the use of technology in the classroom research paper

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Impacts of digital technologies on education and factors influencing schools' digital capacity and transformation: A literature review

Stella timotheou.

1 CYENS Center of Excellence & Cyprus University of Technology (Cyprus Interaction Lab), Cyprus, CYENS Center of Excellence & Cyprus University of Technology, Nicosia-Limassol, Cyprus

Ourania Miliou

Yiannis dimitriadis.

2 Universidad de Valladolid (UVA), Spain, Valladolid, Spain

Sara Villagrá Sobrino

Nikoleta giannoutsou, romina cachia.

3 JRC - Joint Research Centre of the European Commission, Seville, Spain

Alejandra Martínez Monés

Andri ioannou, associated data.

Data sharing not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

Digital technologies have brought changes to the nature and scope of education and led education systems worldwide to adopt strategies and policies for ICT integration. The latter brought about issues regarding the quality of teaching and learning with ICTs, especially concerning the understanding, adaptation, and design of the education systems in accordance with current technological trends. These issues were emphasized during the recent COVID-19 pandemic that accelerated the use of digital technologies in education, generating questions regarding digitalization in schools. Specifically, many schools demonstrated a lack of experience and low digital capacity, which resulted in widening gaps, inequalities, and learning losses. Such results have engendered the need for schools to learn and build upon the experience to enhance their digital capacity and preparedness, increase their digitalization levels, and achieve a successful digital transformation. Given that the integration of digital technologies is a complex and continuous process that impacts different actors within the school ecosystem, there is a need to show how these impacts are interconnected and identify the factors that can encourage an effective and efficient change in the school environments. For this purpose, we conducted a non-systematic literature review. The results of the literature review were organized thematically based on the evidence presented about the impact of digital technology on education and the factors that affect the schools’ digital capacity and digital transformation. The findings suggest that ICT integration in schools impacts more than just students’ performance; it affects several other school-related aspects and stakeholders, too. Furthermore, various factors affect the impact of digital technologies on education. These factors are interconnected and play a vital role in the digital transformation process. The study results shed light on how ICTs can positively contribute to the digital transformation of schools and which factors should be considered for schools to achieve effective and efficient change.

Introduction

Digital technologies have brought changes to the nature and scope of education. Versatile and disruptive technological innovations, such as smart devices, the Internet of Things (IoT), artificial intelligence (AI), augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR), blockchain, and software applications have opened up new opportunities for advancing teaching and learning (Gaol & Prasolova-Førland, 2021 ; OECD, 2021 ). Hence, in recent years, education systems worldwide have increased their investment in the integration of information and communication technology (ICT) (Fernández-Gutiérrez et al., 2020 ; Lawrence & Tar, 2018 ) and prioritized their educational agendas to adapt strategies or policies around ICT integration (European Commission, 2019 ). The latter brought about issues regarding the quality of teaching and learning with ICTs (Bates, 2015 ), especially concerning the understanding, adaptation, and design of education systems in accordance with current technological trends (Balyer & Öz, 2018 ). Studies have shown that despite the investment made in the integration of technology in schools, the results have not been promising, and the intended outcomes have not yet been achieved (Delgado et al., 2015 ; Lawrence & Tar, 2018 ). These issues were exacerbated during the COVID-19 pandemic, which forced teaching across education levels to move online (Daniel, 2020 ). Online teaching accelerated the use of digital technologies generating questions regarding the process, the nature, the extent, and the effectiveness of digitalization in schools (Cachia et al., 2021 ; König et al., 2020 ). Specifically, many schools demonstrated a lack of experience and low digital capacity, which resulted in widening gaps, inequalities, and learning losses (Blaskó et al., 2021 ; Di Pietro et al, 2020 ). Such results have engendered the need for schools to learn and build upon the experience in order to enhance their digital capacity (European Commission, 2020 ) and increase their digitalization levels (Costa et al., 2021 ). Digitalization offers possibilities for fundamental improvement in schools (OECD, 2021 ; Rott & Marouane, 2018 ) and touches many aspects of a school’s development (Delcker & Ifenthaler, 2021 ) . However, it is a complex process that requires large-scale transformative changes beyond the technical aspects of technology and infrastructure (Pettersson, 2021 ). Namely, digitalization refers to “ a series of deep and coordinated culture, workforce, and technology shifts and operating models ” (Brooks & McCormack, 2020 , p. 3) that brings cultural, organizational, and operational change through the integration of digital technologies (JISC, 2020 ). A successful digital transformation requires that schools increase their digital capacity levels, establishing the necessary “ culture, policies, infrastructure as well as digital competence of students and staff to support the effective integration of technology in teaching and learning practices ” (Costa et al, 2021 , p.163).

Given that the integration of digital technologies is a complex and continuous process that impacts different actors within the school ecosystem (Eng, 2005 ), there is a need to show how the different elements of the impact are interconnected and to identify the factors that can encourage an effective and efficient change in the school environment. To address the issues outlined above, we formulated the following research questions:

a) What is the impact of digital technologies on education?

b) Which factors might affect a school’s digital capacity and transformation?

In the present investigation, we conducted a non-systematic literature review of publications pertaining to the impact of digital technologies on education and the factors that affect a school’s digital capacity and transformation. The results of the literature review were organized thematically based on the evidence presented about the impact of digital technology on education and the factors which affect the schools’ digital capacity and digital transformation.

Methodology

The non-systematic literature review presented herein covers the main theories and research published over the past 17 years on the topic. It is based on meta-analyses and review papers found in scholarly, peer-reviewed content databases and other key studies and reports related to the concepts studied (e.g., digitalization, digital capacity) from professional and international bodies (e.g., the OECD). We searched the Scopus database, which indexes various online journals in the education sector with an international scope, to collect peer-reviewed academic papers. Furthermore, we used an all-inclusive Google Scholar search to include relevant key terms or to include studies found in the reference list of the peer-reviewed papers, and other key studies and reports related to the concepts studied by professional and international bodies. Lastly, we gathered sources from the Publications Office of the European Union ( https://op.europa.eu/en/home ); namely, documents that refer to policies related to digital transformation in education.

Regarding search terms, we first searched resources on the impact of digital technologies on education by performing the following search queries: “impact” OR “effects” AND “digital technologies” AND “education”, “impact” OR “effects” AND “ICT” AND “education”. We further refined our results by adding the terms “meta-analysis” and “review” or by adjusting the search options based on the features of each database to avoid collecting individual studies that would provide limited contributions to a particular domain. We relied on meta-analyses and review studies as these consider the findings of multiple studies to offer a more comprehensive view of the research in a given area (Schuele & Justice, 2006 ). Specifically, meta-analysis studies provided quantitative evidence based on statistically verifiable results regarding the impact of educational interventions that integrate digital technologies in school classrooms (Higgins et al., 2012 ; Tolani-Brown et al., 2011 ).

However, quantitative data does not offer explanations for the challenges or difficulties experienced during ICT integration in learning and teaching (Tolani-Brown et al., 2011 ). To fill this gap, we analyzed literature reviews and gathered in-depth qualitative evidence of the benefits and implications of technology integration in schools. In the analysis presented herein, we also included policy documents and reports from professional and international bodies and governmental reports, which offered useful explanations of the key concepts of this study and provided recent evidence on digital capacity and transformation in education along with policy recommendations. The inclusion and exclusion criteria that were considered in this study are presented in Table ​ Table1 1 .

Inclusion and exclusion criteria for the selection of resources on the impact of digital technologies on education

To ensure a reliable extraction of information from each study and assist the research synthesis we selected the study characteristics of interest (impact) and constructed coding forms. First, an overview of the synthesis was provided by the principal investigator who described the processes of coding, data entry, and data management. The coders followed the same set of instructions but worked independently. To ensure a common understanding of the process between coders, a sample of ten studies was tested. The results were compared, and the discrepancies were identified and resolved. Additionally, to ensure an efficient coding process, all coders participated in group meetings to discuss additions, deletions, and modifications (Stock, 1994 ). Due to the methodological diversity of the studied documents we began to synthesize the literature review findings based on similar study designs. Specifically, most of the meta-analysis studies were grouped in one category due to the quantitative nature of the measured impact. These studies tended to refer to student achievement (Hattie et al., 2014 ). Then, we organized the themes of the qualitative studies in several impact categories. Lastly, we synthesized both review and meta-analysis data across the categories. In order to establish a collective understanding of the concept of impact, we referred to a previous impact study by Balanskat ( 2009 ) which investigated the impact of technology in primary schools. In this context, the impact had a more specific ICT-related meaning and was described as “ a significant influence or effect of ICT on the measured or perceived quality of (parts of) education ” (Balanskat, 2009 , p. 9). In the study presented herein, the main impacts are in relation to learning and learners, teaching, and teachers, as well as other key stakeholders who are directly or indirectly connected to the school unit.

