western culture research paper

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• v.7(5); 2006 May

Western science and traditional knowledge: Despite their variations, different forms of knowledge can learn from each other

Fulvio mazzocchi.

1 Fulvio Mazzocchi is at the Institute for Atmospheric Pollution of CNR, Monterotondo, Italy. [email protected]

Cultures from all over the world have developed different views of nature throughout human history. Many of them are rooted in traditional systems of beliefs, which indigenous people use to understand and interpret their biophysical environment ( Iaccarino, 2003 ). These systems of managing the environment constitute an integral part of the cultural identity and social integrity of many indigenous populations. At the same time, their knowledge embodies a wealth of wisdom and experience of nature gained over millennia from direct observations, and transmitted—most often orally—over generations.

The importance of this traditional knowledge for the protection of biodiversity and the achievement of sustainable development is slowly being recognized internationally ( Gadgil et al , 1993 ). For example, Article 8 of the Convention on Biological Diversity urges us to “…respect, preserve and maintain knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities embodying traditional lifestyles relevant for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity….” ( United Nations, 1992 ). In addition, traditional or indigenous knowledge has been rediscovered as a model for a healthy interaction with, and use of, the environment, and as a rich source to be tapped into in order to gain new perspectives about the relationship between humans and nature.

However, our difficulty in approaching the knowledge from indigenous cultures is already reflected in the way in which we describe and name it. No universal definition is available, and many terms are used to establish what indigenous people know ( Berkes, 1993 ), including traditional knowledge or traditional ecological knowledge, local knowledge, indigenous knowledge or science, folk knowledge, farmers' knowledge, fishers' knowledge and tacit knowledge. Each of these terms carries different implications, and there is an ensuing discussion about which one is the most appropriate. The word ‘traditional', for example, places the emphasis on the transmission of knowledge along a cultural continuity, but might ignore the ability of traditional societies to adapt to changing circumstances. Another widely used word, ‘indigenous', is meant to highlight the autochthonous nature of this knowledge, but it might overlook knowledge from populations who are not officially recognized as indigenous. The word ‘local' can be applied to different geographic contexts, but it lacks specificity. At present, traditional ecological knowledge is interpreted as a cumulative body of knowledge, practices and representations that describes the relationships of living beings with one another and with their physical environment, which evolved by adaptive processes and has been handed down through generations by cultural transmission ( Berkes et al , 2000 ).

…our difficulty in approaching the knowledge from indigenous cultures is already reflected in the way in which we describe and name it

Many indigenous populations have relied for centuries or even millennia on their direct environment for subsistence and autonomy. Over time, they have developed a way in which to manage and use their resources that ensures their conservation into the future. Such traditional societies are interested more in preserving their own social, cultural and environmental stability and integrity than in maximizing production. Consequently, there is no ‘exploitation' of nature—which they do not consider as a collection of commodities—in the interaction between humans and natural milieu. On the contrary, their way of life is based on a strong sense of interconnection and interdependence. This also applies to their social life. Ethics is explicitly part of the traditional approach. Relationships are based on reciprocity and obligations towards community members. Natural resource management is based on shared meanings and knowledge ( Berkes, 1993 ). Activities in traditional societies often include a strong symbolic dimension in which every action is highly ritualized, and allow humans to participate in the preservation of the natural order. Of course, these rituals differ between cultures, as each society has its own belief systems, which determine its cultural identity and type of technology.

Traditional knowledge has developed a concept of the environment that emphasizes the symbiotic character of humans and nature. It offers an approach to local development that is based on co-evolution with the environment, and on respecting the carrying capacity of ecosystems. This knowledge—based on long-term empirical observations adapted to local conditions—ensures a sound use and control of the environment, and enables indigenous people to adapt to environmental changes. Moreover, it supplies much of the world's population with the principal means to fulfil their basic needs, and forms the basis for decisions and strategies in many practical aspects, including interpretation of meteorological phenomena, medical treatment, water management, production of clothing, navigation, agriculture and husbandry, hunting and fishing, and biological classification systems ( Nakashima & Roué, 2002 ). Beyond its obvious benefit for the people who rely on this knowledge, it might provide humanity as a whole with new biological and ecological insights; it has potential value for the management of natural resources, and might be useful in conservation education as well as in development planning and environmental assessment ( The World Conservation Union, 1986 ).

