deals with congressional pay raises, was proposed in 1789 and ratified in 1992.

The Constitution Today

In the more than 200 years since the Constitution was created, America has stretched across an entire continent and its population and economy have expanded more than the document’s framers likely ever could have envisioned. Through all the changes, the Constitution has endured and adapted.

The framers knew it wasn’t a perfect document. However, as Benjamin Franklin said on the closing day of the convention in 1787: “I agree to this Constitution with all its faults, if they are such, because I think a central government is necessary for us… I doubt too whether any other Convention we can obtain may be able to make a better Constitution.” Today, the original Constitution is on display at the National Archives in Washington, D.C. Constitution Day is observed on September 17, to commemorate the date the document was signed.

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The first amendment, module 4: constitutional convention and ratification.

In the summer of 1787, delegates gathered for a convention in Philadelphia, with the goal of revising the Articles of Confederation—the nation’s existing governing document. However, rather than simply revising the Articles of Confederation, they wrote an entirely new framework of government: the U.S. Constitution. This new government was more powerful than the national government established by the Articles of Confederation, but the Constitution also limited the powers of this new government. In this module, you will explore the debates and compromises that occurred at the Constitutional Convention and explore the key arguments during the battle over ratification.

Download all materials for this module as a PDF

Learning Objectives

• Meet the framers of the Constitution and their influence on the new constitution.
• Describe the main debates and compromises reached by the delegates at the Constitutional Convention.
• Explore the key arguments advanced by the Federalists and the Anti-Federalists during the battle over ratification.

4.1 Activity: Constitutional Convention: Did they know the assignment?

• Student Instruction
• Teacher Notes

Purpose By early May 1787, delegates from the states began to gather in Philadelphia to discuss the current framework of government—the Articles of Confederation. In this activity, you will begin to meet the framers of the Constitution and explore the task before them. The purpose of the activity is to discover who these delegates were and why they came to Philadelphia. You will also learn more about the delegates themselves.

Process Read the following statement from the Confederation Congress calling for a convention. Then summarize, in your own words, the purpose of the Constitutional Convention. Be prepared to share your summary with the class.

“That it be recommended to the States composing the Union that a convention of representatives from the said States respectively be held at ------ on ------ for the purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation and perpetual Union between the United States of America and reporting to the United States in Congress assembled and to the States respectively such alterations and amendments of the said Articles of Confederation as the representatives met in such convention shall judge proper and necessary to render them adequate to the preservation and support of the Union.”

Next, look closely at the iconic image below that depicts the Constitutional Convention and discuss the following questions with a partner: 

• Where do you think this room is located?
• Do you know what happened in this room? 
• Who do you recognize in the picture?
• Who did you expect to be there, but is not?
• How would you describe the backgrounds of the people present? 

Then review the information about the delegates in attendance on the Meet the Framers of the Constitution webpage  for more information on who was in attendance during the Constitutional Convention. 

Finally, complete the Activity Guide: Convention Facts worksheet.

Launch Information Give students time to read the quote, review the image, and consider the questions. Ask students to share their summaries and prior knowledge about the Constitutional Convention.

Activity Synthesis Ask the students to predict how the background and experiences of the delegates might affect the government they form at the Constitutional Convention.

Activity Extension (optional) For more information, invite students to read The Constitutional Convention of 1787: A Revolution in Government essay on the National Constitution Center website.

4.1 Visual Info Brief: Painting of the Constitutional Convention

4.1 activity guide: convention facts, 4.2 activity: constitutional convention: meet the framers.

Purpose In this activity, you will continue to explore the delegates who attended the Constitutional Convention. The purpose of this assignment is for you to get to know one influential delegate well and then determine his influence in comparison to other key delegates at the Convention. 

Process Now that you have a general idea of the delegates to the Constitutional Convention, let’s get personal. Review the Info Brief: List of Delegates document to learn more. You will be assigned a delegate to research. Use the Activity Guide: Constitutional Convention - Meet the Framers activity guide to summarize significant information about that person. 

You can find additional Information in the The Constitutional Convention of 1787: A Revolution in Government essay by Richard R. Beeman.

After you complete the worksheet, you will present your assigned delegate to the class and advocate for them to be a top influencer at the Convention. Only five will make it to the top influencers list so do your best to make the case of why your delegate should be among them. 