The study’s results identified multiple dimensions of the impact of digital technologies on students’ knowledge, skills, and attitudes; on equality, inclusion, and social integration; on teachers’ professional and teaching practices; and on other school-related aspects and stakeholders. The data analysis indicated various factors that might affect the schools’ digital capacity and transformation, such as digital competencies, the teachers’ personal characteristics and professional development, as well as the school’s leadership and management, administration, infrastructure, etc. The impacts and factors found in the literature review are presented below.

Impacts of digital technologies on students’ knowledge, skills, attitudes, and emotions

The impact of ICT use on students’ knowledge, skills, and attitudes has been investigated early in the literature. Eng ( 2005 ) found a small positive effect between ICT use and students' learning. Specifically, the author reported that access to computer-assisted instruction (CAI) programs in simulation or tutorial modes—used to supplement rather than substitute instruction – could enhance student learning. The author reported studies showing that teachers acknowledged the benefits of ICT on pupils with special educational needs; however, the impact of ICT on students' attainment was unclear. Balanskat et al. ( 2006 ) found a statistically significant positive association between ICT use and higher student achievement in primary and secondary education. The authors also reported improvements in the performance of low-achieving pupils. The use of ICT resulted in further positive gains for students, namely increased attention, engagement, motivation, communication and process skills, teamwork, and gains related to their behaviour towards learning. Evidence from qualitative studies showed that teachers, students, and parents recognized the positive impact of ICT on students' learning regardless of their competence level (strong/weak students). Punie et al. ( 2006 ) documented studies that showed positive results of ICT-based learning for supporting low-achieving pupils and young people with complex lives outside the education system. Liao et al. ( 2007 ) reported moderate positive effects of computer application instruction (CAI, computer simulations, and web-based learning) over traditional instruction on primary school student's achievement. Similarly, Tamim et al. ( 2011 ) reported small to moderate positive effects between the use of computer technology (CAI, ICT, simulations, computer-based instruction, digital and hypermedia) and student achievement in formal face-to-face classrooms compared to classrooms that did not use technology. Jewitt et al., ( 2011 ) found that the use of learning platforms (LPs) (virtual learning environments, management information systems, communication technologies, and information- and resource-sharing technologies) in schools allowed primary and secondary students to access a wider variety of quality learning resources, engage in independent and personalized learning, and conduct self- and peer-review; LPs also provide opportunities for teacher assessment and feedback. Similar findings were reported by Fu ( 2013 ), who documented a list of benefits and opportunities of ICT use. According to the author, the use of ICTs helps students access digital information and course content effectively and efficiently, supports student-centered and self-directed learning, as well as the development of a creative learning environment where more opportunities for critical thinking skills are offered, and promotes collaborative learning in a distance-learning environment. Higgins et al. ( 2012 ) found consistent but small positive associations between the use of technology and learning outcomes of school-age learners (5–18-year-olds) in studies linking the provision and use of technology with attainment. Additionally, Chauhan ( 2017 ) reported a medium positive effect of technology on the learning effectiveness of primary school students compared to students who followed traditional learning instruction.

The rise of mobile technologies and hardware devices instigated investigations into their impact on teaching and learning. Sung et al. ( 2016 ) reported a moderate effect on students' performance from the use of mobile devices in the classroom compared to the use of desktop computers or the non-use of mobile devices. Schmid et al. ( 2014 ) reported medium–low to low positive effects of technology integration (e.g., CAI, ICTs) in the classroom on students' achievement and attitude compared to not using technology or using technology to varying degrees. Tamim et al. ( 2015 ) found a low statistically significant effect of the use of tablets and other smart devices in educational contexts on students' achievement outcomes. The authors suggested that tablets offered additional advantages to students; namely, they reported improvements in students’ notetaking, organizational and communication skills, and creativity. Zheng et al. ( 2016 ) reported a small positive effect of one-to-one laptop programs on students’ academic achievement across subject areas. Additional reported benefits included student-centered, individualized, and project-based learning enhanced learner engagement and enthusiasm. Additionally, the authors found that students using one-to-one laptop programs tended to use technology more frequently than in non-laptop classrooms, and as a result, they developed a range of skills (e.g., information skills, media skills, technology skills, organizational skills). Haßler et al. ( 2016 ) found that most interventions that included the use of tablets across the curriculum reported positive learning outcomes. However, from 23 studies, five reported no differences, and two reported a negative effect on students' learning outcomes. Similar results were indicated by Kalati and Kim ( 2022 ) who investigated the effect of touchscreen technologies on young students’ learning. Specifically, from 53 studies, 34 advocated positive effects of touchscreen devices on children’s learning, 17 obtained mixed findings and two studies reported negative effects.

More recently, approaches that refer to the impact of gamification with the use of digital technologies on teaching and learning were also explored. A review by Pan et al. ( 2022 ) that examined the role of learning games in fostering mathematics education in K-12 settings, reported that gameplay improved students’ performance. Integration of digital games in teaching was also found as a promising pedagogical practice in STEM education that could lead to increased learning gains (Martinez et al., 2022 ; Wang et al., 2022 ). However, although Talan et al. ( 2020 ) reported a medium effect of the use of educational games (both digital and non-digital) on academic achievement, the effect of non-digital games was higher.

Over the last two years, the effects of more advanced technologies on teaching and learning were also investigated. Garzón and Acevedo ( 2019 ) found that AR applications had a medium effect on students' learning outcomes compared to traditional lectures. Similarly, Garzón et al. ( 2020 ) showed that AR had a medium impact on students' learning gains. VR applications integrated into various subjects were also found to have a moderate effect on students’ learning compared to control conditions (traditional classes, e.g., lectures, textbooks, and multimedia use, e.g., images, videos, animation, CAI) (Chen et al., 2022b ). Villena-Taranilla et al. ( 2022 ) noted the moderate effect of VR technologies on students’ learning when these were applied in STEM disciplines. In the same meta-analysis, Villena-Taranilla et al. ( 2022 ) highlighted the role of immersive VR, since its effect on students’ learning was greater (at a high level) across educational levels (K-6) compared to semi-immersive and non-immersive integrations. In another meta-analysis study, the effect size of the immersive VR was small and significantly differentiated across educational levels (Coban et al., 2022 ). The impact of AI on education was investigated by Su and Yang ( 2022 ) and Su et al. ( 2022 ), who showed that this technology significantly improved students’ understanding of AI computer science and machine learning concepts.

It is worth noting that the vast majority of studies referred to learning gains in specific subjects. Specifically, several studies examined the impact of digital technologies on students’ literacy skills and reported positive effects on language learning (Balanskat et al., 2006 ; Grgurović et al., 2013 ; Friedel et al., 2013 ; Zheng et al., 2016 ; Chen et al., 2022b ; Savva et al., 2022 ). Also, several studies documented positive effects on specific language learning areas, namely foreign language learning (Kao, 2014 ), writing (Higgins et al., 2012 ; Wen & Walters, 2022 ; Zheng et al., 2016 ), as well as reading and comprehension (Cheung & Slavin, 2011 ; Liao et al., 2007 ; Schwabe et al., 2022 ). ICTs were also found to have a positive impact on students' performance in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) disciplines (Arztmann et al., 2022 ; Bado, 2022 ; Villena-Taranilla et al., 2022 ; Wang et al., 2022 ). Specifically, a number of studies reported positive impacts on students’ achievement in mathematics (Balanskat et al., 2006 ; Hillmayr et al., 2020 ; Li & Ma, 2010 ; Pan et al., 2022 ; Ran et al., 2022 ; Verschaffel et al., 2019 ; Zheng et al., 2016 ). Furthermore, studies documented positive effects of ICTs on science learning (Balanskat et al., 2006 ; Liao et al., 2007 ; Zheng et al., 2016 ; Hillmayr et al., 2020 ; Kalemkuş & Kalemkuş, 2022 ; Lei et al., 2022a ). Çelik ( 2022 ) also noted that computer simulations can help students understand learning concepts related to science. Furthermore, some studies documented that the use of ICTs had a positive impact on students’ achievement in other subjects, such as geography, history, music, and arts (Chauhan, 2017 ; Condie & Munro, 2007 ), and design and technology (Balanskat et al., 2006 ).

More specific positive learning gains were reported in a number of skills, e.g., problem-solving skills and pattern exploration skills (Higgins et al., 2012 ), metacognitive learning outcomes (Verschaffel et al., 2019 ), literacy skills, computational thinking skills, emotion control skills, and collaborative inquiry skills (Lu et al., 2022 ; Su & Yang, 2022 ; Su et al., 2022 ). Additionally, several investigations have reported benefits from the use of ICT on students’ creativity (Fielding & Murcia, 2022 ; Liu et al., 2022 ; Quah & Ng, 2022 ). Lastly, digital technologies were also found to be beneficial for enhancing students’ lifelong learning skills (Haleem et al., 2022 ).