Traditional knowledge has developed a concept of the environment that emphasizes the symbiotic character of humans and nature

Of course, I am not trying to assert the ideal of the ‘noble savage'. Not all indigenous people have lived or are living in peace and harmony with nature; history has seen many cultures disappear after they had exhausted the environment's ability to sustain their population, such as the Maya or the Anasazi in the Americas. However, many existing traditional practices are ecologically healthy, and we cannot simply dismiss them as primitive and unscientific belief systems.

In all cultures, humans have gained knowledge by conceptualizing empirical observations to better understand nature, and thus interpret and predict it ( Iaccarino, 2003 ). The problem is how to study and analyse indigenous knowledge and belief systems. Of course, we cannot depend only on their empirical aspects, but must embrace their specific worldviews. It is not possible to simply reduce them to practical knowledge that is exclusively based on experience as opposed to theoretical knowledge, which is developed through deductive or inductive reasoning. In any case, discovering the fundamental principles of dealing with nature in many far-off cultures is not an easy task. Western science—which is deeply rooted both in the philosophy of Ancient Greece and the Renaissance—and traditional knowledge systems have developed radically different strategies to create and transmit knowledge, and it is exceedingly difficult to analyse one form of knowledge using the criteria of another tradition.

Still, there is a vast body of literature on such comparisons between Western science and traditional knowledge systems, which has identified various characteristics and opposing views. Western science favours analytical and reductionist methods as opposed to the more intuitive and holistic view often found in traditional knowledge. Western science is positivist and materialist in contrast to traditional knowledge, which is spiritual and does not make distinctions between empirical and sacred ( Nakashima & Roué, 2002 ). Western science is objective and quantitative as opposed to traditional knowledge, which is mainly subjective and qualitative. Western science is based on an academic and literate transmission, while traditional knowledge is often passed on orally from one generation to the next by the elders. Western science isolates its objects of study from their vital context by putting them in simplified and controllable experimental environments—which also means that scientists separate themselves from nature, the object of their studies;-by contrast, traditional knowledge always depends on its context and particular local conditions ( Nakashima & Roué, 2002 ).

In general, traditional knowledge systems adopt a more holistic approach, and do not separate observations into different disciplines as does Western science ( Iaccarino, 2003 ). Moreover, traditional knowledge systems do not interpret reality on the basis of a linear conception of cause and effect, but rather as a world made up of constantly forming multidimensional cycles in which all elements are part of an entangled and complex web of interactions ( Freeman, 1992 ). Of course, there is always the risk of oversimplifying by reducing the things of interest to essentials and/or dichotomies. However, from this brief overview of the dissimilarities, we can gain an understanding of how hard it is to compare two systems of knowledge that are so profoundly different. Trying to analyse and validate traditional knowledge systems by using external (scientific) criteria carries the risk of distorting such systems in the process. At the same time, we cannot extract just those parts of traditional knowledge that seem to measure up to scientific criteria and ignore the rest. This process of cognitive mining would atomize the overall system and threaten traditional knowledge with dispossession ( Nakashima & Roué, 2002 ).

However, Western contemporary culture and philosophy does offer some interesting ideas as to how to deal with these problems. The Austrian-born philosopher Paul Feyerabend, for example, questioned the widespread assumption that only Western science holds the criteria to determine the truth. As Feyerabend pointed out, any form of knowledge makes sense only within its own cultural context ( Feyerabend, 1987 ). Similarly, the British anthropologist Gregory Bateson has compared knowledge about the material world to a map and the terrain it describes: the map itself is not the terrain, but only one representation of it ( Bateson, 1979 ). Just as different maps can give accounts of the same territory, so too can different forms of knowledge about the material world. Its actual representation ultimately depends on the observer's view.