Launch Information This assignment is to help the students learn more about who was in the room when the Constitution was written.

Here are some resources that may be useful to supplement research:

• Founding Fathers page on the National Constitution Center website
• Meet the Framers of the Constitution page on the National Archives website

Activity Synthesis As students present their delegate, you may have them complete a rubric, or some kind of score card and then have students vote, or use a “March Madness” bracket game, to select the top winners for the class.

Activity Extension (optional) Now that students have a better understanding of the delegates to the Constitutional Convention, invite students to investigate one of the delegates they heard about during the presentations and are interested in but did not research. Focus on their life before and after the Constitutional Convention.

4.2 Info Brief: List of Delegates

4.2 activity guide: constitutional convention - meet the framers, 4.3 video activity: constitutional convention.

Purpose In this activity, you will explore the compromises of the Constitutional Convention. You will also learn more about the people who wrote the Constitution. 

Process Watch the following video about the Constitutional Convention.

Then, complete the Video Reflection: Constitutional Convention worksheet.

Identify any areas that are unclear to you or where you would like further explanation. Be prepared to discuss your answers in a group and to ask your teacher any remaining questions.

Launch Give students time to watch the video and complete the worksheet. 

Activity Synthesis Have students review their worksheet responses and discuss as necessary. 

Activity Extension (optional) Now that students have a better understanding of the Constitutional Convention, ask the following questions:

• Do you think the compromises that were made at the Constitutional Convention were fair? Why or why not?

4.3 Video Reflection: Constitutional Convention

4.4 activity: compromise workshop.

Purpose There were many disputes between the states during the convention. Disputes between small states and large states spurred intense debates over how the states were to be represented in the new government. In this activity, you will explore the key compromises that were made at the Constitutional Convention.

Process Review the Info Brief: Compromises of the Convention document to learn more about the many compromises made during the Convention.

In your small groups, complete the Activity Guide: Compromise Analysis worksheet to identify elements that make each compromise strong and weak.

Be prepared to discuss your analysis with the rest of the class.

Launch Introduce the significant issues that delegates deliberated about at the Constitutional Convention leading to compromise.

Help students pull in content from the Meet the Framers activity to add to their understanding of the compromises and the key authors and opponents. The activity will allow students to explore the debates between the delegates and why the compromise was important.

Activity Synthesis Have students review their analyses and discuss as necessary. 

Activity Extension (optional) Now that students have a better understanding of compromises at the Constitutional Convention, ask students to select which compromise listed they believe was most significant to the forming of the United States and explain why. 

4.4 Info Brief: Compromises of the Convention

4.4 activity guide: compromise analysis, 4.5 primary source reading: ratifying the constitution.

Purpose Now that the delegates have drafted the Constitution, what happens next? 

“A republic, if you can keep it.” - Ben Franklin

First, the American people had to ratify the new constitution. In this activity, you will examine the process it took to ratify the Constitution and the key arguments for and against the ratification. This will support understanding and build perspective on who was for and against the Constitution, their arguments, and what became the key compromise to win ratification.

Process In your groups, review the Info Brief: Ratification Timeline document.

You will be assigned to one of the two sides:

• Federalists (Jay/Hamilton/Madison)
• Anti-Federalists (Mercy Otis Warren/George Mason/Brutus)

Review the Primary Source: Who were the Federalists and the Anti-Federalists? readings from key authors from the Founders’ Library and begin to build a case for why the Constitution should be ratified or rejected.

Determine a pro/con list for ratification and whether you wish to argue for or against ratifying the Constitution (saying yes or no to adoption). Identify quotes to support your side’s argument. 

After group research is complete, you will engage in a classroom debate about ratification. Groups need to prepare information for each of the three debate rounds:

• Opening statements
• Main arguments
• Closing statements

Each group will be given three minutes to present their case. Then, they will have a one-minute rebuttal to address points made by the other side.

After the debate is finished, identify compromises that could be reached to achieve agreement between the two sides and lead to ratification.

Launch Review with the class the Ratification Timeline then supply students with group copies of the timeline for ratification.

During the debate, only arguments that have rebuttals and key questions will drive arguments.