Apart from gaining knowledge and skills, studies also reported improvement in motivation and interest in mathematics (Higgins et. al., 2019 ; Fadda et al., 2022 ) and increased positive achievement emotions towards several subjects during interventions using educational games (Lei et al., 2022a ). Chen et al. ( 2022a ) also reported a small but positive effect of digital health approaches in bullying and cyberbullying interventions with K-12 students, demonstrating that technology-based approaches can help reduce bullying and related consequences by providing emotional support, empowerment, and change of attitude. In their meta-review study, Su et al. ( 2022 ) also documented that AI technologies effectively strengthened students’ attitudes towards learning. In another meta-analysis, Arztmann et al. ( 2022 ) reported positive effects of digital games on motivation and behaviour towards STEM subjects.

Impacts of digital technologies on equality, inclusion and social integration

Although most of the reviewed studies focused on the impact of ICTs on students’ knowledge, skills, and attitudes, reports were also made on other aspects in the school context, such as equality, inclusion, and social integration. Condie and Munro ( 2007 ) documented research interventions investigating how ICT can support pupils with additional or special educational needs. While those interventions were relatively small scale and mostly based on qualitative data, their findings indicated that the use of ICTs enabled the development of communication, participation, and self-esteem. A recent meta-analysis (Baragash et al., 2022 ) with 119 participants with different disabilities, reported a significant overall effect size of AR on their functional skills acquisition. Koh’s meta-analysis ( 2022 ) also revealed that students with intellectual and developmental disabilities improved their competence and performance when they used digital games in the lessons.

Istenic Starcic and Bagon ( 2014 ) found that the role of ICT in inclusion and the design of pedagogical and technological interventions was not sufficiently explored in educational interventions with people with special needs; however, some benefits of ICT use were found in students’ social integration. The issue of gender and technology use was mentioned in a small number of studies. Zheng et al. ( 2016 ) reported a statistically significant positive interaction between one-to-one laptop programs and gender. Specifically, the results showed that girls and boys alike benefitted from the laptop program, but the effect on girls’ achievement was smaller than that on boys’. Along the same lines, Arztmann et al. ( 2022 ) reported no difference in the impact of game-based learning between boys and girls, arguing that boys and girls equally benefited from game-based interventions in STEM domains. However, results from a systematic review by Cussó-Calabuig et al. ( 2018 ) found limited and low-quality evidence on the effects of intensive use of computers on gender differences in computer anxiety, self-efficacy, and self-confidence. Based on their view, intensive use of computers can reduce gender differences in some areas and not in others, depending on contextual and implementation factors.

Impacts of digital technologies on teachers’ professional and teaching practices

Various research studies have explored the impact of ICT on teachers’ instructional practices and student assessment. Friedel et al. ( 2013 ) found that the use of mobile devices by students enabled teachers to successfully deliver content (e.g., mobile serious games), provide scaffolding, and facilitate synchronous collaborative learning. The integration of digital games in teaching and learning activities also gave teachers the opportunity to study and apply various pedagogical practices (Bado, 2022 ). Specifically, Bado ( 2022 ) found that teachers who implemented instructional activities in three stages (pre-game, game, and post-game) maximized students’ learning outcomes and engagement. For instance, during the pre-game stage, teachers focused on lectures and gameplay training, at the game stage teachers provided scaffolding on content, addressed technical issues, and managed the classroom activities. During the post-game stage, teachers organized activities for debriefing to ensure that the gameplay had indeed enhanced students’ learning outcomes.

Furthermore, ICT can increase efficiency in lesson planning and preparation by offering possibilities for a more collaborative approach among teachers. The sharing of curriculum plans and the analysis of students’ data led to clearer target settings and improvements in reporting to parents (Balanskat et al., 2006 ).

Additionally, the use and application of digital technologies in teaching and learning were found to enhance teachers’ digital competence. Balanskat et al. ( 2006 ) documented studies that revealed that the use of digital technologies in education had a positive effect on teachers’ basic ICT skills. The greatest impact was found on teachers with enough experience in integrating ICTs in their teaching and/or who had recently participated in development courses for the pedagogical use of technologies in teaching. Punie et al. ( 2006 ) reported that the provision of fully equipped multimedia portable computers and the development of online teacher communities had positive impacts on teachers’ confidence and competence in the use of ICTs.

Moreover, online assessment via ICTs benefits instruction. In particular, online assessments support the digitalization of students’ work and related logistics, allow teachers to gather immediate feedback and readjust to new objectives, and support the improvement of the technical quality of tests by providing more accurate results. Additionally, the capabilities of ICTs (e.g., interactive media, simulations) create new potential methods of testing specific skills, such as problem-solving and problem-processing skills, meta-cognitive skills, creativity and communication skills, and the ability to work productively in groups (Punie et al., 2006 ).

Impacts of digital technologies on other school-related aspects and stakeholders

There is evidence that the effective use of ICTs and the data transmission offered by broadband connections help improve administration (Balanskat et al., 2006 ). Specifically, ICTs have been found to provide better management systems to schools that have data gathering procedures in place. Condie and Munro ( 2007 ) reported impacts from the use of ICTs in schools in the following areas: attendance monitoring, assessment records, reporting to parents, financial management, creation of repositories for learning resources, and sharing of information amongst staff. Such data can be used strategically for self-evaluation and monitoring purposes which in turn can result in school improvements. Additionally, they reported that online access to other people with similar roles helped to reduce headteachers’ isolation by offering them opportunities to share insights into the use of ICT in learning and teaching and how it could be used to support school improvement. Furthermore, ICTs provided more efficient and successful examination management procedures, namely less time-consuming reporting processes compared to paper-based examinations and smooth communications between schools and examination authorities through electronic data exchange (Punie et al., 2006 ).

Zheng et al. ( 2016 ) reported that the use of ICTs improved home-school relationships. Additionally, Escueta et al. ( 2017 ) reported several ICT programs that had improved the flow of information from the school to parents. Particularly, they documented that the use of ICTs (learning management systems, emails, dedicated websites, mobile phones) allowed for personalized and customized information exchange between schools and parents, such as attendance records, upcoming class assignments, school events, and students’ grades, which generated positive results on students’ learning outcomes and attainment. Such information exchange between schools and families prompted parents to encourage their children to put more effort into their schoolwork.

The above findings suggest that the impact of ICT integration in schools goes beyond students’ performance in school subjects. Specifically, it affects a number of school-related aspects, such as equality and social integration, professional and teaching practices, and diverse stakeholders. In Table ​ Table2, 2 , we summarize the different impacts of digital technologies on school stakeholders based on the literature review, while in Table ​ Table3 3 we organized the tools/platforms and practices/policies addressed in the meta-analyses, literature reviews, EU reports, and international bodies included in the manuscript.

The impact of digital technologies on schools’ stakeholders based on the literature review

Tools/platforms and practices/policies addressed in the meta-analyses, literature reviews, EU reports, and international bodies included in the manuscript

Additionally, based on the results of the literature review, there are many types of digital technologies with different affordances (see, for example, studies on VR vs Immersive VR), which evolve over time (e.g. starting from CAIs in 2005 to Augmented and Virtual reality 2020). Furthermore, these technologies are linked to different pedagogies and policy initiatives, which are critical factors in the study of impact. Table ​ Table3 3 summarizes the different tools and practices that have been used to examine the impact of digital technologies on education since 2005 based on the review results.

Factors that affect the integration of digital technologies

Although the analysis of the literature review demonstrated different impacts of the use of digital technology on education, several authors highlighted the importance of various factors, besides the technology itself, that affect this impact. For example, Liao et al. ( 2007 ) suggested that future studies should carefully investigate which factors contribute to positive outcomes by clarifying the exact relationship between computer applications and learning. Additionally, Haßler et al., ( 2016 ) suggested that the neutral findings regarding the impact of tablets on students learning outcomes in some of the studies included in their review should encourage educators, school leaders, and school officials to further investigate the potential of such devices in teaching and learning. Several other researchers suggested that a number of variables play a significant role in the impact of ICTs on students’ learning that could be attributed to the school context, teaching practices and professional development, the curriculum, and learners’ characteristics (Underwood, 2009 ; Tamim et al., 2011 ; Higgins et al., 2012 ; Archer et al., 2014 ; Sung et al., 2016 ; Haßler et al., 2016 ; Chauhan, 2017 ; Lee et al., 2020 ; Tang et al., 2022 ).