…any form of knowledge makes sense only within its own cultural context

Contemporary hermeneutics—a branch of philosophy concerned with the theory of existential understanding and interpretation of texts—and, to a certain extent, complex thinking can offer useful approaches to compare different forms of knowledge and rationality. Complex thinking has provided new insights, and has contributed to a renewed interpretation of the concept of nature, and a new paradigm of science and epistemology. This new approach has brought a greater awareness of the shortcomings of simple explanations in comprehending reality. It aims to overcome the limits of both reductionism and holism by integrating them into a wider perspective, which investigates the complex structure of interconnections and retroactive relationships in the real world.

According to the classic epistemological approach, the creation of knowledge is a process of qualitative refinement and quantitative accumulation. Its goal is to disclose the ultimate foundation—the ‘meta' point of view from where we can see the ontological order and the objective truth—and to provide a neutral and universal language to explain natural phenomena ( Ceruti, 1986 ).

Complex thinking has strongly questioned this notion of a meta point of view along with its heuristic value as a principle for the creation of knowledge. Instead, it seeks and analyses the web of relationships among different perspectives. This is continually redefined in a dynamic process involving multiple points of observation and explanation. These places are fundamentally incommensurable, yet they can complement each other and be part of a constructive network. What matters, in fact, is the possibility of including multiple viewpoints that are vicarious in building a cognitive universe and can disclose a more complete picture of reality.

In this context, the hermeneutical notion of a ‘horizon' as expressed by the German philosopher Hans-Georg Gadamer seems to be highly relevant: “Horizon is the range of vision that includes everything that can be seen from a particular vantage point” ( Gadamer, 1960 ). Rationality intrinsically works from this point, which starts the process of comprehension through which we can interact with other and different horizons, and ultimately expand our own knowledge horizon.

The encounter between different cultures and knowledge systems can then be regarded as an encounter between different macrohorizons; such systems come from different traditions, and each has its own way of understanding phenomena and its own ‘logic' that allows the observed phenomena to be placed within an overall vision. Nevertheless, all representations of reality are expressions of the same cognitive features that are inherent in human nature.

…all representations of reality are expressions of the same cognitive features that are inherent in human nature

Traditional environmental knowledge is an important part of humankind's cultural heritage—the result of countless civilizations and traditions that have emerged over human history. This cultural diversity is as important for our future as is biodiversity. It is a potential source of creativity and enrichment embodied in several social and cultural identities, each of which expresses its uniqueness ( United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 2002 ). However, European colonization has eroded and destroyed much of this traditional knowledge by replacing it with Western educational and cultural systems. The trend towards a global culture might even worsen this situation and enhance a process of cultural homogenization.

Scientific knowledge has long held a central role and attained a dominant position in our developed societies, but we cannot ignore the fact that other valid knowledge systems exist. The imposition of Western scientific ideas and methods not only causes disruption to existing social and economic relationships, but also might spoil the local knowledge. Allowing science to be the final arbiter of the validity of knowledge, and to establish the threshold beyond which knowledge is not worthy of its name, would create the conditions whereby an astonishing cultural heritage is transformed into a monolithic structure. Instead, we would be better advised to recognize the value of this heritage, and to devise strategies for its preservation for the benefit of present and future generations.

First, a renewed approach to dialogue among cultures is required. Such a dialogue can only take place if there is a common principle shared by all participants. All humans from all cultural backgrounds have the same biological nature. At the same time, however, a dialogue is only possible because there is diversity at various levels. Eliminating these differences or staying in rigid isolation eliminates the conditions needed for a potentially mutually beneficial converse.

By acknowledging the uniqueness of each knowledge system, we can go well beyond a mere pluralist approach to knowledge. Dialogue can become a tool for social cohabitation, as well as for discovering and enhancing knowledge. It should be based on a sense of profound hospitality because it arises from different identities and traditions, which are interested in exchanging their perspectives and experiences. This should not be anathema to Western science—in fact, it is through dialogue that new insights have emerged from the ancient Greek academies to today's laboratory meetings and scientific conferences. In this sense, a dialogue can catalyse the development of shared meanings, which are key factors in binding people and societies together as vehicles of social cohabitation ( Bohm, 1996 ).

