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5 Steps to Reduce the Length of the Research Paper Without Losing Content

You have reached the point where you are happy with your research, you’ve completed a manuscript and selected a target journal. Yet while doing the final checks, you find that one of those pesky requirements sets the maximum length of the research paper, which you have greatly exceeded.

As an editor and journal reviewer, I often find that authors use too many words to convey one idea, either because they have too much to say or English is not their first language. This redundancy occurs when you unnecessarily repeat something that can muddle the message and divert the reader’s attention, which should be avoided. But, how to shorten a research paper while making sure your message is clear? Do not despair, I have five simple tips to help you achieve just that.

1. The first thing to reduce word count in research papers is to focus. Concepts should be defined once, either in the Introduction or Discussion section, but not both. Methodologies are also only needed once, and if established then make sure to cite the relevant reference. Use tables and figures to present the data; numbers from tables or figures should not be repeated in the text except in unusual cases where the numbers have a special significance. The conclusion should summarize the answers to the research question and not repeat the results.

2. Avoid redundancy. What do I mean by redundant? It refers to unnecessary words. For example, “all over the world” can be replaced with “worldwide” and instead of writing “in spite of the fact that” you can use “although.” Redundancy also happens when using two words together that have the same meaning (e.g., merge together, close proximity, end result, or shorter/longer in length). Another way to reduce the length of a research paper is to avoid repetition in your sentences (e.g., for the measurement of the nitrogen concentration, we measured the content of nitrogen using the Kjeldahl method; everything before the comma can be deleted). Hyphenated words are usually considered one word, so you can also hyphenate compound adjectives that modify a noun (e.g., water-soluble fertilizers instead of fertilizers that are soluble in water). When giving a comparison for which there are an equal number of elements, use the word “respectively” (e.g., the oxygen and nitrogen flow were set at 80 and 5 ml/min, respectively).

3. When citing papers, avoid using introductory expressions. How often do you read papers repeating “another research study found/demonstrated that” or “scientists have noted that” or the sometimes inexplicable need to use the author name? State your claim directly and cite the relevant literature, your prose will be remarkably more authoritative and it will also reduce the word count in research papers.

4. Using irrelevant words is a common pitfall. Don’t use words such as “notably” or “interestingly” or “unfortunately.” it may be just one word but they are redundant in scientific writing and can be deleted to shorten your research paper as they add no value. Also, avoid superlatives––adjectives used to mean something is the best of its kind––such as “it is extremely hot.” Give details (e.g., the precise temperature) and let the numbers do the talking.

5. As some journals set a very low word limit for this section, the length of the Abstract will be the ultimate challenge. Has someone ever told you “so, what do you do?” This means we used too many words and we either lost attention or they got lost with too many details. The Abstract should be a clear standalone passage of your research. A brief rationale (e.g., while X and Y are essential to A and B, little is known) with the study aim, the overall methodological approach followed by the new information uncovered (trends, not every data obtained), and the conclusions – simply present the implications of the study findings.

The punchline is that if you do not comply with the most basic requirements, your manuscript will be rejected without review. Let’s be honest, it is not about the decoration we provide but the message we convey. So I hope these steps will help you reduce the word count in research papers.

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• Confusing Elements of a Research Paper That Trip Up Most Academics
• 3 Easy Ways for Researchers to Improve Their Academic Vocabulary
• Self-Editing: The Pros and Cons of Editing Your Own Research Paper
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Five Tips to Reduce the Length of Your Academic Manuscript

Academics often struggle to work within a word limit, character limit, or page limit. The limit might be 250 characters for a title, 300 words for an abstract, 8000 words for a manuscript, or 100 pages for a thesis (with specific requirements for font size, margins, etc). At first glance, these limits seem to work against the goal of producing comprehensive scholarship. However, the requirements are there for a reason. Scientific manuscripts and other scholarly communications—including grant applications and graduate school applications—are only useful if they are read and understood. Many researchers, reviewers, and faculty members have resented spending extra time to decipher manuscripts that are disorganized, repetitive, and poorly worded. The frustration of these readers is why many journals, funding agencies, and graduate programs have very specific requirements for length.

Struggling with word limits is a problem for people writing in their native language, and for people writing in a second language (often English). In fact, people who are writing in their native language often have more trouble working within a word limit than people who must think carefully about every word they put down. Even researchers with many years of success can struggle with being succinct. They may publish high-quality work in well-respected journals, but force readers to take an unnecessarily long and convoluted path to understand their work. For any research project, clearly and concisely describing the work can only increase the likelihood of acceptance.

Many articles on reducing word count focus on tips for reducing the length of sentences or paragraphs. We will start with tips for organizing large sections, such as an individual chapter, an introduction, a materials and methods section, a results section, or a discussion section.

1. Organize each section so that major concepts are explained only once

A major reason why drafts of academic manuscripts can far exceed the word limit is because of poor organization. Authors may discuss the same topic in multiple places, adding just a bit of new information each time. If you find yourself in such a situation, it is often useful to reconsider the paragraph-by-paragraph organization of each major section. This task is difficult to accomplish on a computer screen for any section that's more than a few pages long, so I recommend printing out the text. You can use single-space and smaller font to save paper, but make sure everything is easily readable. The margins should have enough room to jot down notes. Then clear off a conference table, dining table, or other large workspace so you can lay out and organize your text.

Use scissors to separate paragraphs, and Scotch tape to join together parts of a paragraph that are on different pages. Use highlighters or colored pens to mark the main topic of each paragraph. Use your workspace to lay out the paragraphs in a logical order, with the goal of consolidating paragraphs that explain the same topic. Some paragraphs may need to be cut into multiple pieces.

Paperclips, tape, and notes in the margins can be useful for getting things organized. You should focus on the overall organization, but may want to cross out text that becomes unnecessary, and jot down new bits of text to include. For example, a paragraph about bioluminescence in deep sea fish may be incorporated into a larger section on bioluminescence in a variety of marine creatures. When introducing the research question about deep sea fish, the writer might add "Since bioluminescence is often used by predators in the deep sea..."

Once you have the reorganized the paper copy of your text, you will need to revise the electronic version so that it matches. The commands for "search", "cut", and "paste" will be very useful here. While it may be tempting to revise individual sentences at this time, I recommend first reorganizing the electronic version and saving a copy.

Depending on the requirements for the project, some information may need to be repeated in multiple sections. For journal articles, it is often appropriate to define a topic in the introduction, and go into more depth in the discussion. Figure legends usually need to stand alone, so an abbreviation used in 5 different figures must be defined in all 5 figure legends.

For shorter sections—such as an abstract, statement of purpose, or paragraph within a chapter—a good goal is for every sentence to describe a new concept.

2. Differentiate between what is essential and what would be nice to include

For the journal Science, research manuscripts are expected to be no longer than ~4500 words , including references and figure legends. In contrast, the journal Neuron has a limit of ~6800 words (specifically 45,000 characters) , excluding references. Therefore, a manuscript for Neuron can include ~50% more text than a manuscript for Science. The additional space is often used to include more background information and interpretation.

A 2021 publication in Neuron starts the introduction as follows:

Genetics is a major contributor to autism spectrum disorders. The genetic component can be transmitted or acquired through de novo ("new") mutation. Analysis of the de novo mutations has demonstrated a large number of potential autism target genes (Gilman et al., 2011; Levy et al., 2011; Marshall et al., 2008; Pinto et al., 2010; Sanders et al., 2011; Sebat et al., 2007). Neuron

Excluding the 6 citations, this statement includes 38 words.

If the same research was prepared for publication in Science, a shortened introduction might start as follows: "Genetics is a major contributor to autism spectrum disorders. Analysis of de novo ('new') mutations has demonstrated a large number of potential autism target genes." This 25 word statement might be followed by 4 citations, using "1, 2, 3, 4" in superscript. The 2nd sentence in the original introduction was nice, but not essential for understanding the work.

Consider the specific requirements for your manuscript, and find the right balance between being thorough and being brief. Abstracts are very brief, dissertations and books can be quite expansive, and journal articles are somewhere in between. For longer manuscripts, there are usually many opportunities to condense text. For readers, longer than necessary is never better.