Digital competencies

One of the most common challenges reported in studies that utilized digital tools in the classroom was the lack of students’ skills on how to use them. Fu ( 2013 ) found that students’ lack of technical skills is a barrier to the effective use of ICT in the classroom. Tamim et al. ( 2015 ) reported that students faced challenges when using tablets and smart mobile devices, associated with the technical issues or expertise needed for their use and the distracting nature of the devices and highlighted the need for teachers’ professional development. Higgins et al. ( 2012 ) reported that skills training about the use of digital technologies is essential for learners to fully exploit the benefits of instruction.

Delgado et al. ( 2015 ), meanwhile, reported studies that showed a strong positive association between teachers’ computer skills and students’ use of computers. Teachers’ lack of ICT skills and familiarization with technologies can become a constraint to the effective use of technology in the classroom (Balanskat et al., 2006 ; Delgado et al., 2015 ).

It is worth noting that the way teachers are introduced to ICTs affects the impact of digital technologies on education. Previous studies have shown that teachers may avoid using digital technologies due to limited digital skills (Balanskat, 2006 ), or they prefer applying “safe” technologies, namely technologies that their own teachers used and with which they are familiar (Condie & Munro, 2007 ). In this regard, the provision of digital skills training and exposure to new digital tools might encourage teachers to apply various technologies in their lessons (Condie & Munro, 2007 ). Apart from digital competence, technical support in the school setting has also been shown to affect teachers’ use of technology in their classrooms (Delgado et al., 2015 ). Ferrari et al. ( 2011 ) found that while teachers’ use of ICT is high, 75% stated that they needed more institutional support and a shift in the mindset of educational actors to achieve more innovative teaching practices. The provision of support can reduce time and effort as well as cognitive constraints, which could cause limited ICT integration in the school lessons by teachers (Escueta et al., 2017 ).

Teachers’ personal characteristics, training approaches, and professional development

Teachers’ personal characteristics and professional development affect the impact of digital technologies on education. Specifically, Cheok and Wong ( 2015 ) found that teachers’ personal characteristics (e.g., anxiety, self-efficacy) are associated with their satisfaction and engagement with technology. Bingimlas ( 2009 ) reported that lack of confidence, resistance to change, and negative attitudes in using new technologies in teaching are significant determinants of teachers’ levels of engagement in ICT. The same author reported that the provision of technical support, motivation support (e.g., awards, sufficient time for planning), and training on how technologies can benefit teaching and learning can eliminate the above barriers to ICT integration. Archer et al. ( 2014 ) found that comfort levels in using technology are an important predictor of technology integration and argued that it is essential to provide teachers with appropriate training and ongoing support until they are comfortable with using ICTs in the classroom. Hillmayr et al. ( 2020 ) documented that training teachers on ICT had an important effecton students’ learning.

According to Balanskat et al. ( 2006 ), the impact of ICTs on students’ learning is highly dependent on the teachers’ capacity to efficiently exploit their application for pedagogical purposes. Results obtained from the Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) (OECD, 2021 ) revealed that although schools are open to innovative practices and have the capacity to adopt them, only 39% of teachers in the European Union reported that they are well or very well prepared to use digital technologies for teaching. Li and Ma ( 2010 ) and Hardman ( 2019 ) showed that the positive effect of technology on students’ achievement depends on the pedagogical practices used by teachers. Schmid et al. ( 2014 ) reported that learning was best supported when students were engaged in active, meaningful activities with the use of technological tools that provided cognitive support. Tamim et al. ( 2015 ) compared two different pedagogical uses of tablets and found a significant moderate effect when the devices were used in a student-centered context and approach rather than within teacher-led environments. Similarly, Garzón and Acevedo ( 2019 ) and Garzón et al. ( 2020 ) reported that the positive results from the integration of AR applications could be attributed to the existence of different variables which could influence AR interventions (e.g., pedagogical approach, learning environment, and duration of the intervention). Additionally, Garzón et al. ( 2020 ) suggested that the pedagogical resources that teachers used to complement their lectures and the pedagogical approaches they applied were crucial to the effective integration of AR on students’ learning gains. Garzón and Acevedo ( 2019 ) also emphasized that the success of a technology-enhanced intervention is based on both the technology per se and its characteristics and on the pedagogical strategies teachers choose to implement. For instance, their results indicated that the collaborative learning approach had the highest impact on students’ learning gains among other approaches (e.g., inquiry-based learning, situated learning, or project-based learning). Ran et al. ( 2022 ) also found that the use of technology to design collaborative and communicative environments showed the largest moderator effects among the other approaches.

Hattie ( 2008 ) reported that the effective use of computers is associated with training teachers in using computers as a teaching and learning tool. Zheng et al. ( 2016 ) noted that in addition to the strategies teachers adopt in teaching, ongoing professional development is also vital in ensuring the success of technology implementation programs. Sung et al. ( 2016 ) found that research on the use of mobile devices to support learning tends to report that the insufficient preparation of teachers is a major obstacle in implementing effective mobile learning programs in schools. Friedel et al. ( 2013 ) found that providing training and support to teachers increased the positive impact of the interventions on students’ learning gains. Trucano ( 2005 ) argued that positive impacts occur when digital technologies are used to enhance teachers’ existing pedagogical philosophies. Higgins et al. ( 2012 ) found that the types of technologies used and how they are used could also affect students’ learning. The authors suggested that training and professional development of teachers that focuses on the effective pedagogical use of technology to support teaching and learning is an important component of successful instructional approaches (Higgins et al., 2012 ). Archer et al. ( 2014 ) found that studies that reported ICT interventions during which teachers received training and support had moderate positive effects on students’ learning outcomes, which were significantly higher than studies where little or no detail about training and support was mentioned. Fu ( 2013 ) reported that the lack of teachers’ knowledge and skills on the technical and instructional aspects of ICT use in the classroom, in-service training, pedagogy support, technical and financial support, as well as the lack of teachers’ motivation and encouragement to integrate ICT on their teaching were significant barriers to the integration of ICT in education.

School leadership and management

Management and leadership are important cornerstones in the digital transformation process (Pihir et al., 2018 ). Zheng et al. ( 2016 ) documented leadership among the factors positively affecting the successful implementation of technology integration in schools. Strong leadership, strategic planning, and systematic integration of digital technologies are prerequisites for the digital transformation of education systems (Ređep, 2021 ). Management and leadership play a significant role in formulating policies that are translated into practice and ensure that developments in ICT become embedded into the life of the school and in the experiences of staff and pupils (Condie & Munro, 2007 ). Policy support and leadership must include the provision of an overall vision for the use of digital technologies in education, guidance for students and parents, logistical support, as well as teacher training (Conrads et al., 2017 ). Unless there is a commitment throughout the school, with accountability for progress at key points, it is unlikely for ICT integration to be sustained or become part of the culture (Condie & Munro, 2007 ). To achieve this, principals need to adopt and promote a whole-institution strategy and build a strong mutual support system that enables the school’s technological maturity (European Commission, 2019 ). In this context, school culture plays an essential role in shaping the mindsets and beliefs of school actors towards successful technology integration. Condie and Munro ( 2007 ) emphasized the importance of the principal’s enthusiasm and work as a source of inspiration for the school staff and the students to cultivate a culture of innovation and establish sustainable digital change. Specifically, school leaders need to create conditions in which the school staff is empowered to experiment and take risks with technology (Elkordy & Lovinelli, 2020 ).

In order for leaders to achieve the above, it is important to develop capacities for learning and leading, advocating professional learning, and creating support systems and structures (European Commission, 2019 ). Digital technology integration in education systems can be challenging and leadership needs guidance to achieve it. Such guidance can be introduced through the adoption of new methods and techniques in strategic planning for the integration of digital technologies (Ređep, 2021 ). Even though the role of leaders is vital, the relevant training offered to them has so far been inadequate. Specifically, only a third of the education systems in Europe have put in place national strategies that explicitly refer to the training of school principals (European Commission, 2019 , p. 16).

Connectivity, infrastructure, and government and other support

The effective integration of digital technologies across levels of education presupposes the development of infrastructure, the provision of digital content, and the selection of proper resources (Voogt et al., 2013 ). Particularly, a high-quality broadband connection in the school increases the quality and quantity of educational activities. There is evidence that ICT increases and formalizes cooperative planning between teachers and cooperation with managers, which in turn has a positive impact on teaching practices (Balanskat et al., 2006 ). Additionally, ICT resources, including software and hardware, increase the likelihood of teachers integrating technology into the curriculum to enhance their teaching practices (Delgado et al., 2015 ). For example, Zheng et al. ( 2016 ) found that the use of one-on-one laptop programs resulted in positive changes in teaching and learning, which would not have been accomplished without the infrastructure and technical support provided to teachers. Delgado et al. ( 2015 ) reported that limited access to technology (insufficient computers, peripherals, and software) and lack of technical support are important barriers to ICT integration. Access to infrastructure refers not only to the availability of technology in a school but also to the provision of a proper amount and the right types of technology in locations where teachers and students can use them. Effective technical support is a central element of the whole-school strategy for ICT (Underwood, 2009 ). Bingimlas ( 2009 ) reported that lack of technical support in the classroom and whole-school resources (e.g., failing to connect to the Internet, printers not printing, malfunctioning computers, and working on old computers) are significant barriers that discourage the use of ICT by teachers. Moreover, poor quality and inadequate hardware maintenance, and unsuitable educational software may discourage teachers from using ICTs (Balanskat et al., 2006 ; Bingimlas, 2009 ).