Dialogue can become a tool for social cohabitation, as well as for discovering and enhancing knowledge

The real world is too complex to be compressed into static conceptualizations. Dealing with this complexity requires approaches and strategies that maintain a continuous openness and willingness to discover and learn ( Morin, 1990 ). This dialogue should take place with the unknown and the otherness. By shifting our perspective, and looking at other paths to knowledge that humans have developed and lived, we might create the necessary conditions for hitherto unknown knowledge to be revealed. All of these perspectives describe the human experience of reality. We need to open ourselves to participating in the experience of others, and yet we should also be aware that this opening can only start from where we already are—from our point of view or the tradition to which we belong. Our historical and culturally embedded perspective has been described by Gadamer as the “initial directedness of our whole ability to experience” ( Gadamer, 1967 ). Nevertheless, from our delimited horizon we can still accept the invitation of other paths to knowledge and might well learn from them.

For example, some authors ( Freeman, 1992 ; Iaccarino, 2003 ) have suggested that traditional knowledge systems can be helpful in dealing with complex systems: “The understanding of complex systems remains a major challenge for the future, and no scientist today can claim that we have at hand the appropriate methods with which to achieve this. Thus, we cannot discuss the future of science without taking into account the philosophical problems generated by the study of complexity. Modern, or Western, science may not be best suited to fulfil this task, as its view of the world is too constrained by its characteristic empirical and analytical approach that, in the past, made it so successful. We should therefore remember the contributions of other civilizations to the understanding of nature. […] Such traditional or indigenous knowledge is now increasingly being used not only with the aim of finding new drugs, but also to derive new concepts that may help us to reconcile empiricism and science” ( Iaccarino, 2003 ).

There is little doubt that modern science can gain a lot from such a dialogue. It has been extremely efficient in studying specific aspects of the natural world—those that are achievable through observation and experimentation—but operates in an environment that is either strictly controlled, such as a laboratory, or highly simplified. This approach is crucial in order to make generalized claims about the validity of scientific propositions, because it allows hypotheses under the same or highly controlled conditions to be tested and verified.-However, an increasing number of critical voices argue that an approach based on reductionism—as helpful as it has been in the past—might no longer be sufficient to analyse and understand higher levels of complexity ( Kellenberger, 2004 ; van Regenmortel, 2004 ). Moreover, scientists work only at specific levels of analysis. The theories formulated at each level are based on key observations, and, therefore, can explain only a specific set of facts ( Iaccarino, 2003 ). Hence, the integration of methods and results from different approaches and levels of analysis can become essential.

These considerations seem to be particularly relevant for studying biological, ecological and social phenomena that include different levels of complexity. As already mentioned, the Western tradition of thinking is developing a different approach to gaining knowledge from complex systems, but it would be equally useful to learn how traditional approaches explain such complexity. Not only are they more holistic, but also they seem to be better suited to coping with the uncertainty and unpredictability that are viewed as intrinsic characteristics of natural systems. Western science and traditional knowledge constitute different paths to knowledge, but they are rooted in the same reality. We can only gain from paying attention to our cultural history and richness.

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Western Cultural Psychology of Religion: Alternatives to Ideology

• Published: 30 July 2016
• Volume 66 , pages 397–425, ( 2017 )

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• Al Dueck 1 ,
• Jeffrey Ansloos 2 ,
• Austin Johnson 1 &
• Christin Fort 1  