3. Make sure that every sentence adds value

As you refine your manuscript, you should read each sentence and decide whether it is needed. If you can remove a sentence and not lose valuable information, then it's probably best to leave that sentence out. At this stage of editing, it is not sufficient for a sentence to just be true or to just describe a new concept. Each sentence should contribute to the reader's understanding of your research. This is also a good time to make revisions at the sentence level to improve clarity and flow.

4. Check the specific requirements for your manuscript

Many journals, funding agencies, and graduate programs provide extensive "information for authors." Check to see exactly what does and doesn't count towards the word limit, character limit, or page limit. Does the abstract count? What about references, materials and methods, figure legends, and footnotes? What about figures and tables?

5. Make small changes to reduce manuscript length

Once you've made major changes, here are some small changes that can really add up:

Remove "the"

Original: "The increase in salinity was associated with..." Revised: "Increased salinity was associated with..."

Remove "that"

Original: "Mice that lacked the enzyme..." Revised: "Mice lacking the enzyme..."

Replace nouns with verbs

Original: "We provided an introduction to..." Revised: "We introduced..."

Remove unnecessary adverbs (e.g. slowly, effectively) and adjectives

Original: "The small sample was carefully dissected." Revised: "The sample was dissected."

Remove "of"

Original: "The lens of the microscope..." Revised: "The microscope lens..."

Use the shortest form of a word

Original: "Graphite was utilized..." Revised: "Graphite was used..."

Remove unnecessary transitions (e.g. then, furthermore, in fact)

Original: "Indeed, participants provided with..." Revised: "Participants provided with..."

Define abbreviations for frequently used phrases, then use those abbreviations

Example: "Rodents of unusual size (ROUS) were discovered..."

When working with a page limit, focus on paragraphs that have just a few words on the last line.

Replace passive voice with active voice if possible. (Check your requirements)

Original: "Observations were made..." Revised: "We observed..."

Don't explain that a citation is coming

Original: "It has been reported that supernovas contain. . . (Lee et al, 2017)" Revised: "Supernovas contain. . . (Lee et al, 2017)"

Delete unnecessary spaces around mathematical operators

Original: "18 %, n = 65" Revised: "18%, n=65"

Use "respectively"

Original: "Group A was treated with 2.5 mg, and group B was treated with 5.0 mg." Revised: "Groups A and B were treated with 2.5 and 5.0 mg, respectively."

Simplify phrasing

Original: "Best of luck as you work to condense and refine your manuscript!" Revised: "Best of luck as you refine your manuscript!"

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7 Best Ways to Shorten an Essay

• Smodin Editorial Team
• Published: May 14, 2024

Are you removing a lot of words and paragraphs from your essay but still not seeing the word count budge? Whether you’re meeting a strict word count or refining your message, reducing your essay’s length without sacrificing content quality can be challenging.

Luckily, besides just aiming for the minimum word count, there are some pretty simple solutions, like using artificial intelligence, conducting thorough research, and trimming unnecessary words. But there’s more.

In this guide, we’ll unpack some practical tips to help you make your essay concise and impactful. Time to make every word count!

7 Best Ways To Shorten an Essay

Here’s a detailed breakdown of the best ways you can shorten your essay:

1. Use Artificial intelligence

When we talk about academic writing, artificial intelligence (AI) can be a game changer, especially when it comes to reducing the length of your essays.

Tools like Smodin can help make your content more concise while enhancing overall quality. AI can help you shorten your essay through the following methods:

• Automated rewriting : AI rewriting tools can reformulate existing content to make it more straightforward while maintaining the original meaning.
• Sentence simplification : Algorithms can analyze your sentences and suggest simpler alternatives, helping eliminate redundant information and reduce word count.
• Research assistance : Certain platforms have AI-powered research tools that allow you to quickly gather the most relevant information. This ensures that every word in your essay contributes to your argument without unnecessary fillers.
• Plagiarism check : Ensuring your essay is plagiarism-free is crucial. For example, Smodin’s plagiarism detection tools help you identify and replace copied content with original, concise expressions.
• Instant feedback : Receive real-time suggestions on how to streamline your text, focusing on the essentials to effectively communicate your message.
• Reference generation : Automatically generate and insert citations in the correct format, which helps save you time while maintaining the academic integrity of your essay and keeping it short.

2. Identify Unnecessary Words and Remove Them

One of the simplest yet most effective ways to shorten your essay is by identifying and eliminating unnecessary words.

This approach helps decrease word count and sharpens your arguments, making your writing more compelling. You can identify and remove extra words by doing the following:

• Spot wordy phrases : Often, phrases can be condensed without losing meaning. For example, the phrase “due to the fact that” can be replaced with “because.” Be on the lookout for wordy phrases that increase word count needlessly.
• Remove unnecessary prepositional phrases : Prepositional phrases can be redundant or add unnecessary detail. Evaluate whether these phrases add value or just extra words. Cutting them can make sentences more direct.
• Avoid redundancies : Redundant pairs like “absolutely essential” or “future plans” can be reduced to one word without losing informational value.
• Trim excess adjectives and adverbs : Adjectives and adverbs can make writing better but can also lead to over-description. Use them sparingly, especially when they don’t contribute additional meaning to the nouns and verbs they modify.
• Fewer words; more impact : Aim for brevity by using fewer words to express the same idea. This will help to reduce the word count while making your writing more impactful and clear.

3. Tighten Sentence Structure

Tightening your sentence structure is crucial for making your essay more concise and readable. Use active voice to make your writing clearer and more dynamic. This is especially important in academic writing, where you have to get to the point quickly.

In academic essays, shifting from passive voice to active voice can shorten and strengthen your sentences. For example, instead of writing, “The experiment was conducted by the students,” you can say, “The students conducted the experiment.” This reduces the number of words and places the action directly with the subject, making your sentences more direct.

Combining two separate sentences into one can streamline your ideas and reduce redundancies. Look for opportunities where sentences can be merged without losing their significance. For example, “He wrote the book. It became a bestseller.” can be rephrased as “He wrote the book, which became a bestseller.”

Also, avoid unnecessary qualifiers and modifiers that don’t add substantial information. Sentences often become bogged down with these extras, making them cluttered and long.

4. Conduct Thorough Research

When writing essays, extensive research can make the final output a lot shorter. Effective research helps you gather precise information that’s relevant to your topic. This means you’ll write more directly and avoid needless elaboration. Here’s how you can conduct research effectively:

• Define the scope of your research : Determine what information is essential to the argument. This initial step will help you focus your research efforts and prevent irrelevant data.
• Identify key sources : Begin with scholarly databases and academic journals that offer peer-reviewed articles. These sources provide credible, authoritative information that can be crucial for academic writing.
• Use precise keywords : When searching for information, use specific keywords related to your essay topic. Precision here will help find the most relevant articles and studies, reducing time spent on unnecessary reading.
• Evaluate sources : Assess the relevance and reliability of each source. Check the publication date to ensure the information is current and relevant to your topic.
• Take notes efficiently : As you research, jot down important points, quotes, and references. Organize these notes according to the sections in your essay to make writing faster.
• Synthesize information : Combine information from multiple sources to build a strong argument. This will allow you to write comprehensively and with fewer words, as each sentence carries more weight.

5. Improve Your Paragraph Structure

Streamlining paragraphs can make your essay shorter and more digestible for the reader. With a well-structured paragraph, you can focus on a single idea supported by concise statements.

Begin each paragraph with a topic sentence that clearly states the main idea. This sentence sets the direction and tone, letting the reader know what to expect. It also helps ensure that every following sentence relates directly to the main idea.

Condense supporting information by merging ideas that logically coexist within a single sentence or phrase. After that, evaluate each sentence for its contribution to the paragraph’s main idea. Remove any information that is repeated or goes into too much detail.

Focus on providing evidence and explanations that directly support the main point. You should also end each paragraph with a sentence that reinforces the main idea and potentially links to the next paragraph. This creates smooth transitions and keeps the essay focused and cohesive.