Activity Synthesis Have students identify compromises that could be reached to achieve agreement between the two sides and lead to ratification. Consensus among the students does not need to be unanimous. Emphasize the Massachusetts Compromise as part of the ratification debates and how it eventually led to the Bill of Rights.

Activity Extension (optional) Now that students have a better understanding of the debates over the ratification of the Constitution, ask the following questions:

• Which compromises were the easiest to debate? 
• Which were the most challenging? Why?

Additional reading could include the essay: Perspectives on the Constitution: A Republic, if you can keep it.

4.5 Info Brief: Ratification Timeline

4.5 primary source: who were the federalists and the anti-federalists, 4.6 activity: necessity of compromise.

Purpose In this activity, you will discuss when compromise is necessary to move forward with an idea, and when it is not. When have you made compromises to move things forward? When is compromise not an option?

Process In your group, read Ben Franklin’s speech. 

“I confess that I do not entirely approve of this Constitution at present, but Sir, I am not sure I shall never approve it: For having lived long, I have experienced many Instances of being oblig’d, by better Information or fuller Consideration, to change Opinions even on important Subjects, which I once thought right, but found to be otherwise. It is therefore that the older I grow the more apt I am to doubt my own Judgment and to pay more Respect to the Judgment of others.”

“On the whole, Sir, I cannot help expressing a Wish, that every Member of the Convention, who may still have Objections to it, would with me on this Occasion doubt a little of his own Infallibility, and to make manifest our Unanimity, put his Name to this Instrument.”

In your group, discuss Ben Franklin’s speech. 

• What are some of his key arguments? Would you have signed the Constitution at the end of the Convention?
• Discuss as small groups a time in your life when you have compromised. Was it successful? 
• What did you gain? What did you let go of? 

After your discussion, individually write a short reflection on the purpose and need for compromise. 

The Constitutional Convention ended on September 17, 1787. As the Convention was reaching its close, Ben Franklin rose with a speech in his hand. Franklin was the oldest Convention delegate and one of America’s most beloved leaders. Franklin handed his speech to his friend and fellow Pennsylvania delegate, James Wilson, who read it aloud to the Convention. Franklin himself admitted that the new Constitution was not perfect, but he asked his colleagues to approach the document with humility. Franklin praised the work of his fellow delegates and urged them to sign the new Constitution—asking anyone “who may still have Objections” to “on this Occasion doubt a little of his own Infallibility.” Later that day, 39 delegates signed the new Constitution. But even following Franklin’s powerful speech, George Mason, Elbridge Gerry, and Edmund Randolph refused. Together, these three dissenters were concerned that their fellow delegates had refused to write a Bill of Rights into the new Constitution and had crafted a powerful national government that was destined to seize political power, swallow up the states, and abuse the rights of the American people. The Convention’s closing days were a sneak peek of the looming battle over the ratification of the Constitution.

Launch Give students time to read the speech and have a discussion in small groups. Prompt them to describe a time when they have questioned compromise. 

Activity Synthesis Discuss other areas of life when compromise is necessary. Have students brainstorm ideas of when they might have to compromise in the future.

Activity Extension (optional) Now that students have a better understanding of the compromises at the Convention, ask the following question:

• Would you have joined or dissented and why? 

4.7 Test Your Knowledge

• Student Instructions

Congratulations for completing the activities in this module! Now it’s time to apply what you have learned about the basic ideas and concepts covered.

Complete the questions in the following quiz to test your knowledge.

This activity will help students determine their overall understanding of module concepts. It is recommended that questions are completed electronically so immediate feedback is provided, but a downloadable copy of the questions (with answer key) is also available.

4.7 Interactive Knowledge Check: Constitutional Convention and Ratification

4.7 printable knowledge check: constitutional convention and ratification, previous module, module 3: road to the convention, next module, module 5: the bill of rights.

Shortly after the ratification of the U.S. Constitution, the Founding generation added the Bill of Rights—the Constitution’s first 10 amendments. These amendments guarantee many of our most cherished liberties, including the freedom of religion, the freedom of speech, the right to keep and bear arms, and the right to a jury trial. After the Constitutional Convention, the absence of a bill of rights emerged as a key part of the debates over ratification. Anti-Federalists—those who opposed the Constitution —pointed to the missing bill of rights as a fatal flaw...