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This essay is an extended reflection on Belzen’s ( 2010 ) groundbreaking book Towards Cultural Psychology of Religion: Principles, Approaches, Applications. We will critically examine the terms culture, psychology, and religion separately and in relation to each other. The question we address is whether unconsciously Western understandings underlie these concepts and then are exported into non-Western cultures. The concept of ‘culture’ may reflect a Western bias and may be injurious when exported if culture means de facto becoming self-consciously modern, remains an abstract idea, reinforces “othering,” and serves to colonize the other. It is proposed that we listen to voices of non-Western scholars as they reflect on what ‘culture’ means to them rather than assuming that the meaning of the word ‘culture’ is universally the same. Second, we examine briefly the ways in which our understanding of religion reflects our Western biases in terms of the presumption of secularization, the meaning of religiousness, the Christian influence on defining religion, the use of religion in Western colonization, and the degree to which religion is defined abstractly. Third, we are concerned that the psychology utilized in the emerging discipline of psychology of religion is Western in that it reflects a capitalist, industrialized, individualistic, and pluralistic culture that may be less present in other cultures and perhaps even eschewed. Further, we think that in various cultures of the world, psychological knowledge emerges less from scientific observation but from the local religious/cultural traditions themselves. Finally, we examine how cultural psychology intersects with religion. We propose a model in which the specific religious cultures nurture the attitudes, emotions, behaviors, and relationships that reflect their critical values.

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For the purpose of this paper the authors have utilized the term ‘Western’ to refer to European and other non-indigenous traditions. In doing so, the authors also acknowledge the tension of the potential for the rhetorical erasure of indigenous nations, peoples, and traditions existing in Western geographic contexts.

The British Indian Salman Rushdie’s ( 2011 ) novel Satanic Verses made controversial references to texts in the Koran that were attributed to the devil. The title and the content of the novel provoked protests from Muslims and death threats were made against him.

The fact that we are examining texts for an implicit psychology of a society is not to imply that only texts shape identity. A folk psychology is shaped by a myriad of factors: institutions, economies, communities, friends and family.

Although we are using Dalal and Misra ( 2010 ) to illustrate the close connection between a cultural psychology and religion, we acknowledge that their position on cultural psychology is at variance with ours. They argue that Indian psychology “is deemed to be a universal psychology. It cannot be subsumed under the labels of indigenous, folk or cultural psychology, if that purports to delimit the scope of psychological inquiry” (p. 137). And again: “Indian Psychology is more than such indigenous (or folk) psychologies for the reason that it offers psychological models and theories, derived from classical Indian thought, that hold promise of panhuman interest” (p. 145).

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Dueck, A., Ansloos, J., Johnson, A. et al. Western Cultural Psychology of Religion: Alternatives to Ideology. Pastoral Psychol 66 , 397–425 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11089-016-0731-3