6. Refine the Introduction and Conclusion

These sections frame your essay and influence how your arguments are perceived. Here are some ways to keep them concise yet effective.

Introduction

The introduction should be engaging and concise, clearly stating the purpose and scope of your essay. Begin with a hook that grabs the reader’s attention, followed by background information that sets the context. Incorporate your thesis statement early on, ideally at the end of the intro.

The conclusion needs to reinforce the thesis. Summarize key points in the essay and show how they support the thesis. Provide a final thought that leaves the reader with something to ponder.

Also, remember to keep it tight – the conclusion isn’t a place for introducing new ideas. It should wrap up the ones you presented and prompt the reader to pose their own questions.

7. Edit and Proofread

Keep your essay concise and error-free by allocating ample time for editing and proofreading. These processes scrutinize your work at different levels, from the overall structure to word choices and punctuation. Here’s how you can go about it:

Start by reading through your entire paper to get a feel for its flow and coherence. Check if all paragraphs support your thesis statement and if section transitions are smooth. This will help you spot areas where the argument might be weak, or wording could be clearer.

Focus next on paragraph structure. Ensure each paragraph sticks to one main idea and that all sentences directly support the idea. Remove any repetitive or irrelevant sentences that don’t add value.

Then, look for clarity and style. Replace complex words with simpler alternatives to maintain readability. Keep your tone consistent throughout the paper. Adjust the sentence length and structure to enhance the flow and make it more engaging.

Proofreading

Proofreading comes after editing. The focus here is catching typing errors, grammatical mistakes, and inconsistent formatting. It’s always best to proofread with fresh eyes, so consider taking a break before this step.

Use tools like spell checkers, but don’t rely solely on them. Read your essay aloud or have someone else review it. Hearing the words can help you catch errors you may have missed.

Lastly, check for punctuation errors and ensure all citations and references are formatted according to the required academic style. This and all of the above are areas in which AI can help get the job done with speed and precision.

Why You Might Need to Shorten Your Essay

Ever heard the expression “less is more”? When it comes to academic writing, it normally is. Keeping your essays concise offers several benefits:

• Enhances clarity : A shorter essay forces you to focus on the main points and critical arguments, reducing the risk of going off-topic. This clarity makes your writing more impactful and easier for the reader to follow.
• Meets word limits : Many academic assignments have a maximum word count. Learning to express your thoughts concisely helps you stay within these limits without sacrificing essential content.
• Saves time : For both the writer and the reader, shorter essays take less time to write, revise, and read. This efficiency is especially valuable in academic settings where time is usually limited.
• Increases engagement : Readers are more likely to stay engaged with a document that gets to the point quickly. Lengthy texts can deter readers, especially if the content has unnecessary words or redundant points.
• Improves writing skills : Shortening essays helps refine your writing skills. You become better at identifying and eliminating fluff, focusing instead on what really adds value to your paper.

Overall, adopting a more succinct writing style helps you meet academic requirements and polish your communication skills.

Why Use Smodin To Shorten an Essay

Using AI-powered platforms like Smodin to shorten your essay is both the simplest and the least time-consuming method available. Here’s why you should probably make Smodin your go-to essay shortener:

• Efficiency : Smodin eases the editing process, using advanced algorithms to quickly identify areas where content can be condensed without losing meaning.
• Accuracy : With its powerful AI, Smodin ensures that the essence of your essays stays intact while getting rid of unnecessary words, making your writing more precise.
• Ease of use : Smodin is user-friendly, making it accessible even to those who aren’t the most tech-savvy. Its easy-to-grasp interface allows for seamless navigation and operation.

Smodin’s offerings

• Rewriter : Available in over 50 languages, this tool helps rewrite text to be more concise.
• Article Writer : Assists in drafting articles that are crisp and to the point.
• Plagiarism and Auto Citation : Ensures your essay is original and correctly cited, which is crucial in academic writing.
• Language Detection : Identifies the language of the text, ensuring the right adjustments are made for clarity.

All these tools and more are what make Smodin an excellent choice for academics looking to reduce the length of their essays.

Final Thoughts

Word counts can be a real headache, especially when you need to say a lot with a little. Thankfully, by identifying unnecessary words, tightening your sentences, and using tools like Smodin, you can make your essay concise without losing its meaning. Remember, a shorter essay doesn’t just meet word limits; and it’s clear, more compelling, and more likely to keep your reader engaged.

Keep it short, keep it sweet, and make every word count! Get started for free right now with Smodin.

• [email protected]

Trim Your Research Paper: Quick Word Reduction Tips

Reducing the word count of a research paper is a common challenge for academic writers. In this article, we will provide quick and effective tips to help you reduce word count of a research paper without sacrificing the quality of your content. By implementing these word reduction strategies, you can create a more concise and streamlined paper that will be more engaging for your readers.

Key Takeaways:

• Shorten research paper length without compromising quality.
• Condense academic writing to increase reader engagement.
• Trim academic papers for a more concise and streamlined presentation.

Identifying Areas to Condense in Your Research Paper

Before we embark on reducing the word count of your research paper, it is crucial to identify the areas that can be condensed. This section will guide you through a step-by-step process that includes analyzing the content density and relevance of your paper, targeting repetitive phrases and redundant arguments, and assessing and refining your paper’s overall structure. By following these steps, you will be able to pinpoint specific areas where word reduction is possible.

Analyzing Content Density and Relevance

One effective way to condense your research paper is to analyze the content density and relevance . Take a careful look at each paragraph and sentence to determine if they contribute directly to your research objectives. Remove any unnecessary or tangential information that doesn’t serve the purpose of your paper. By eliminating irrelevant content, you can make your paper more concise and focused.

Targeting Repetitive Phrases and Redundant Arguments

Another key aspect of word reduction is targeting repetitive phrases and redundant arguments in your research paper. Scan through your writing and highlight any instances where you have used the same phrases or arguments multiple times. Instead of repeating the same information, consolidate your points and express them in a concise and clear manner. This will help eliminate unnecessary repetition and create a more streamlined narrative.

Assessing and Refining Your Paper’s Structure

The structure of your research paper plays a crucial role in its overall length. Assessing and refining your paper’s structure can help identify opportunities for word reduction. As you review your paper, pay attention to the organization and flow of your ideas. Look for sections or paragraphs that could be merged or condensed without losing the coherence and logical progression of your argument. By refining the structure of your paper, you can make it more concise while maintaining its integrity.

Strategies to Cut Down Content for a More Concise Paper

In this section, we will explore various strategies to cut down content and create a more concise research paper . By implementing these techniques, you can effectively decrease word count for publication without compromising the integrity of your paper.

One effective strategy is to summarize information . Instead of going into lengthy explanations, focus on conveying the main ideas concisely. This will help you eliminate unnecessary details and reduce the overall word count.

Another technique is to omit unnecessary details . Review your paper and identify sections or sentences that do not contribute significantly to your main argument or findings. By removing these extraneous details, you can streamline your paper and make it more concise.

Prioritizing essential information is also crucial when cutting down content. Identify the key points, evidence, and analysis that are critical to supporting your thesis. By highlighting these essential elements, you can create a more focused and impactful research paper.

Utilizing these strategies, you can effectively trim your research paper, ensuring that it is concise and engaging for your readers. Remember, concise writing not only decreases word count but also enhances readability and comprehension.

Reduce Word Count of a Research Paper Through Editing Techniques

Editing plays a crucial role in reducing the word count of a research paper. By employing specific editing techniques, you can effectively trim down your paper without compromising its quality and integrity. In this section, we will explore three key editing techniques: applying the reverse outline method , employing active voice for brevity , and utilizing software tools to aid in word reduction.

Applying the Reverse Outline Method Effectively

The reverse outline method is a powerful editing technique that involves reviewing the structure of your paper and identifying areas that can be condensed. Here’s how you can effectively apply the reverse outline method :

• Create an outline of your research paper, including all the main points and supporting details.
• Read through your paper and summarize each paragraph or section in one or two concise sentences.
• Analyze the summary of each paragraph or section to determine if any information can be eliminated or combined with other parts.
• Consider the overall flow and organization of your paper, making adjustments as necessary to create a more streamlined structure.