Government support can also impact the integration of ICTs in teaching. Specifically, Balanskat et al. ( 2006 ) reported that government interventions and training programs increased teachers’ enthusiasm and positive attitudes towards ICT and led to the routine use of embedded ICT.

Lastly, another important factor affecting digital transformation is the development and quality assurance of digital learning resources. Such resources can be support textbooks and related materials or resources that focus on specific subjects or parts of the curriculum. Policies on the provision of digital learning resources are essential for schools and can be achieved through various actions. For example, some countries are financing web portals that become repositories, enabling teachers to share resources or create their own. Additionally, they may offer e-learning opportunities or other services linked to digital education. In other cases, specific agencies of projects have also been set up to develop digital resources (Eurydice, 2019 ).

Administration and digital data management

The digital transformation of schools involves organizational improvements at the level of internal workflows, communication between the different stakeholders, and potential for collaboration. Vuorikari et al. ( 2020 ) presented evidence that digital technologies supported the automation of administrative practices in schools and reduced the administration’s workload. There is evidence that digital data affects the production of knowledge about schools and has the power to transform how schooling takes place. Specifically, Sellar ( 2015 ) reported that data infrastructure in education is developing due to the demand for “ information about student outcomes, teacher quality, school performance, and adult skills, associated with policy efforts to increase human capital and productivity practices ” (p. 771). In this regard, practices, such as datafication which refers to the “ translation of information about all kinds of things and processes into quantified formats” have become essential for decision-making based on accountability reports about the school’s quality. The data could be turned into deep insights about education or training incorporating ICTs. For example, measuring students’ online engagement with the learning material and drawing meaningful conclusions can allow teachers to improve their educational interventions (Vuorikari et al., 2020 ).

Students’ socioeconomic background and family support

Research show that the active engagement of parents in the school and their support for the school’s work can make a difference to their children’s attitudes towards learning and, as a result, their achievement (Hattie, 2008 ). In recent years, digital technologies have been used for more effective communication between school and family (Escueta et al., 2017 ). The European Commission ( 2020 ) presented data from a Eurostat survey regarding the use of computers by students during the pandemic. The data showed that younger pupils needed additional support and guidance from parents and the challenges were greater for families in which parents had lower levels of education and little to no digital skills.

In this regard, the socio-economic background of the learners and their socio-cultural environment also affect educational achievements (Punie et al., 2006 ). Trucano documented that the use of computers at home positively influenced students’ confidence and resulted in more frequent use at school, compared to students who had no home access (Trucano, 2005 ). In this sense, the socio-economic background affects the access to computers at home (OECD, 2015 ) which in turn influences the experience of ICT, an important factor for school achievement (Punie et al., 2006 ; Underwood, 2009 ). Furthermore, parents from different socio-economic backgrounds may have different abilities and availability to support their children in their learning process (Di Pietro et al., 2020 ).

Schools’ socioeconomic context and emergency situations

The socio-economic context of the school is closely related to a school’s digital transformation. For example, schools in disadvantaged, rural, or deprived areas are likely to lack the digital capacity and infrastructure required to adapt to the use of digital technologies during emergency periods, such as the COVID-19 pandemic (Di Pietro et al., 2020 ). Data collected from school principals confirmed that in several countries, there is a rural/urban divide in connectivity (OECD, 2015 ).

Emergency periods also affect the digitalization of schools. The COVID-19 pandemic led to the closure of schools and forced them to seek appropriate and connective ways to keep working on the curriculum (Di Pietro et al., 2020 ). The sudden large-scale shift to distance and online teaching and learning also presented challenges around quality and equity in education, such as the risk of increased inequalities in learning, digital, and social, as well as teachers facing difficulties coping with this demanding situation (European Commission, 2020 ).

Looking at the findings of the above studies, we can conclude that the impact of digital technologies on education is influenced by various actors and touches many aspects of the school ecosystem. Figure  1 summarizes the factors affecting the digital technologies’ impact on school stakeholders based on the findings from the literature review.

Factors that affect the impact of ICTs on education

The findings revealed that the use of digital technologies in education affects a variety of actors within a school’s ecosystem. First, we observed that as technologies evolve, so does the interest of the research community to apply them to school settings. Figure  2 summarizes the trends identified in current research around the impact of digital technologies on schools’ digital capacity and transformation as found in the present study. Starting as early as 2005, when computers, simulations, and interactive boards were the most commonly applied tools in school interventions (e.g., Eng, 2005 ; Liao et al., 2007 ; Moran et al., 2008 ; Tamim et al., 2011 ), moving towards the use of learning platforms (Jewitt et al., 2011 ), then to the use of mobile devices and digital games (e.g., Tamim et al., 2015 ; Sung et al., 2016 ; Talan et al., 2020 ), as well as e-books (e.g., Savva et al., 2022 ), to the more recent advanced technologies, such as AR and VR applications (e.g., Garzón & Acevedo, 2019 ; Garzón et al., 2020 ; Kalemkuş & Kalemkuş, 2022 ), or robotics and AI (e.g., Su & Yang, 2022 ; Su et al., 2022 ). As this evolution shows, digital technologies are a concept in flux with different affordances and characteristics. Additionally, from an instructional perspective, there has been a growing interest in different modes and models of content delivery such as online, blended, and hybrid modes (e.g., Cheok & Wong, 2015 ; Kazu & Yalçin, 2022 ; Ulum, 2022 ). This is an indication that the value of technologies to support teaching and learning as well as other school-related practices is increasingly recognized by the research and school community. The impact results from the literature review indicate that ICT integration on students’ learning outcomes has effects that are small (Coban et al., 2022 ; Eng, 2005 ; Higgins et al., 2012 ; Schmid et al., 2014 ; Tamim et al., 2015 ; Zheng et al., 2016 ) to moderate (Garzón & Acevedo, 2019 ; Garzón et al., 2020 ; Liao et al., 2007 ; Sung et al., 2016 ; Talan et al., 2020 ; Wen & Walters, 2022 ). That said, a number of recent studies have reported high effect sizes (e.g., Kazu & Yalçin, 2022 ).

Current work and trends in the study of the impact of digital technologies on schools’ digital capacity

Based on these findings, several authors have suggested that the impact of technology on education depends on several variables and not on the technology per se (Tamim et al., 2011 ; Higgins et al., 2012 ; Archer et al., 2014 ; Sung et al., 2016 ; Haßler et al., 2016 ; Chauhan, 2017 ; Lee et al., 2020 ; Lei et al., 2022a ). While the impact of ICTs on student achievement has been thoroughly investigated by researchers, other aspects related to school life that are also affected by ICTs, such as equality, inclusion, and social integration have received less attention. Further analysis of the literature review has revealed a greater investment in ICT interventions to support learning and teaching in the core subjects of literacy and STEM disciplines, especially mathematics, and science. These were the most common subjects studied in the reviewed papers often drawing on national testing results, while studies that investigated other subject areas, such as social studies, were limited (Chauhan, 2017 ; Condie & Munro, 2007 ). As such, research is still lacking impact studies that focus on the effects of ICTs on a range of curriculum subjects.

The qualitative research provided additional information about the impact of digital technologies on education, documenting positive effects and giving more details about implications, recommendations, and future research directions. Specifically, the findings regarding the role of ICTs in supporting learning highlight the importance of teachers’ instructional practice and the learning context in the use of technologies and consequently their impact on instruction (Çelik, 2022 ; Schmid et al., 2014 ; Tamim et al., 2015 ). The review also provided useful insights regarding the various factors that affect the impact of digital technologies on education. These factors are interconnected and play a vital role in the transformation process. Specifically, these factors include a) digital competencies; b) teachers’ personal characteristics and professional development; c) school leadership and management; d) connectivity, infrastructure, and government support; e) administration and data management practices; f) students’ socio-economic background and family support and g) the socioeconomic context of the school and emergency situations. It is worth noting that we observed factors that affect the integration of ICTs in education but may also be affected by it. For example, the frequent use of ICTs and the use of laptops by students for instructional purposes positively affect the development of digital competencies (Zheng et al., 2016 ) and at the same time, the digital competencies affect the use of ICTs (Fu, 2013 ; Higgins et al., 2012 ). As a result, the impact of digital technologies should be explored more as an enabler of desirable and new practices and not merely as a catalyst that improves the output of the education process i.e. namely student attainment.