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• Ancient Egyptians’ Ethics of War The initial religion of ancient Egypt was to realize the Gods in the form of birds and beasts. With the beginning of agriculture, the Egyptians became more dependent on nature, so they started to revere […]
• Venus de Milo, Sculpture of Ancient Greece Art The statue also depicts the story of the Judgment of Paris. The findspot of the figure of the goddess is still unknown, and it cannot be said where exactly it was found.
• Mastaba of Mereruka in Ancient Egypt The Matsaba of Mereruka is a great example of the Old Kingdom tomb and its purpose of ensuring a prosperous afterlife for the buried one. The first mention of the king of the afterlife was […]
• Ancient Egyptian Tomb of Mereruka at Saqqara The tomb of Mereruka at Saqqara is one of the most famous monuments, which is the tomb of the non-royal person.
• Christianity During the Roman Empire By leveraging the western idea of piety through the prism of equality and freedom of thought, the Christian church was able to outlive the Roman Empire and succeed as a culture-maker of the Middle Ages.
• Boats and Ships in National Museum of Egyptian Civilization The visit to the National Museum of Egyptian Civilization was a great addition to the themes learned in class. The observed artifacts demonstrate the peculiarities of life and culture of the Egyptian people.
• The Role of Kingship in Ancient Egypt Moreover, the king was considered the incarnation of the god Horus and “the central figure in the world view of the ancient Egyptians”.
• The Ancient Greek Tragedy “Antigone” The theme raised by Sophocles in the play is the theme of duty and family, which is still relevant to this day.
• The Roman Empire: Globalization and Religious Power The Roman Empire is the first-ever experience of world globalization, the creation of a universal multinational society, in which the main directions of historical development with its ups and downs, unprecedented progress, and wild barbarism […]
• Methods of Prediction in Egyptian Medicine and Mesopotamian Omen Divination Mesopotamian divination, including extispicy, planetary, and weather-based predictions, made forecasts based on the nature of the deviations from the norm, such as the color of the rising moon or the direction in which lightning struck […]
• Art History: The Prehistoric Aegean, Ancient Greece The relationship between curvilinear forms in Minoan art and the primary role of nature is that nature provided the curvilinear shapes and forms that formed the basis for the artwork.
• Art Before History, the Ancient Near East, Egypt Under the Pharaohs 5 million years ago and was marked by the development and use of chipped stone tools Mesolithic- This is a cultural period between the Paleolithic and Neolithic eras that began around 10,000 years ago and […]
• The Mindset and Ancient Greek Philosophy Metaphysics studies the nature of reality, the structure of the world, the origin of man, God, truth, matter, mind, the connection between mind, body, and free will, and the correlation between events.
• Ancient Greek History: The Most Important Events of the Period Ancient Greece was home for most of the famous personalities of the ancient world. The introduction of Olympic Games was one of the most significant events in Ancient Greek History.
• The Fall of the Roman Empire in the 15th Century The most significant one is the fusion of the Germanic mercenaries and fighters into the Roman troops. Leadership challenges emerged, leading to instability and the eventual fall of the empire.
• Roman Republic to Roman Empire Despite existing laws, the politics of Rome were at the time dominated by a few Roman leaders. This unstable alliance gave rise to a series of civil wars.
• Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire With this insight into the fall of the Roman empire, we realize that there’s still a cultural line between ancient Rome and the contemporary world.
• Ancient Civilizations in Western Europe The Celts have been reported to have been diverse. Their empire has been reported to have spanned the European continent.
• Women in Ancient Greek and Roman Art The ancient Greek and Roman art, both textual and visual, are a rich source of information on the social history of women in these cultures.
• The Roman Empire and Its Fall Soon after the death of Marcus Aurelius, the last of five good emperors in Rome, the empire began to crumble. According to Longo, some of the measures that Diocletian implemented included the division of the […]
• The Ancient Greek and Republican Roman Architects The ancient Greek and Roman architects sought to express cultural and aesthetic perspectives guided by the adoration of classical qualities such as maturity, moderation, order, balance, and harmony.
• Roman Empire Entertainment Venues The theaters were free to the public and as a result the audiences were huge in numbers and noisy at times.
• Ancient Greek Mythology: Deities of the Universe Hades is the eldest son of Kronos and Rhea, the god and the guardian of the Underworld, the realm of the dead.
• Black Pharaohs of Ancient Egypt That was the home to the earliest culture of the black people in Africa. It is claimed in the article that the first rulers of Egypt were black.
• Law and Society in Ancient Rome In the Roman law, the man is recognized as the head of the household owning the entire property under the family’s name.