By following the reverse outline method, you can identify unnecessary or redundant information and condense your paper effectively, reducing its word count without losing any key points or arguments.

Employing Active Voice for Brevity

Another effective editing technique for reducing word count is employing active voice throughout your paper. Active voice uses direct and concise language, making your sentences more straightforward and succinct. Here are some tips for using active voice:

• Focus on the subject performing the action rather than the object receiving the action.
• Avoid using unnecessary words and phrases, such as “it is” or “there are.”
• Use strong verbs that convey action and eliminate the need for extra words.

By incorporating active voice into your writing, you can enhance clarity and brevity, ultimately reducing the overall word count of your research paper.

Utilizing Software Tools to Aid in Word Reduction

In the digital age, there are numerous software tools available to assist in word reduction and overall editing. These tools offer features such as word count tracking, readability analysis, and suggestions for eliminating redundancies and improving sentence structure. Here are some popular software tools that can aid in word reduction:

By utilizing these software tools, you can efficiently edit and reduce the word count of your research paper, enhancing its readability and conciseness.

After implementing the strategies discussed in this article, you are now equipped with the tools to create a trimmed and polished research paper. To ensure the final touches are in place, we have prepared a final checklist for you to review and make any necessary word reductions.

Final Checklist for a Trimmed and Polished Research Paper

• Review the paper structure and eliminate any unnecessary sections or paragraphs.
• Check for repetitive phrases and redundant arguments, consolidating or removing them as needed.
• Ensure the content is concise and focused, prioritizing essential information and omitting unnecessary details.
• Use the active voice whenever possible to improve brevity and clarity.
• Take advantage of software tools that assist in identifying areas for word reduction.
• Proofread the paper thoroughly to catch any overlooked opportunities for trimming.

By following this checklist, you will be able to review your research paper with a critical eye and refine it to its most concise form.

Understanding the Benefits of Concise Academic Writing

Concise academic writing offers various benefits, not only for you as a writer but also for your readers. By crafting a trimmed research paper, you improve clarity and enhance reader engagement. When your ideas are communicated efficiently, readers are more likely to grasp and appreciate your research findings.

Additionally, concise academic writing allows you to convey your thoughts more effectively, saving valuable time for both you and your audience. By trimming unnecessary words and removing redundancies, you create a streamlined document that delivers your message with precision.

In conclusion, investing time in reducing word count and achieving concise academic writing is a worthwhile endeavor. By following the final checklist and recognizing the benefits of simplicity and clarity, you can produce a research paper that not only captures attention but also conveys your ideas with the utmost impact and effectiveness.

How can I reduce the word count of my research paper?

There are several effective ways to reduce the word count of your research paper without compromising its quality. Some strategies include analyzing the content density and relevance , eliminating repetitive phrases and redundant arguments, refining the overall structure, summarizing information, omitting unnecessary details, and prioritizing essential information.

What editing techniques can I use to decrease the word count of my research paper?

Editing plays a crucial role in reducing the word count of a research paper. You can employ techniques such as using the reverse outline method to condense the paper’s structure, employing active voice for brevity , and utilizing software tools that aid in word reduction. These techniques will help you trim down your paper while maintaining its integrity.

What are the benefits of concise academic writing?

Concise academic writing offers several benefits, including improved clarity, increased reader engagement, and efficient communication of ideas. By reducing unnecessary wordiness and focusing on essential information, you can effectively convey your thoughts and research findings to your audience.

Can you provide a checklist for trimming and polishing my research paper?

Absolutely! Here’s a final checklist to help you ensure that your research paper is trimmed and polished: 1. Analyze the content density and relevance. 2. Eliminate repetitive phrases and redundant arguments. 3. Refine the overall structure. 4. Summarize information and omit unnecessary details. 5. Prioritize essential information. 6. Apply the reverse outline method for condensing the paper’s structure. 7. Utilize active voice for brevity . 8. Consider using software tools to aid in word reduction. By following this checklist, you can create a well-crafted research paper that effectively conveys your ideas while maintaining a concise format.

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A Guide to Crafting Shorter, Impactful Sentences in Academic Writing

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Table of Contents

Using fewer words to convey your research can improve the readability and comprehension of your paper. By splitting information into separate and clear parts, you can give readers the breathing space necessary for them to digest even complex ideas. There is no magical formula to reduce the number of words you are using, though. All you need to do is keep in mind these tips!  

Remove redundant verbs  

Eliminating unnecessary words is a great way to shorten sentences while preserving their central message or idea. Some of the most commonly used redundant words are verbs such as   conduct ,  perform ,  carry out, undertake, etc¹ .  

For example,  

Don’t write : We performed a comprehensive analysis of all datasets from the last decade.  

Instead, write : We comprehensively analyzed all datasets from the last decade.  

Similarly,  

Don’t write : Current scientific consensus supports carrying out the vaccination of adults and children.  

Instead, write : Current scientific consensus supports the vaccinating of adults and children.  

Avoid unnecessary filler words   

When trimming sentences down to size, every word matters. Filler words such as that, of, or up often appear in scientific writing, but are unnecessary² .  

Don’t write: John et al . suggested that new ways of exchanging currency be explored.  

Instead, write : John et al. suggested exploring new ways of exchanging currency .   

Don’t write: The metal beams must be hoisted up to the roof, one by one.  

Hoisting itself indicates the movement of something to a higher position. Adding the word up after that is not necessary.  

Instead, write: The metal beams must be hoisted to the roof, one by one .  

Also avoid adding unnecessary phrases.²  Take the following examples:  

Don’t write: Centrifuging the protein samples is advisable in the case that they need to be stored for long periods .  

Instead, write: Centrifuging the protein samples is advisable if they need to be stored for long periods.  

Don’t write: For doubts in subjects such as mathematics and physics, schoolchildren preferred consulting a friend .  

Instead, write: For doubts in mathematics and physics, schoolchildren preferred consulting a friend.  

Watch out for the noun form of verbs   

Adopting the noun form of verbs in your writing can introduce complexity and increase word count¹ .  

Don’t write: We took readings of the signal from 1000 km below sea level.  

Instead, write: We read the signal from 1000 km below sea level.  

Don’t write: We purified the product through gradual refinement of the substrate.  

Instead, write: We purified the product by gradually refining the substrate.  

Get into the topic of your sentence directly   

Avoiding unnecessary details in your sentences can ensure that your own ideas get most of the reader’s attention. Therefore, it is best to jump right to the crux of your message with each sentence² .  

Don’t write: There have been many studies on similar topics. For example, ABC et al. reported on the molecular mechanisms of XYZ disease and DEF studied the pathogenesis and the role of DCE mutation. Our study is not linked to these. We focus on a novel mutation, FGH, and its role in XYZ disease.  

Instead, write: This work focuses on the role of a novel mutation, FGH, in the pathogenesis of XYZ disease.  

Conclusion  

There are no rigorous rules when it comes to sentence length in academic writing. But short sentences can work wonders in helping people grasp ideas. We hope that these tips help you write crisper, more effective sentences. For further help in polishing your manuscript, we recommend reaching out to the Elsevier Language Services! The native English-speaking editors here specialize in transforming manuscripts into more accessible and engaging versions. They not only ensure that your manuscript is error-free, but that it makes for a compelling read. Contact us today to create the best version of your manuscript!  

  Type in wordcount for Standard Total: USD EUR JPY Follow this link if your manuscript is longer than 12,000 words. Upload

References:  

• Write clear sentences. (2023, March 22). Student Academic Success. https://www.monash.edu/student-academic-success/excel-at-writing/improve-your-writing/write-clearly/write-clear-sentences .  
• Writing Clearly & Concisely | UAGC Writing Center. (n.d.). https://writingcenter.uagc.edu/writing-clearly-concisely .  