Conclusions

Digital technologies offer immense potential for fundamental improvement in schools. However, investment in ICT infrastructure and professional development to improve school education are yet to provide fruitful results. Digital transformation is a complex process that requires large-scale transformative changes that presuppose digital capacity and preparedness. To achieve such changes, all actors within the school’s ecosystem need to share a common vision regarding the integration of ICTs in education and work towards achieving this goal. Our literature review, which synthesized quantitative and qualitative data from a list of meta-analyses and review studies, provided useful insights into the impact of ICTs on different school stakeholders and showed that the impact of digital technologies touches upon many different aspects of school life, which are often overlooked when the focus is on student achievement as the final output of education. Furthermore, the concept of digital technologies is a concept in flux as technologies are not only different among them calling for different uses in the educational practice but they also change through time. Additionally, we opened a forum for discussion regarding the factors that affect a school’s digital capacity and transformation. We hope that our study will inform policy, practice, and research and result in a paradigm shift towards more holistic approaches in impact and assessment studies.

Study limitations and future directions

We presented a review of the study of digital technologies' impact on education and factors influencing schools’ digital capacity and transformation. The study results were based on a non-systematic literature review grounded on the acquisition of documentation in specific databases. Future studies should investigate more databases to corroborate and enhance our results. Moreover, search queries could be enhanced with key terms that could provide additional insights about the integration of ICTs in education, such as “policies and strategies for ICT integration in education”. Also, the study drew information from meta-analyses and literature reviews to acquire evidence about the effects of ICT integration in schools. Such evidence was mostly based on the general conclusions of the studies. It is worth mentioning that, we located individual studies which showed different, such as negative or neutral results. Thus, further insights are needed about the impact of ICTs on education and the factors influencing the impact. Furthermore, the nature of the studies included in meta-analyses and reviews is different as they are based on different research methodologies and data gathering processes. For instance, in a meta-analysis, the impact among the studies investigated is measured in a particular way, depending on policy or research targets (e.g., results from national examinations, pre-/post-tests). Meanwhile, in literature reviews, qualitative studies offer additional insights and detail based on self-reports and research opinions on several different aspects and stakeholders who could affect and be affected by ICT integration. As a result, it was challenging to draw causal relationships between so many interrelating variables.

Despite the challenges mentioned above, this study envisaged examining school units as ecosystems that consist of several actors by bringing together several variables from different research epistemologies to provide an understanding of the integration of ICTs. However, the use of other tools and methodologies and models for evaluation of the impact of digital technologies on education could give more detailed data and more accurate results. For instance, self-reflection tools, like SELFIE—developed on the DigCompOrg framework- (Kampylis et al., 2015 ; Bocconi & Lightfoot, 2021 ) can help capture a school’s digital capacity and better assess the impact of ICTs on education. Furthermore, the development of a theory of change could be a good approach for documenting the impact of digital technologies on education. Specifically, theories of change are models used for the evaluation of interventions and their impact; they are developed to describe how interventions will work and give the desired outcomes (Mayne, 2015 ). Theory of change as a methodological approach has also been used by researchers to develop models for evaluation in the field of education (e.g., Aromatario et al., 2019 ; Chapman & Sammons, 2013 ; De Silva et al., 2014 ).

We also propose that future studies aim at similar investigations by applying more holistic approaches for impact assessment that can provide in-depth data about the impact of digital technologies on education. For instance, future studies could focus on different research questions about the technologies that are used during the interventions or the way the implementation takes place (e.g., What methodologies are used for documenting impact? How are experimental studies implemented? How can teachers be taken into account and trained on the technology and its functions? What are the elements of an appropriate and successful implementation? How is the whole intervention designed? On which learning theories is the technology implementation based?).

Future research could also focus on assessing the impact of digital technologies on various other subjects since there is a scarcity of research related to particular subjects, such as geography, history, arts, music, and design and technology. More research should also be done about the impact of ICTs on skills, emotions, and attitudes, and on equality, inclusion, social interaction, and special needs education. There is also a need for more research about the impact of ICTs on administration, management, digitalization, and home-school relationships. Additionally, although new forms of teaching and learning with the use of ICTs (e.g., blended, hybrid, and online learning) have initiated several investigations in mainstream classrooms, only a few studies have measured their impact on students’ learning. Additionally, our review did not document any study about the impact of flipped classrooms on K-12 education. Regarding teaching and learning approaches, it is worth noting that studies referred to STEM or STEAM did not investigate the impact of STEM/STEAM as an interdisciplinary approach to learning but only investigated the impact of ICTs on learning in each domain as a separate subject (science, technology, engineering, arts, mathematics). Hence, we propose future research to also investigate the impact of the STEM/STEAM approach on education. The impact of emerging technologies on education, such as AR, VR, robotics, and AI has also been investigated recently, but more work needs to be done.

Finally, we propose that future studies could focus on the way in which specific factors, e.g., infrastructure and government support, school leadership and management, students’ and teachers’ digital competencies, approaches teachers utilize in the teaching and learning (e.g., blended, online and hybrid learning, flipped classrooms, STEM/STEAM approach, project-based learning, inquiry-based learning), affect the impact of digital technologies on education. We hope that future studies will give detailed insights into the concept of schools’ digital transformation through further investigation of impacts and factors which influence digital capacity and transformation based on the results and the recommendations of the present study.

Acknowledgements

This project has received funding under Grant Agreement No Ref Ares (2021) 339036 7483039 as well as funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Program under Grant Agreement No 739578 and the Government of the Republic of Cyprus through the Deputy Ministry of Research, Innovation and Digital Policy. The UVa co-authors would like also to acknowledge funding from the European Regional Development Fund and the National Research Agency of the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation, under project grant PID2020-112584RB-C32.

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Exploring the Use of Technology in the Classroom: A Qualitative Study of Students' and Teachers' Experience

• Tanjina Azad North South University

The integration of technology in the classroom has become increasingly popular, with many educators seeing it as a way to enhance teaching and learning. However, there is a need to understand how technology is being used and how it is impacting both students and teachers. This qualitative study aimed to explore students' and teachers’ experiences on the use of technology in the classroom. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with eight teachers and ten students in a high school in the United States. The interviews were analyzed using thematic analysis. The findings revealed that technology was perceived as a valuable tool for enhancing learning, but that there were also challenges associated with its use, such as technical difficulties and distractions. Additionally, students and teachers had differing opinions on how technology should be used in the classroom, with some students preferring a more traditional approach to learning. Overall, this study highlights the need for careful consideration of how technology is integrated into the classroom, as well as the importance of understanding students' and teachers' experience on its use.

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Copyright (c) 2023 Tanjina Azad

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• DOI: 10.1145/3660043.3660172
• Corpus ID: 270155620

Research on the Application of AI in Personalized Education

• Guibin Zhu , Bo Zhao , Jianbo Tang
• Published in ICIEAI 22 December 2023
• Computer Science, Education
• Proceedings of the 2023 International Conference on Information Education and Artificial Intelligence

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• Open access
• Published: 15 September 2024

Health sciences students’ perspectives on metaverse and digital technology use: cross-sectional descriptive study

• Hale Sezer 1 &
• Abdülkadir Gül 2  

BMC Nursing volume  23 , Article number:  656 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Students’ attitudes towards digital technologies affect their use of innovations in digital education. In the study, it was aimed to determine undergraduate health sciences students’ views about the Metaverse and digital technology.

This study was a cross-sectional descriptive study. In the study sample, 289 health sciences students who voluntarily agreed to participate in the research and filled out the online data collection form were included. The Independent Samples T-Test, Multivariate ANOVA analysis of variance (MANOVA) and Pearson correlation analysis were used. P-values less than 0.05 were considered statistically significant.

The mean score the participants obtained from the Metaverse Scale was 53.54 ± 9.00, indicating that their levels of knowledge and awareness about the Metaverse were high. The mean score they obtained from the Attitude Scale for Digital Technology was 135.98 ± 21.28, which indicated that displayed positive attitudes towards digital technology. There was no significant difference between the mean scores the participants obtained from the Attitude Scale for Digital Technology and the Metaverse Scale according to their departments and years in school. There was a positive and weak relationship between the Metaverse Scale scores and Attitude Scale for Digital Technology scores.

Conclusions

The participants’ knowledge and awareness levels about the Metaverse were high and they displayed positive attitudes towards digital technology. It is recommended that digital technologies should be used in planning undergraduate education and Metaverse platforms or applications in virtual classroom settings.