• Democracy Emergence in Ancient Greece and Why Plato Was Opposed to It The result of this war was the defeat of Athens by Sparta at the end of the fifth century which led to the overthrow of many democratic regimes.
• The Impact of Geography on Agriculture: Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia Due to the fact that the river overrode the Ethiopian lowland, the inclined gradient of the River Nile sent the water torrent which overflowed the river banks resulting in over flooding of the river.
• Medieval Europe History: Western Roman Empire The effect of this was the mobilization of tens of thousands of Europeans citizens which led to the capture of Jerusalem and the surrounding regions.
• The Role of Women in Ancient Egypt Right to the property for married women and their right to private inheritance and inheritance of the community property belonging to the husband was an essential nature of the status of women in Ancient Egyptian […]
• The Hetaerae Women of Ancient Greece In the Greek society, the hetaerae women consisted of women who were liberal and commanded great influence in the society. The hetaerae women were noble in one aspect of the other.
• Oedipus the King and Ancient Greek Culture Oedipus consults the servant who was sent to abandon him as a child and it is revealed that he was the child of Laius and Jocasta.
• Roman Civilization, Christianity, and Judaism The growth and success of Christianity came from the conversion and patronage of Constantine. The early Christians of Rome were received with contempt and suspicion.
• Ancient Civilization of Rome and Athens The city of Rome and the city of Athens had great influence and authority over their neighbors and allies. The city of Athens had great influence throughout the Aegean and the influence lasted for about […]
• Roman Civilization and Its Military Power The Roman Empire used the first systems of the republic to conquer a lot but for the interest of a few who included those living within the cities as well as those who were close […]
• Economic Situation of the Later Roman Empire It signifies that the problem of inflation and pricing crisis were the major economic problems that were the most significant signs of economic decay of the Empire at the beginning of the fourth century.
• Americas, Egypt, and Mesopotamia Between 3500-500 BCE Bentley and Ziegler examine the world as a whole and focus on the development and formation of the world’s major societies, ‘traditions’, and also interactions and connections that have always been established among societies, ‘encounters’.”Traditions […]
• Ancient Rome: Augustus Caesar The main measures that he employed in the endeavor to restore religion include; regulation of private behavior, reconstruction of public monuments and public religion and creating awareness by the use of literature that discussed the […]
• “The Fall of the Roman Empire” by Anthony Mann The plot of the film depicts the historical personalities, events and trends during the period 180 to 192 AD which is taken as the period during which the Roman Empire stopped growing and witnessed a […]
• Western Civilization: Term Definition In the development of art and literature the period of Middle Ages is closely connected with the formation and promotion of European literature.
• Rise of the Roman Empire Romulus Augustulus who was the last emperor of the Western empire was deposed in the year 476 and this marked the end of the empire.
• Origin of the Olympics in the Ancient Greek Society It exhaustively explains the importance of the Olympic Games to the Greek society in the ancient times and the significance they played in shaping the locals lives.
• Images of Women in Western Civilization Although it is true that the primary and predominant role of women have been to look after the children and the household, it is also necessary that they also need to indulge in primarily creative […]
• The History of Roman Empire We know that the closeness of buildings and unawareness of people in the question of how to prevent people’s houses from fire is the basic reason, I think, in cases of every fire hazard in […]
• Western Civilization in Which the Greeks Contributed The Greek civilization impresses by its originality and incontestability in the manners of people and in a number of philosophers who made a great impact on the further flow of scientific thought.
• Western Civilization: The Opium Wars The affinity of millions of Chinese for opium directly affected the security of foreign interests in China. At the end of the second opium war, China was forced to ratify the Treaty of Tientsin in […]
• Western Civilization to 1648: Historical Analysis The Marxists claimed that only material production made a human out of a monkey and connected all the stages of the historical development with the levels of the development of economy.
• Western Humanities: Early Roman Empire and Christianity The Latin language was one of the features of the Roman culture that the church adopted. Even after the collapse of the Roman Empire, Christianity was still widely spread and the church still insisted on […]
• Western Civilization: Ancient Greek Theater However, the modern theater has become more commercialized and has become a potential arena of political, social, and cultural discourses, increasingly involving the masses.”Theatre, which had been dominated by the Church for centuries, and then […]