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3 ways to cut the clutter from your writing

Drafts of your manuscripts are bound to have clutter. That’s perfectly normal. But what exactly is “clutter” and how can you get rid of it? Find the verb, cut repetition and get rid of “throat clearing.”

When you are writing, 1 you don’t want to slow yourself down by trying to write polished sentences and paragraphs. (I tend to get trapped in this and do not recommend it!)

In the writing stage, your goal is to get everything you want to say down in words. It’s perfectly fine that the sentences aren’t beautiful or don’t flow.

When it’s all on the page, that’s the time to go back and revise. And one task you’ll probably have to do is to cut the clutter .

[In this article…]

• What is clutter?
• Find the verb
• Cut repetition
• Get rid of “throat clearing”

What’s clutter?

Merriam-Webster online dictionary defines “clutter ” as:

…a crowded or confused mass or collection Merriam-Webster online dictionary

Clutter refers to words and phrases that don’t serve any function. They are the “weeds” 2 that get in the way of readers understanding your message.

Some people even say that clutter is used on purpose—by government and corporations for example—to hide information and evade responsibility.

How to cut the clutter

Cutting the clutter means getting rid of what you don’t need to convey your point.

So how can you go about doing that? Here are three ways you can prune your writing to make your message clearer.

☑ Find the verb!

Often, professionals like to make verbs into nouns. This is called nominalization . For example, you’d take verbs like “investigate” and “analyze” and change them into the nouns “investigation” and “analysis.”

Nominalization isn’t necessarily a bad thing. But if you use it too much, the text becomes wordier and murkier.

You can see in each case, you need fewer words when the action (“to review,” “to analyze,” “to compare”) is expressed as a verb.

Nominalization also makes the action a little less … well, active. And that makes your writing duller. 3 When the action is the verb, the sentence becomes clearer (by being more direct) and stronger.

▶ What you can do

• Find the action. If it’s in the noun, then change it back to a verb and adjust the sentence.

☑ Cut repetition

Another way to clear some clutter is to get rid of repetition, especially redundant words .

For example, if you say “the round circle,” that’s redundant: a circle is round by definition. A few more examples (the part in brackets are redundant):

• depreciated [in value]
• [general] consensus
• [final] outcome
• [mutual] cooperation

Random House editor and author Benjamin Dreyer shares his excellent list of redundant pairs: “ ‘Close’ Proximity, ‘End’ Result, and More Redundant Words to Delete From Your Writing .”

• Look carefully at your word pairs and sentences and ask yourself if any say the same thing. (Check Benjamin Dreyer’s article .) If you find redundancies, cut out the extra word/sentence and reword as needed.
• If you have a pair of similar sentences because you wanted to express two subtly different ideas, try rewording to make the distinction clearer.

☑ Get rid of “throat-clearing”

Just as you clear your throat or say “umm” when you’re warming up to speak or pausing for a thought, you can write fillers that don’t actually say anything.

For example:

It is important to note that… I further point out that… An important aspect, which must not be overlooked, is that… It would appear to be the case that… It should be emphasized that…

Sometimes, even “there is/there are” can be unnecessary:

It’s perfectly normal that you use these phrases in the writing stage; they can help ease you into saying the important bits.

But look for them when you’re revising … and delete them. It will make your text tighter.

• Go through and underline/highlight/bracket phrases like the examples.
• See if your meaning is just as clear without those phrases (most of the time, it will be!) and delete mercilessly

See also more tips, such as using short words and short sentences .

Resources 4

For more examples and tips on how to cut clutter, try these resources.

• “ Writing in the Sciences “: This Coursera course teaches how to become effective (scientific) writers. It’s geared towards scientists, but the concepts are applicable to any discipline. It’s brilliant and free (to audit). Units 1 to 3 especially are relevant for editing.
• William Strunk, Jr. 1920. Elements of Style . In particular, read Chapter III “Elementary Principles of Composition.” (This is the 1920 version that’s out of copyright. Project Gutenberg has ePub and Kindle versions for download . Perhaps more well known is the Strunk & White version .)
• Ernest Gowers. 1954. The Complete Plain Words . Written over 60 years ago, yet (sadly?) relevant today as ever. The examples he uses will keep you chuckling. (The book is in the public domain in Canada . There is also a 2014 update with Rebecca Gowers .)
• William Zinsser. 2006. On Writing Well: 30th Anniversary Edition . He has a chapter on “Clutter.” Also see the articles listed below, “5 ways to declutter your writing” and “William Zinsser’s top 10 tips on writing well” to get the highlights.

☘ Online resources

• Common Grammatical Errors: Wordiness : York University gives concise advice on how to avoid wordiness, including examples.
• Over the Limit: How to Reduce Your Research Paper’s Word Count : Clear and practical tips by scientific copyeditor Claire Bacon to reduce your word count.
• 5 Ways to Declutter Your Writing : The Thesis Whisperer (edited by Associate Professor Inger Mewburn, The Australian National University) shares five great tips inspired by William Zinsser’s On Writing Well .
• William Zinsser’s Top 10 Tips on Writing Well : As summarized by Arun Agrahri for The Writing Cooperative on Medium.
• 20 Clutter Words & Phrases to Avoid : A nice infographic from Writers Write on words and phrases you can easily cut from your writing.

Want writing tips and updates on new content like this?

Plus: Explore my free downloads and connect with me on LinkedIn or Facebook .

Image by Nino Carè from Pixabay

Share this:

• Writing of course starts with planning your document :)
• …as William Zinsser called them in On Writing Well
• In Style: Toward Clarity and Grace , Joseph M. Williams argues that it’s easier for a reader to follow your point when the verb matches the main action that you’re trying to convey.
• These are not in alphabetical order. The sources towards the top of each cluster are the ones I like best or find most relevant.

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Shortening Your Manuscript

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12 Tips to Reduce Manuscript Word Count

Have you experienced writing a manuscript that seems to go on and on, is exceedingly verbose, and repeats ideas and words throughout the document? Have you been asked to reduce the word count in academic manuscripts and wondered what to do about it? If so, you’re not alone! In this article, we will go through the top 12 tips to reduce word count in academic manuscripts.

Add Exact and Specific Actions

This may sound counterproductive. After all, how can you add something to reduce word count? Well, in this case, you can and you should.

Longer sentence : After listening to each practice sound, the participants were instructed to choose the number on the scale that better represented their feelings. (22 words)

Revised sentence : Participants chose the number on the scale that better represented their feelings after listening to each practice sound. (18 words)

Use Gerunds

When you use the “ing” form of verbs, you can eliminate one or two other words.

Longer sentence : The seller only has to make the quantity effect sufficiently high to compensate for the highest possible price effect (19 words)

Revised sentence : The seller can compensate for the highest possible price effect by sufficiently increasing the quantity effect. (16 words)

Use Abbreviations

You can use abbreviations for long phrases that are used often in the manuscript. Make sure to define this in the first use and then use consistently throughout.

Longer sentence : To solve the problems mentioned above, we asked 207 participants to rate 935 sounds using the Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM) and basic emotional scales. (23 words)

Revised sentence : To solve the problems mentioned above, we asked 207 participants to rate 935 sounds using SAM and basic emotional scales. (20 words)

Remove “that”

This is frequently overused in academic writing and can be removed from many sentences.

Longer sentence : That the mutants displayed similar growth rates and mycelial morphologies were due to the wild-type yeast extract cells. (18 words)

Revised sentence :  Mutants displayed similar growth rates and mycelial morphologies due to the wild-type yeast extract cells. (15 words)

Remove “the”

Sometimes, articles at the start of sentences can be removed relatively quickly and safely.

Longer sentence : In the paper, we not only describe the construction of such a resource, but also report on the analysis of it. (21 words)

Revised sentence : This paper not only describes the construction of such a resource, but also reports on its analysis. (17 words)

In most modern word-processing programs, hyphenated words count as one word when compared to their non-hyphenated counterparts. So, try to use hyphenated words, when possible.