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The Articles of Confederation

In 1777, the Second

Guiding Questions

• To what extent does an excess of liberty endanger individual liberty?
• To what extent can individual rights and liberties be protected without a strong central government?
• Students will analyze the provisions of the Articles of Confederation.
• Students will determine why individuals such as George Washington expressed a growing concern over government’s inadequacies, and why these concerns were expressed by and heightened after events such as Shays’s Rebellion.
• Students will explain why there was a growing call for creating a strong central government and the rationales for the various arguments.

Expand Materials Materials

Educator Resources

• Articles of Confederation Answer Keys

Notes: Students will need access to the Declaration of Independence . Also, Handout A: Articles of Confederation and Handout K: Vices of the Political System are provided for reference and research, but are not directly used in activities.

Student Handouts

• Articles of Confederation Essay
• Handout A: Articles of Confederation (reference)

Handout B: Evaluation of the Articles of Confederation

Handout c: committee of detail – executive power.

• Handout D: Excerpts from the Introduction to Annapolis Convention Report – James Madison

Handout E: Excerpts from the Annapolis Convention Report

Handout f: articles of confederation one-pager, handout g: shays’s rebellion participants and locations, handout h: role play outline, handout i: analysis of shays’s rebellion, handout j: main headings from the vices of the political system of the united states.

• Handout K: Vices of the Political System of the United States, Full Text (reference)

Expand Key Terms Key Terms

• Alexander Hamilton
• Articles of Confederation
• Constitution
• Continental Congress
• George Washington
• James Madison
• Thomas Jefferson

Expand Prework Prework

Read The Articles of Confederation Essay .

Expand Warmup Warmup

Begin with whole-class discussion to refresh students’ memory regarding grievances that the colonists expressed about the British Government.

Provide the students with a copy of the Declaration of Independence for reference.

Note that, as long as the colonies had a common enemy in King George III and Parliament, their internal squabbles were limited. However, once the American Revolution was over, those interstate rivalries surfaced.

Expand Activities Activities

Study Groups [20 minutes]

Divide the class into 5 groups and assign one of the following readings to each group:

Sharing Groups [30 minutes]

Regroup the class, jigsaw style, so that the new groups include at least one person to report on each of the documents above. Allow time for this reporting and encourage students to annotate the handouts as their classmates describe each document.

Shays’s Rebellion Role Play [45 minutes]

Handout F: Articles of Confederation One-Pager provides a summary of the strengths and weaknesses of America’s first constitution, the Articles of Confederation. Use Handout F along with Handout G: Shays’s Rebellion Participants and Locations , Handout H: Role Play Outline , and Handout I: Analysis of Shays’s Rebellion to provide classes with a role play in which they analyze the purposes of a central government, evaluate the Articles of Confederation, reenact Shays’s Rebellion, and reflect on its results.

Problems Facing the New Nation [20 minutes]

In whole-class dialogue, review Handout J: Main Headings from the Vices of the Political System of the United States , and then discuss the Critical Thinking Question: Based on a quick overview of this list from Madison, and on your background knowledge of the functioning of the government under the Articles of Confederation, which 3 to 5 problems do you think were the most serious and important? Be prepared to discuss your reasoning with others.

Expand Wrap Up Wrap Up

In a class discussion, written response, graphic organizer, poster, flow chart, or some other format, students will trace the evolution of the growing concerns and necessity to change the Articles of Confederation. Students will discuss/debate whether individual rights and liberties are more in jeopardy from a strong central government or from a weak central government.

Expand Extensions Extensions

Students analyze further Madison’s Vices (Handout J) and draw connections to the debates at the Constitutional Convention and the U.S. Constitution. In an essay after the study of Philadelphia Convention, the students assess to what extent these vices made it into the debates at the Convention and the final draft of the U.S. Constitution.

Handout A: Articles of Confederation: March 1, 1781

Handout d: excerpts from the introduction to the annapolis convention report, handout k: vices of the political system of the united states, full text.

Next Lesson

The Constitutional Convention

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The Constitution

The Constitution was written in the summer of 1787 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, by delegates from 12 states, in order to replace the Articles of Confederation with a new form of government. It created a federal system with a national government composed of 3 separated powers, and included both reserved and concurrent powers of states.

The Constitutional Convention (LLPH)

What compromises were made at the Constitutional Convention?