Peer Review reports

Innovations in digital education, artificial intelligence and Metaverse are indispensable for learning, and educational innovation in the future [ 1 ]. In today’s digital world, the Metaverse, one of the new communication tools, has entered our lives as a new technological concept and gradually developed with the penetration of the internet into all areas of our lives [ 2 ]. Metaverse is also used in the field of education by providing interaction via avatars [ 3 , 4 ]. Thanks to this technology, the Metaverse, which exists in many areas of our lives, has provided an innovation for the whole world in terms of switching to distance education and discussing its importance during the COVID-19 pandemic [ 2 ]. Metaverse, still a developing multidimensional technology, is expected to have a wide range of uses in the future [ 5 ]. Thus, being aware of the awareness and opinions of students who first use innovative technologies regarding these technologies enables them to use the Metaverse world most effectively and efficiently [ 6 ]. Another concept closely related to the Metaverse is digital technology [ 7 ].

Digital technology alters individuals’ lifestyles and activities, influencing how they communicate and manage their time [ 7 ]. Adapting to, learning or using new technological developments helps young individuals to play an active role in society [ 7 ]. [ 8 ].

The new generation has no worries about using and adapting to digital technology [ 8 ]. However, it has been predicted that when digital technology is compatible with the daily routines of the new generation, their effort to learn this technology will increase [ 8 ]. This change and digitalization have also contributed to advances in the field of education. Thanks to digital technologies, students and educators can interact with their classmates, and access learning resources anytime and anywhere [ 9 ]. Health science students’ experiencing, internalizing, and using developing digital technologies rapidly before and after graduation is of great importance. Considering that they will take place in the delivery of health services with augmented reality (AR), virtual reality (VR), extended reality (XR), artificial intelligence and Metaverse technologies, it is thought that determining their views on the use of digital technologies and the Metaverse in undergraduate education will affect their use them in the future.

The metaverse was first mentioned in a science fiction novel called “Snow Crash” written by Neal Stephenson in 1992 although it is not a new concept [ 10 ]. [ 10 ].

In the novel, the Metaverse represents a parallel universe made up of computer programs, graphics, and designs, where users can communicate using glasses and headphones [ 10 ].

Later, a Metaverse called OASIS was mentioned in Ready Player One, a recently published novel, and in a movie adapted for the cinema [ 11 , 12 ]. In the novel, the author defined the concept of metaverse as a virtual universe that combines virtual reality, augmented reality and the internet [ 11 ]. The concept of Metaverse refers to the universe where the digital elements of communication tools are gathered together today [ 13 ]. The concept of the Metaverse comes from Ancient Greek words “Meta” which means after and “Verse” which means universe [ 14 ]. [ 14 ]. According to another definition, the virtual world makes it possible to interact with people and digital elements, to communicate as if the users were in the physical world using avatars, and to perform various activities [ 14 ]. Metaverse environment refers to a technology-enabled 3D space that provides interactive experiences. In this environment, technologies such as virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), virtual worlds (VW), mixed reality (MR) and extended reality (XR) are used [ 15 ]. Several studies are carried out on how the Metaverse is used in the field of health sciences by students [ 3 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 ]. Most of these studies were conducted with nursing students [ 3 , 15 ]. In a literature review, Moro emphasized that Metaverse can be used in health science students’ anatomy and physiology courses [ 20 ]. In a systematic review, Gagne et al. determined that Metaverse interventions improved students’ knowledge, self-confidence, participation and satisfaction, and supported their performance [ 15 ]. Nursing students took part in Metaverse-based core nursing skill contents (CNSC) training [ 3 ], Metaverse-based career mentoring program [ 16 ], Metaverse-based schizophrenia nursing simulation program [ 17 ], and Metaverse-based cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) training [ 18 ]. Metaverse-based trainings helped students develop their basic nursing skills [ 3 ], had a positive effect on their career decision-making self-efficacy [ 16 ], and improved their CPR performance [ 18 ]. Although several studies have been conducted on Metaverse applications, the number of studies conducted to determine whether students agree to use the Metaverse and whether they have positive opinions of the Metaverse is limited [ 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 ]. The search for studies conducted with health science students in particular revealed a gap in the literature. Users’ perception of the usefulness of digital technological innovation is an important determinant of technology adoption [ 21 ].

Although examples of educational programs based on metaverse are increasingly implemented and appear in the literature, the determinant of whether the use of digital technologies in education will become widespread or not is the students. Students’ attitudes towards digital technologies or their adoption of digital technologies will pave the way for educators whether they can use this technology in their educational programs. Determining health sciences students’ views on the use of digital technologies and the metaverse is of great importance in the elimination of deficiencies in the existing literature in this field. In particular, there is a need for a comprehensive understanding of the effects of digital technologies and the metaverse on educational processes, on students’ adaptation processes to these innovations, and on their implications for future professional practices. Therefore, studies should be conducted to investigate health sciences students’ attitudes and experiences regarding these issues. Therefore, in order to fill the gap, conducting a study in which health sciences students’ views on digital technology and the use of metaverse are determined gains importance. In this context, in Turkish literature, no studies have been conducted with students of health sciences in which their views on the Metaverse and digital technology were investigated. Therefore, in the present study, the aim was to determine the views of students of health sciences about the use of metaverse and digital technology in undergraduate education.

Study design

This cross-sectional and descriptive study was conducted online using Google Forms between January 2023 and May 2023 [ 25 ].

The population of the study comprised 1433 students attending Izmir Bakırçay University Faculty of Health Sciences. The sample size was determined as 304 students in the OpenEpi Program with a 95% confidence interval. The e-survey was conducted between January 2023 and May 2023 with 289 students who volunteered to participate in the study. The participation rate was 95.06%. The inclusion criteria of the study were as follows: being a health sciences student at the aforementioned university, and volunteering to participate in the study. The exclusion criterion was as follows: not completing the online data collection forms.

Data collection

The data were collected using the “Students’ Descriptive Information Form”, “Metaverse Scale” and “Attitude Scale for Digital Technology”. To protect the confidentiality of the data, data was collected via “Google forms”. It took respondents approximately 5 minutes to respond to the survey form.

The e-survey link was sent to WhatsApp student groups, including only health sciences students, as a reminder once a week between January 2023 and May 2023. Of the students, those who volunteered to participate in the survey were asked to fill in the online questionnaire. Each student was allowed to complete the online questionnaire only once.

Students’ Descriptive Information Form: The form the researchers prepared in line with the literature includes 16 items questioning the students’ sex, age, year at school, department, daily internet usage time, experience of using digital tools in classes, use of wearable technology, will to use the Metaverse, experience of the Metaverse application or platform, and social networks they use.

Metaverse Scale (MS): The MS was used to determine students’ knowledge of, attitudes towards and awareness of the Metaverse. Süleymanoğulları et al. performed the validity and reliability of the MS in 2022 [ 12 ]. The MS consists of 15 items and the following 4 sub-dimensions: technology, digitalization, social and lifestyle. The internal consistency coefficient (Cronbach’s alpha) of the MS was measured as 0.813 in Süleymanoğulları et al.’s study, and 0.866 in the present study. Responses given to the items are rated on a 5-point Likert type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The lowest and highest possible scores that can be obtained from the MS are 15 and 75, respectively. As the scores obtained from the MS increase, so does the level of knowledge and awareness about the Metaverse (The higher the score obtained from the MS the higher level of knowledge and awareness about the Metaverse is) [ 12 ].

Attitude Scale for Digital Technology (ASDT): Cabı E. developed the ASDT in 2016 to determine students’ attitudes towards digital technology [ 26 ]. The ASDT consists of 8 sub-dimensions and 39 items whose responses are rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (I totally /strongly disagree) to 5 (I totally /strongly agree). The higher the score obtained from the ASDT is the more favorable the student’s attitude towards digital technology is. The internal consistency coefficient (Cronbach’s alpha) of the ASDT was measured as 0.90 in Cabı E.’s study, and 0.937 in the present study.

Statistical analysis

The study data were analyzed using the IBM SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) for Windows 25.0. While numbers, percentages, arithmetic mean and standard deviation were used for the descriptive characteristics of the students, data on their daily internet use time, digital tool usage experience in courses, use of wearable technology, will to use the Metaverse, Metaverse application or platform experience, and social networks they use were used to measure their knowledge of the Metaverse. The Kolmogorov Smirnov test was used to check whether the data were normally distributed. Because the data were normally distributed, the independent samples t-test was used to compare the relationship between the independent variables and the mean scores obtained from the Metaverse Scale and Attitude Scale for Digital Technology. The Multivariate ANOVA analysis of variance (MANOVA) was used to compare the mean scores the participating students obtained from the Metaverse Scale and Attitude Scale for Digital Technology in terms of their departments and year at school. The Pearson correlation analysis was used to analyze the relationship between the mean scores the participating students obtained from the Metaverse Scale and Attitude Scale for Digital Technology. P-values less than 0.05 were considered statistically significant.