• Western Civilization: The Olympic Games’ History Ancient Greeks held strict moral and ethical codes while conducting the Olympics because it was not just a competition for them; it was a glorification of the true ideals, valor, and gallantry of an athlete. […]
• Ancient Rome: Historical Era This has led to widespread abuse of his power to the detriment of his country and its people as a whole.
• Life as a Soldier During the Roman Civilization The following paragraphs describe the characteristics of the Roman Civilization. This was the main entertainment of the Roman Civilization.
• Western Civilizations and Near East This paper is going to consider all the major aspects of their development in order to find out the reasons for the success of some of them and the failure of others in their attempt […]
• The Culture of Ancient Egypt To the advantage of Egyptians in the ancient times, the floods carried with them silt, fertile soils, and minerals which when the flood receded lift rich thick mud that the people grew crops during October […]
• Democracy and Dictatorship in Ancient Greece and Today Recalling the speech of Thucydides, democracy is when the power is in the hands of not a minority but of the whole people when all are equal before the law when political life is free […]
• From the Fall of the Holy Roman Empire to Feudalism This remnant from the past reflects the time when the Franks took over the Burgundians and influenced both the language and culture of the Burgundians.
• Western Civilization in the Middle Ages
• Ancient Civilization of Rome
• Slaves and Slavery in Ancient Rome
• Modern Moral Conditions of Western Civilization Review
• The Changes of the Ancient Greeks’ Conceptions of Heroism Through the Times
• Modern Western Civilization: The Renaissance
• The Culture of Ancient Greece
• The Ancient Near East: Civilization of Mesopotamia and Great Flood
• Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead
• Architectural Marvels of Ancient Mesopotamia
• Ancient Egypt’s Socioeconomic & Cultural Relations
• Roman Civilization’ Analysis
• Ancient History: Polybius on the Roman Republic
• Ancient Egyptian Culture: Religion, Art, Sports
• History of Mesopotamia and Egypt
• Stoicism Employed in Ancient Rome
• Ancient Greek Sports: Boxing, Wrestling, Running
• Ancient History: Periclean Athens and Augustan Rome
• Cornelius Tacitus, a Roman Empire Historian
• Ancient Roman Myth and Historical Facts
• Persecution of Christianity in the Roman Empire Life
• Public Speaking in Ancient Greece and Roman Empire
• Egyptian vs. Mesopotamian Civilizations Development
• The River Nile’s Importance to the Ancient Egyptians
• Ancient Rome: Visigoths’ and Rome’s Conflict
• Ancient Greek Temples Architecture
• The Great Leap Forward: Societies in Early Mesopotamia
• Ancient Greece Heroes: The Iliad and The Knight’s Tale
• Ancient Greek Philosophy: Socrates and Plato Comparison
• Ancient Greek Art and Sculpture
• Mummification in Ancient Egypt
• Documentary “The Decline of Western Civilization”
• Mesopotamian Influence on the Oman Peninsula
• Bernard Lewis Views on Shaping Western Civilization
• Technology and Innovation: Western Civilization History
• The Philosophy of Ancient Greece
• Western Civilization Development
• “Fall of the Roman Empire: The Military Explanation” by Arthur Ferill
• History of Western Civilizations Through the Works of Einhard in His Famous Book Titled “The Life of Charlemagne”
• The Euthyphro, the Apology, and the Crito Issues Impact on the Western Civilization
• Ancient Societies in Mesopotamia and Ancient Societies in Africa
• Dissolution of the Roman Empire
• Ancient Greek Civilization History
• Infanticide in Ancient Greece
• Ancient Greek Democracy That Still Makes People Strive for Perfection
• The Significance of Martin Luther and the Protestant Reformation in History of Western Civilization
• The Kings of Ancient Egypt
• Religion in Ancient Rome, the Byzantine Empire and the Holy Roman Empire
• How Did the Age of Enlightenment Influence Western Civilization
• Transformation of the Ancient Greece Art
• Ancient Art of Rome and Greece
• Medicine in Ancient Rome
• Welcome to Ancient Egypt: When Legends Were Born
• Concepts of Ancient Greek Culture
• Greek City State and the Roman Empire
• The Evolution of the Division of Labor Theory Starting From Ancient Greek Economists to the Present
• Race in Ancient Egypt
• The Fall of Roman Empire and the Rise of Feudalism
• The Western Roman Empire: The Significance of Its Collapse
• Mythology’s Role in the Ancient Greece – God Poseidon
• Gods and Humans: Myths of Ancient Rome and Greece
• Ancient Egypt History
• Roman Civilization: Senate and Augustan Regime
• Italian Renaissance Essay Ideas
• Mesopotamia Essay Topics
• Roman Empire Ideas
• Ancient Civilizations Research Topics
• Celtic Civilization Ideas
• European History Essay Titles
• Civilization Topics
• Creation Myth Research Ideas
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

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IvyPanda . (2024) '237 Western Civilization Essay Topic Ideas & Examples'. 2 March.

IvyPanda . 2024. "237 Western Civilization Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." March 2, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/western-civilization-essay-topics/.

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IvyPanda . "237 Western Civilization Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." March 2, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/western-civilization-essay-topics/.