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AP®︎/College US History

Course: ap®︎/college us history   >   unit 3.

• The Articles of Confederation
• Shays's Rebellion

Challenges of the Articles of Confederation

• Articles of Confederation
• The Articles of Confederation comprised the United States’ first constitution, lasting from 1776 until 1789. The Articles established a weak central government and placed most powers in the hands of the states.
• Under the Articles, the US economy faltered, since the central government lacked the power to enforce tax laws or regulate commerce.
• Shays’s Rebellion , an uprising of Revolutionary War veterans in Massachusetts that both the state and national governments struggled to address due to a lack of centralized military power, illustrated the need to create a stronger governing system.

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Biden hailed the passage of the law on Wednesday as a “good day for world peace”, saying that the measure makes the United States safer.

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The package will provide Israel with $17bn in additional aid despite growing calls for restricting US assistance to the country over abuses in Gaza , where the Israeli military has killed more than 34,000 Palestinians.

However, the US president framed the new assistance as an effort to help Israel protect itself from attacks against Iran.

“My commitment to Israel – I want to make clear again – is ironclad,” Biden told reporters. “The security of Israel is critical.”

Palestinian rights advocates were quick to denounce the measure, stressing that Israel stands accused before the International Criminal Court of committing genocide against Palestinians.

“It is beyond unconscionable that Congress and President Biden are sending the Israeli military billions of dollars worth of weapons – with no strings attached – to massacre, starve, and expel Palestinian civilians,” IfNotNow, a youth-led progressive Jewish group, said in a statement.

The Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR) said Biden “passed the moral point of no return” by signing the bill.

“President Biden has betrayed the soul of our nation and disregarded the will of the American people, who overwhelmingly support a ceasefire and oppose unconditional aid to Israel,” CAIR director Nihad Awad said in a statement.

The US Senate approved the bill on Tuesday in a 79-18 vote. Days earlier, the House of Representatives also adopted the measure.

Late on Tuesday, US Senator Bernie Sanders decried the approval of the supplemental foreign funding bill, calling it a “dark day” for the US Senate. He added that Washington should not fund right-wing Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu’s war on Gaza.

“The housing in Gaza is destroyed; the infrastructure in Gaza is destroyed; the health care system in Gaza is destroyed; the educational system in Gaza is destroyed. Enough is enough,” Sanders said in a statement.

The measure had stalled in Congress for months amid competing political agendas.

Some Republicans have expressed growing scepticism about sending more taxpayer dollars to Ukraine as the Russian invasion of the country grinds on more than two years after it began. But Democrats insisted on passing the bill to provide foreign aid to Ukraine and Israel together.

On Wednesday, Biden stressed the importance of the new law and its implications for the battlefield in Ukraine, where Russian forces have made some gains in recent months.

“Now, Americans are going to send Ukraine the supplies they need to keep them in the fight,” he told reporters.

The law allocates $61bn for Ukraine. It also sets aside $9bn for humanitarian assistance around the world, some of which can go to Gaza.

“We’re going to immediately secure that aid and surge it, including food, medical supplies, clean water,” Biden said. “And Israel must make sure all this aid reaches the Palestinians in Gaza without delay.”

Israel has been imposing a siege in Gaza, severely restricting the entry of food and other vital supplies, bringing the territory of more than 2 million people to the verge of famine .

In a statement on April 4, Biden rebuked Israel , suggesting that Washington would reconsider its support for the offensive in Gaza if the Israeli government does not allow more aid and take steps to protect civilians in the territory.

Since then, Israel has pushed on with its blockade and intensified its attacks on Gaza. This week, more than 300 bodies were discovered in mass graves near the Nasser Hospital in Khan Younis, where the Israeli army had recently conducted an operation.

But the Biden administration has muted its criticism of Israel as tensions between the US ally and Iran intensified in recent weeks. Instead, Washington has repeatedly asserted that its support of Israel remains “ironclad”.

Iran had launched hundreds of drones and missiles against Israel on April 13 in retaliation for a deadly Israeli air raid against Tehran’s consulate in Damascus. Pentagon officials say that US forces in the region helped Israel shoot down most of the Iranian projectiles.

On Wednesday, Biden stressed US support for Israel against Iran. “I will always make sure that Israel has what it needs to defend itself against Iran and terrorists it supports,” he said.