Longer sentence : However, here, annotations of the gold standard variety were actually done in English. (13 words)

Revised sentence : However, here, gold-standard annotations were actually done in English. (9 words)

Use “their” instead of “his or her”. Use “people” or “individual” instead of “a person.”

Longer sentence : A person draws specifically on Schelling’s strategy of conflict, which draws attention to the role of shared beliefs as focal points around which the behaviors of economic agents converge. (29 words)

Revised sentence : People draw specifically on Schelling’s strategy of conflict, which draws attention to the role of shared beliefs as focal points around which the behaviors of economic agents converge. (28 words)

Remove Filler Words

In academic writing, filler words take up space without conveying information. These filler words should be eliminated to reduce word count. Some filler words that are commonly used in academic manuscripts are as follows:

• The fact that
• It has been reported that
• It was observed/found that
• There is/there are

Longer sentence : It has been reported that the incidence of ovarian cancer is really increasing in Korea, and there are numerous risk factors for the disease that have been identified. (28 words)

Revised sentence : The incidence of ovarian cancer is increasing in Korea, and numerous risk factors for the disease have been identified. (19 words)

Avoid Repetition

You may have repeated information presented in tables and figures again throughout your manuscript.

Longer sentence : Patient demographics are of multiple types in this study and correlate well with the data presented. (16 words)

Revised shorter sentence : Patient demographics are described in Table 1. (7 words)

Avoid Nominalizations

Nominalizations simply mean turning a verb into a noun. Not only does it sound stuffy, but it tacks on extra words to your writing.

Longer sentence : A diagnosis of cancer was made as increases in tumor-specific biomarkers were observed. (13 words)

Revised sentence : Cancer was diagnosed as tumor-specific biomarkers increased. (7 words)

Substitute Multiple words with Single Words

You can substitute “on the other hand” with “conversely”, or “in addition to” with “also”.

Longer sentence : On the other hand, when the brain is activated, electrochemical processes for transmission will be induced by neurons for signaling. (20 words)

Revised sentence : Conversely, when the brain is activated, electrochemical processes for transmission will be induced by neurons for signaling. (17 words)

Replace the Passive voice with the Active voice

While in the past, the passive voice was more popularly used in academic writing, most journals and funders now find the active voice perfectly acceptable. In fact, journals such as Science and Nature prefer the active voice.

Longer sentence : DNA from the seedlings was amplified using PCR. (8 words)

Revised sentence : We amplified seedling DNA using PCR. (6 words)

So, now you know how to go about reducing the word count in academic manuscripts. Follow these tips and say goodbye to verbosity as this will help increase clarity in your manuscript.

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How do I shorten a long title?

Note: This post relates to content in the eighth edition of the MLA Handbook . For up-to-date guidance, see the ninth edition of the MLA Handbook .

Extremely long titles and conventional titles usually condensed may be shortened in your prose and in your works-cited list.   

Extremely Long Titles

Some works, particularly older ones, have very long titles, such as this treatise by the seventeenth-century English physician John Bulwer:

Philocophus; or, The Deafe and Dumbe Mans Friend, Exhibiting the Philosophical Verity of That Subtile Art, Which May Enable One with an Observant Eie to Have What Any Man Speaks by the Moving of His Lips

To shorten the title of a long work in your writing or in your works-cited-list entry, include the beginning words of the title up to at least the first noun. Thus, Bulwer’s title can be shortened to

Philocophus

If, however, a work has an alternative title, as does Bulwer’s, it may be beneficial to include it—again, up to the first noun:

Philocophus; or, The Deafe and Dumbe Mans Friend

In some cases, shortening to the first noun in a works-cited-list entry will result in a title that is too vague. For example, the following title

Some Thoughts concerning the Present Revival of Religion in New-England, and the Way in Which It Ought to Be Acknowledged and Promoted, Humbly Offered to the Publick, in a Treatise on That Subject, in Five Parts

is best shortened to

Some Thoughts concerning the Present Revival of Religion in New-England

Some Thoughts

In your prose, after you refer to the works by the titles used in the works-cited list, it is acceptable to use Philocophus and Some Thoughts on subsequent mention.

Punctuation with Shortened Titles

In the works-cited-list entry, add an ellipsis after the first part of the title. If a period is needed, insert the period before the ellipsis.

Bulwer, John.  Philocophus; or, The Deafe and Dumbe Mans Friend. . . .      Humphrey Mosely, 1648.

If a comma is needed, as it would be when the long title is the title of a container, insert it after the ellipsis:

Smith, Ann. Introduction. Philocophus; or, The Deafe and Dumbe Mans Friend . . .  , Humphrey Mosely, 1648, pp. x-xxi.

Conventional Titles

Some titles may be known by their short forms. For example, let’s say an edition of Shakespeare’s works prints the following title:

The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark

It can be shortened in your works-cited-list entry and prose thus:

How to Write a Research Paper

Use the links below to jump directly to any section of this guide:

Research Paper Fundamentals

How to choose a topic or question, how to create a working hypothesis or thesis, common research paper methodologies, how to gather and organize evidence , how to write an outline for your research paper, how to write a rough draft, how to revise your draft, how to produce a final draft, resources for teachers .

It is not fair to say that no one writes anymore. Just about everyone writes text messages, brief emails, or social media posts every single day. Yet, most people don't have a lot of practice with the formal, organized writing required for a good academic research paper. This guide contains links to a variety of resources that can help demystify the process. Some of these resources are intended for teachers; they contain exercises, activities, and teaching strategies. Other resources are intended for direct use by students who are struggling to write papers, or are looking for tips to make the process go more smoothly.

The resources in this section are designed to help students understand the different types of research papers, the general research process, and how to manage their time. Below, you'll find links from university writing centers, the trusted Purdue Online Writing Lab, and more.

What is an Academic Research Paper?

"Genre and the Research Paper" (Purdue OWL)

There are different types of research papers. Different types of scholarly questions will lend themselves to one format or another. This is a brief introduction to the two main genres of research paper: analytic and argumentative. 

"7 Most Popular Types of Research Papers" (Personal-writer.com)

This resource discusses formats that high school students commonly encounter, such as the compare and contrast essay and the definitional essay. Please note that the inclusion of this link is not an endorsement of this company's paid service.

How to Prepare and Plan Out Writing a Research Paper

Teachers can give their students a step-by-step guide like these to help them understand the different steps of the research paper process. These guides can be combined with the time management tools in the next subsection to help students come up with customized calendars for completing their papers.

"Ten Steps for Writing Research Papers" (American University)  

This resource from American University is a comprehensive guide to the research paper writing process, and includes examples of proper research questions and thesis topics.

"Steps in Writing a Research Paper" (SUNY Empire State College)

This guide breaks the research paper process into 11 steps. Each "step" links to a separate page, which describes the work entailed in completing it.

How to Manage Time Effectively

The links below will help students determine how much time is necessary to complete a paper. If your sources are not available online or at your local library, you'll need to leave extra time for the Interlibrary Loan process. Remember that, even if you do not need to consult secondary sources, you'll still need to leave yourself ample time to organize your thoughts.

"Research Paper Planner: Timeline" (Baylor University)

This interactive resource from Baylor University creates a suggested writing schedule based on how much time a student has to work on the assignment.

"Research Paper Planner" (UCLA)

UCLA's library offers this step-by-step guide to the research paper writing process, which also includes a suggested planning calendar.

There's a reason teachers spend a long time talking about choosing a good topic. Without a good topic and a well-formulated research question, it is almost impossible to write a clear and organized paper. The resources below will help you generate ideas and formulate precise questions.

"How to Select a Research Topic" (Univ. of Michigan-Flint)

This resource is designed for college students who are struggling to come up with an appropriate topic. A student who uses this resource and still feels unsure about his or her topic should consult the course instructor for further personalized assistance.

"25 Interesting Research Paper Topics to Get You Started" (Kibin)

This resource, which is probably most appropriate for high school students, provides a list of specific topics to help get students started. It is broken into subsections, such as "paper topics on local issues."

"Writing a Good Research Question" (Grand Canyon University)

This introduction to research questions includes some embedded videos, as well as links to scholarly articles on research questions. This resource would be most appropriate for teachers who are planning lessons on research paper fundamentals.

"How to Write a Research Question the Right Way" (Kibin)

This student-focused resource provides more detail on writing research questions. The language is accessible, and there are embedded videos and examples of good and bad questions.

It is important to have a rough hypothesis or thesis in mind at the beginning of the research process. People who have a sense of what they want to say will have an easier time sorting through scholarly sources and other information. The key, of course, is not to become too wedded to the draft hypothesis or thesis. Just about every working thesis gets changed during the research process.

CrashCourse Video: "Sociology Research Methods" (YouTube)

Although this video is tailored to sociology students, it is applicable to students in a variety of social science disciplines. This video does a good job demonstrating the connection between the brainstorming that goes into selecting a research question and the formulation of a working hypothesis.

"How to Write a Thesis Statement for an Analytical Essay" (YouTube)

Students writing analytical essays will not develop the same type of working hypothesis as students who are writing research papers in other disciplines. For these students, developing the working thesis may happen as a part of the rough draft (see the relevant section below). 

"Research Hypothesis" (Oakland Univ.)

This resource provides some examples of hypotheses in social science disciplines like Political Science and Criminal Justice. These sample hypotheses may also be useful for students in other soft social sciences and humanities disciplines like History.

When grading a research paper, instructors look for a consistent methodology. This section will help you understand different methodological approaches used in research papers. Students will get the most out of these resources if they use them to help prepare for conversations with teachers or discussions in class.

"Types of Research Designs" (USC)

A "research design," used for complex papers, is related to the paper's method. This resource contains introductions to a variety of popular research designs in the social sciences. Although it is not the most intuitive site to read, the information here is very valuable. 

"Major Research Methods" (YouTube)

Although this video is a bit on the dry side, it provides a comprehensive overview of the major research methodologies in a format that might be more accessible to students who have struggled with textbooks or other written resources.

"Humanities Research Strategies" (USC)

This is a portal where students can learn about four methodological approaches for humanities papers: Historical Methodologies, Textual Criticism, Conceptual Analysis, and the Synoptic method.

"Selected Major Social Science Research Methods: Overview" (National Academies Press)

This appendix from the book  Using Science as Evidence in Public Policy , printed by National Academies Press, introduces some methods used in social science papers.

"Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: 6. The Methodology" (USC)

This resource from the University of Southern California's library contains tips for writing a methodology section in a research paper.

How to Determine the Best Methodology for You

Anyone who is new to writing research papers should be sure to select a method in consultation with their instructor. These resources can be used to help prepare for that discussion. They may also be used on their own by more advanced students.

"Choosing Appropriate Research Methodologies" (Palgrave Study Skills)

This friendly and approachable resource from Palgrave Macmillan can be used by students who are just starting to think about appropriate methodologies.

"How to Choose Your Research Methods" (NFER (UK))

This is another approachable resource students can use to help narrow down the most appropriate methods for their research projects.

The resources in this section introduce the process of gathering scholarly sources and collecting evidence. You'll find a range of material here, from introductory guides to advanced explications best suited to college students. Please consult the LitCharts  How to Do Academic Research guide for a more comprehensive list of resources devoted to finding scholarly literature.

Google Scholar

Students who have access to library websites with detailed research guides should start there, but people who do not have access to those resources can begin their search for secondary literature here.

"Gathering Appropriate Information" (Texas Gateway)

This resource from the Texas Gateway for online resources introduces students to the research process, and contains interactive exercises. The level of complexity is suitable for middle school, high school, and introductory college classrooms.

"An Overview of Quantitative and Qualitative Data Collection Methods" (NSF)

This PDF from the National Science Foundation goes into detail about best practices and pitfalls in data collection across multiple types of methodologies.

"Social Science Methods for Data Collection and Analysis" (Swiss FIT)

This resource is appropriate for advanced undergraduates or teachers looking to create lessons on research design and data collection. It covers techniques for gathering data via interviews, observations, and other methods.

"Collecting Data by In-depth Interviewing" (Leeds Univ.)

This resource contains enough information about conducting interviews to make it useful for teachers who want to create a lesson plan, but is also accessible enough for college juniors or seniors to make use of it on their own.

There is no "one size fits all" outlining technique. Some students might devote all their energy and attention to the outline in order to avoid the paper. Other students may benefit from being made to sit down and organize their thoughts into a lengthy sentence outline. The resources in this section include strategies and templates for multiple types of outlines. 

"Topic vs. Sentence Outlines" (UC Berkeley)

This resource introduces two basic approaches to outlining: the shorter topic-based approach, and the longer, more detailed sentence-based approach. This resource also contains videos on how to develop paper paragraphs from the sentence-based outline.

"Types of Outlines and Samples" (Purdue OWL)

The Purdue Online Writing Lab's guide is a slightly less detailed discussion of different types of outlines. It contains several sample outlines.

"Writing An Outline" (Austin C.C.)

This resource from a community college contains sample outlines from an American history class that students can use as models.

"How to Structure an Outline for a College Paper" (YouTube)

This brief (sub-2 minute) video from the ExpertVillage YouTube channel provides a model of outline writing for students who are struggling with the idea.

"Outlining" (Harvard)

This is a good resource to consult after completing a draft outline. It offers suggestions for making sure your outline avoids things like unnecessary repetition.

As with outlines, rough drafts can take on many different forms. These resources introduce teachers and students to the various approaches to writing a rough draft. This section also includes resources that will help you cite your sources appropriately according to the MLA, Chicago, and APA style manuals.

"Creating a Rough Draft for a Research Paper" (Univ. of Minnesota)

This resource is useful for teachers in particular, as it provides some suggested exercises to help students with writing a basic rough draft. 

Rough Draft Assignment (Duke of Definition)

This sample assignment, with a brief list of tips, was developed by a high school teacher who runs a very successful and well-reviewed page of educational resources.

"Creating the First Draft of Your Research Paper" (Concordia Univ.)

This resource will be helpful for perfectionists or procrastinators, as it opens by discussing the problem of avoiding writing. It also provides a short list of suggestions meant to get students writing.

Using Proper Citations

There is no such thing as a rough draft of a scholarly citation. These links to the three major citation guides will ensure that your citations follow the correct format. Please consult the LitCharts How to Cite Your Sources guide for more resources.

Chicago Manual of Style Citation Guide

Some call  The Chicago Manual of Style , which was first published in 1906, "the editors' Bible." The manual is now in its 17th edition, and is popular in the social sciences, historical journals, and some other fields in the humanities.

APA Citation Guide

According to the American Psychological Association, this guide was developed to aid reading comprehension, clarity of communication, and to reduce bias in language in the social and behavioral sciences. Its first full edition was published in 1952, and it is now in its sixth edition.

MLA Citation Guide

The Modern Language Association style is used most commonly within the liberal arts and humanities. The  MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing  was first published in 1985 and (as of 2008) is in its third edition.

Any professional scholar will tell you that the best research papers are made in the revision stage. No matter how strong your research question or working thesis, it is not possible to write a truly outstanding paper without devoting energy to revision. These resources provide examples of revision exercises for the classroom, as well as tips for students working independently.

"The Art of Revision" (Univ. of Arizona)

This resource provides a wealth of information and suggestions for both students and teachers. There is a list of suggested exercises that teachers might use in class, along with a revision checklist that is useful for teachers and students alike.

"Script for Workshop on Revision" (Vanderbilt University)

Vanderbilt's guide for leading a 50-minute revision workshop can serve as a model for teachers who wish to guide students through the revision process during classtime. 

"Revising Your Paper" (Univ. of Washington)

This detailed handout was designed for students who are beginning the revision process. It discusses different approaches and methods for revision, and also includes a detailed list of things students should look for while they revise.

"Revising Drafts" (UNC Writing Center)

This resource is designed for students and suggests things to look for during the revision process. It provides steps for the process and has a FAQ for students who have questions about why it is important to revise.

Conferencing with Writing Tutors and Instructors

No writer is so good that he or she can't benefit from meeting with instructors or peer tutors. These resources from university writing, learning, and communication centers provide suggestions for how to get the most out of these one-on-one meetings.

"Getting Feedback" (UNC Writing Center)

This very helpful resource talks about how to ask for feedback during the entire writing process. It contains possible questions that students might ask when developing an outline, during the revision process, and after the final draft has been graded.

"Prepare for Your Tutoring Session" (Otis College of Art and Design)

This guide from a university's student learning center contains a lot of helpful tips for getting the most out of working with a writing tutor.

"The Importance of Asking Your Professor" (Univ. of Waterloo)

This article from the university's Writing and Communication Centre's blog contains some suggestions for how and when to get help from professors and Teaching Assistants.

Once you've revised your first draft, you're well on your way to handing in a polished paper. These resources—each of them produced by writing professionals at colleges and universities—outline the steps required in order to produce a final draft. You'll find proofreading tips and checklists in text and video form.

"Developing a Final Draft of a Research Paper" (Univ. of Minnesota)

While this resource contains suggestions for revision, it also features a couple of helpful checklists for the last stages of completing a final draft.

Basic Final Draft Tips and Checklist (Univ. of Maryland-University College)

This short and accessible resource, part of UMUC's very thorough online guide to writing and research, contains a very basic checklist for students who are getting ready to turn in their final drafts.

Final Draft Checklist (Everett C.C.)

This is another accessible final draft checklist, appropriate for both high school and college students. It suggests reading your essay aloud at least once.

"How to Proofread Your Final Draft" (YouTube)

This video (approximately 5 minutes), produced by Eastern Washington University, gives students tips on proofreading final drafts.

"Proofreading Tips" (Georgia Southern-Armstrong)

This guide will help students learn how to spot common errors in their papers. It suggests focusing on content and editing for grammar and mechanics.

This final set of resources is intended specifically for high school and college instructors. It provides links to unit plans and classroom exercises that can help improve students' research and writing skills. You'll find resources that give an overview of the process, along with activities that focus on how to begin and how to carry out research. 

"Research Paper Complete Resources Pack" (Teachers Pay Teachers)

This packet of assignments, rubrics, and other resources is designed for high school students. The resources in this packet are aligned to Common Core standards.

"Research Paper—Complete Unit" (Teachers Pay Teachers)

This packet of assignments, notes, PowerPoints, and other resources has a 4/4 rating with over 700 ratings. It is designed for high school teachers, but might also be useful to college instructors who work with freshmen.

"Teaching Students to Write Good Papers" (Yale)

This resource from Yale's Center for Teaching and Learning is designed for college instructors, and it includes links to appropriate activities and exercises.

"Research Paper Writing: An Overview" (CUNY Brooklyn)

CUNY Brooklyn offers this complete lesson plan for introducing students to research papers. It includes an accompanying set of PowerPoint slides.

"Lesson Plan: How to Begin Writing a Research Paper" (San Jose State Univ.)

This lesson plan is designed for students in the health sciences, so teachers will have to modify it for their own needs. It includes a breakdown of the brainstorming, topic selection, and research question process. 

"Quantitative Techniques for Social Science Research" (Univ. of Pittsburgh)

This is a set of PowerPoint slides that can be used to introduce students to a variety of quantitative methods used in the social sciences.

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• 09 May 2024

Cubic millimetre of brain mapped in spectacular detail

• Carissa Wong

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Rendering based on electron-microscope data, showing the positions of neurons in a fragment of the brain cortex. Neurons are coloured according to size. Credit: Google Research & Lichtman Lab (Harvard University). Renderings by D. Berger (Harvard University)

Researchers have mapped a tiny piece of the human brain in astonishing detail. The resulting cell atlas, which was described today in Science 1 and is available online , reveals new patterns of connections between brain cells called neurons, as well as cells that wrap around themselves to form knots, and pairs of neurons that are almost mirror images of each other.

The 3D map covers a volume of about one cubic millimetre, one-millionth of a whole brain, and contains roughly 57,000 cells and 150 million synapses — the connections between neurons. It incorporates a colossal 1.4 petabytes of data. “It’s a little bit humbling,” says Viren Jain, a neuroscientist at Google in Mountain View, California, and a co-author of the paper. “How are we ever going to really come to terms with all this complexity?”

Slivers of brain

The brain fragment was taken from a 45-year-old woman when she underwent surgery to treat her epilepsy. It came from the cortex, a part of the brain involved in learning, problem-solving and processing sensory signals. The sample was immersed in preservatives and stained with heavy metals to make the cells easier to see. Neuroscientist Jeff Lichtman at Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and his colleagues then cut the sample into around 5,000 slices — each just 34 nanometres thick — that could be imaged using electron microscopes.

Jain’s team then built artificial-intelligence models that were able to stitch the microscope images together to reconstruct the whole sample in 3D. “I remember this moment, going into the map and looking at one individual synapse from this woman’s brain, and then zooming out into these other millions of pixels,” says Jain. “It felt sort of spiritual.”

A single neuron (white) shown with 5,600 of the axons (blue) that connect to it. The synapses that make these connections are shown in green. Credit: Google Research & Lichtman Lab (Harvard University). Renderings by D. Berger (Harvard University)

When examining the model in detail, the researchers discovered unconventional neurons, including some that made up to 50 connections with each other. “In general, you would find a couple of connections at most between two neurons,” says Jain. Elsewhere, the model showed neurons with tendrils that formed knots around themselves. “Nobody had seen anything like this before,” Jain adds.

The team also found pairs of neurons that were near-perfect mirror images of each other. “We found two groups that would send their dendrites in two different directions, and sometimes there was a kind of mirror symmetry,” Jain says. It is unclear what role these features have in the brain.

Proofreaders needed

The map is so large that most of it has yet to be manually checked, and it could still contain errors created by the process of stitching so many images together. “Hundreds of cells have been ‘proofread’, but that’s obviously a few per cent of the 50,000 cells in there,” says Jain. He hopes that others will help to proofread parts of the map they are interested in. The team plans to produce similar maps of brain samples from other people — but a map of the entire brain is unlikely in the next few decades, he says.

“This paper is really the tour de force creation of a human cortex data set,” says Hongkui Zeng, director of the Allen Institute for Brain Science in Seattle. The vast amount of data that has been made freely accessible will “allow the community to look deeper into the micro-circuitry in the human cortex”, she adds.

Gaining a deeper understanding of how the cortex works could offer clues about how to treat some psychiatric and neurodegenerative diseases. “This map provides unprecedented details that can unveil new rules of neural connections and help to decipher the inner working of the human brain,” says Yongsoo Kim, a neuroscientist at Pennsylvania State University in Hershey.

doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-024-01387-9

Shapson-Coe, A. et al. Science 384 , eadk4858 (2024).

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Department of Agricultural, Food, and Resource Economics Innovation Lab for Food Security Policy, Research, Capacity and Influence

Maize Price Shocks, Food Expenditure and the Mediating Role of Access to Market in Ghana

May 14, 2024 - Edward Martey, Justina Adwoa Onumah, Frank Adusah-Poku

The existing empirical literature on the impact of food price shocks on food consumption has primarily concentrated on market-purchased foods, offering limited insights into home-produced foods and food quality. Addressing this gap, our study employs panel data from Ghana to investigate the relationship between exposure to positive maize price shocks and price variability and household consumption patterns of nutrient-dense and less nutrient-dense diets, considering both market purchases and home production. Our findings indicate that maize price shocks lead to a reduction in households' consumption of purchased nutrient-dense and less nutrient-dense food groups, while increasing the consumption of home-produced nutrient-dense food groups. The effects of maize price shocks on diet consumption vary across household types, primary crop cultivation, and wealth status. Additionally, access to markets emerges as a crucial mechanism through which maize price shocks influence households' consumption of nutrient-dense and less nutrient-dense diets. The implications of our study underscore the significance of enhanced market access and policy interventions aimed at mitigating food price increases to improve food nutrition security.

 maize price shocks; food consumption; nutrient-dense diets; market access; Ghana

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