The mean age of the students participating in the study was 20.75 ± 1.77 years. The mean duration of daily internet use was 6.04 ± 3.22 h. Of the students, 73% (n: 211) were women, 51.9% (n: 150) were attending the nursing department and 36.7% (n: 106) were second-year students (Table  1 ).

Of the students participating in the study, 70.6% (n: 204) had heard about the concept of the Metaverse, 88.9% (n: 257) perceived their level of knowledge on the Metaverse inadequate, 83.4% (n: 241) stated that the use of the Metaverse in the courses would increase the efficiency of the course, 86.9% (n: 251) thought that the Metaverse would make their lives easier, 53.3% (n: 145) did not feel ready to use the Metaverse, 87.9% (n: 254) had no experience in using the Metaverse platforms or applications, 72.7% (n: 210) stated that Metaverse platforms could be used instead of virtual classrooms, 63% (n: 182) experienced the use of digital technology in classes, 95.8% (n: 277) stated that digital technology should be used in classes, 92.7% (n: 268) stated that digital technologies facilitated learning, and 92% (n: 266) thought that the use of digital technologies in courses would increase efficiency (Table  2 ).

The mean score the participating students obtained from the overall Metaverse Scale and Attitude Scale for Digital Technology were 53.54 ± 9.00 and135.98 ± 21.28, respectively. There was no significant difference between the students from different departments and grades in terms of the mean scores they obtained from the overall Metaverse Scale and Attitude Scale for Digital Technology Scale ( p  > 0.05) (Table  3 ).

The comparison of the participants’ views on the Metaverse using the Metaverse Scale demonstrated that the mean score obtained from the overall Metaverse Scale by those who believed that using the Metaverse in classes would increase efficiency (t: 5.130, p: 0.000) was statistically significant (Table  3 ). The mean score obtained from the overall Metaverse Scale by those who had the view that the metaverse would make our lives easier (t: 6.412, p: 0.000) was statistically significant (Table  3 ). The mean scores obtained from the overall Metaverse Scale by those who felt they were ready to use Metaverse (t: 3.976, p: 0.000) and those who were experienced in using Metaverse platforms or applications (t: 2.173, p: 0.031) were statistically significant (Table  3 ). The mean score obtained from the overall Metaverse Scale by those who agreed that the Metaverse platform could be used instead of virtual classrooms (t: 4.531, p: 0.000) was statistically significant (Table  3 ). The mean score obtained from the overall Metaverse Scale by those who agreed that digital technology should be used in courses (t: 3.143, p: 0.002) was statistically significant (Table  3 ). The mean score obtained from the overall Metaverse Scale by those who agreed with the view that the use of digital technology in courses would make learning easier (t: 2.216, p: 0.027) was statistically significant (Table  3 ). The mean score obtained from the overall Metaverse Scale by those who agreed with the view that the use of digital technology in courses would increase efficiency (t: 2.898, p: 0.004) was statistically significant (Table  3 ).

In the present study, the aim was to determine the health sciences students’ views about the use of the Metaverse and digital technology in undergraduate education.

There has been a significant increase in the use of technology in all areas of our lives in recent years [ 27 ]. Using digital technologies as an effective pedagogical tool to improve the teaching and learning processes facilitates learning [ 28 , 29 , 30 ]. Therefore, it is important to know health sciences students’ views of digital technologies and to develop appropriate infrastructures so that they can keep up with today’s changing digital norms.

In the present study, the participating students’ mean duration of daily internet use was 6.04 ± 3.22 h. In İlk’s study (2022), 44.5% of the students stated that they used the internet 3–4 h a day [ 29 ]. In another study carried out with the Z generation, young people spent 1.5–4 h on the computer by watching movies, TV series, etc., which suggests that the mean duration of daily internet use is similar in the similar age groups [ 30 ].

In the present study, of the students, more than half had heard of the concept of metaverse before, the vast majority did not perceive their knowledge of the Metaverse adequate and thought that the Metaverse could facilitate their daily life, more than half did not feel they were ready to use Metaverse, and almost all did not have experience of using the Metaverse platforms or applications. The students’ perceiving their Metaverse knowledge level insufficient and not feeling ready to use metaverse platforms can be explained by the fact that they did not have any experience in using the Metaverse platforms. Similarly, in another study, 70.6% of the students had never used the Metaverse before [ 24 ]. In order for education to keep up with current digital technologies, students should be more experienced in these platforms. As the students become more experienced, the aspects of the use of digital technologies in education that should be developed or adapted will become clearer.

One of the surprising results of the present study was that although the students were not experienced in using the Metaverse platform, the majority of them stated that the Metaverse could be used instead of virtual classroom platforms. This was probably because they had heard of the concept of the Metaverse before. In another study conducted with students, it was stated that the Metaverse platform facilitated communication between students during the courses and ensured collaborative learning [ 31 ]. In the present study, the students stated that the use of Metaverse in the courses would increase the efficiency of the course although they did not perceive their knowledge of the Metaverse sufficient. As in the present study, in Al-nawaiseh et al.’s study (2023), the use of Metaverse in the classroom setting helped learning [ 31 ]. In another study, 67.6% of the students wanted to use the Metaverse in the classroom and 44.1% of them stated that the Metaverse would ensure permanent and meaningful learning in the classroom [ 24 ]. The results of the present study suggest that the students had opinions favoring the use of metaverse in classes. In a study in which higher education students’ views of the Metaverse were questioned, most of the students believed that the Metaverse would help their learning better [ 23 ].

In the present study, more than half of the students experienced the use of digital technology in the courses and almost all of them thought that digital technology should be used in classes, that digital technologies would facilitate learning and that the use of digital technologies in the classes would increase efficiency. The widespread use of digital platforms in universities [ 29 ] can be explained by the fact that students have the opportunity to experience the positive contributions of digital technology use to their learning processes. In another study conducted with health science students, 68% of the students used digital technology for learning purposes [ 28 ]. However, several problems such as understanding, adapting and designing educational systems in accordance with current technological trends have arisen in the integration of digital technologies into education [ 32 ]. While lack of experience and low digital infrastructure capacity are among institutional problems [ 32 ], the problem experienced students is their digital literacy levels [ 33 ], and problems experienced by trainers are that they lack experience and that their roles in the classroom change from being educational to being facilitators and guides [ 33 ]. However, the area where digital technologies are most effective in education is that they help create collaborative and cooperative learning environments [ 33 ].

In the present study, the mean score the students obtained from the overall Metaverse Scale was 53 out of 75 points. This result can be interpreted as the participants’ knowledge and awareness levels regarding the Metaverse were high. Similarly, in another study, the sports science students’ mean score for the awareness of the concept of the Metaverse was above the average [ 4 ]. In the present study, the mean score the students obtained from the Attitude Scale for Digital Technology was 135.98 out of 195 points. This finding can be interpreted as the students displayed positive attitudes towards digital technology. Workie et al. (2023), stated that 46.8% of the students displayed positive attitudes towards digital technology [ 28 ]. In another study, the students whose attitudes towards digital technology were positive were more likely to use digital technology [ 34 ]. In the current study, a weak positive correlation was determined between the students’ attitudes towards digital technology and their level of knowledge and awareness about the metaverse. This finding can be interpreted as the higher the level of knowledge and awareness of the Metaverse, the more favorable the students’ attitude towards digital technology.

In the present study, as in the literature [ 4 ], there was no significant difference between the students from different departments and grades in terms of the mean scores they obtained from the overall Metaverse Scale and Attitude Scale for Digital Technology Scale ( p  > 0.05). However, the sex variable led to a significant difference between the mean scores the students obtained from the overall Attitude Scale for Digital Technology (t: 3,424, p: 0,001). As in the present study, in two other studies, the sex variable led to a significant difference between the students’ attitude towards digital technology [ 29 , 30 ]. According to the 2022 data released by the Turkish Statistical Institute (TÜİK), male individuals between the ages of 16–24 years displayed more favorable attitudes towards digital technology than did female individuals [ 35 ].

In the present study, those who thought that using the Metaverse and digital technology in courses would increase productivity, those who thought that the Metaverse would make our lives easier, those who felt ready to use the Metaverse, those who had experience of using the Metaverse platforms or applications, and those who agreed that the Metaverse platform could be used instead of virtual classrooms, and those who agreed that the use of digital technology in courses would facilitate learning and increase efficiency obtained higher scores from the Metaverse Scale. There was a statistically significant difference between their scores and the other students’ scores ( p  < 0.05). Similarly, in Talan and Kalınkara’s study (2022), the students agreed with the view that the Metaverse had pedagogical benefits [ 24 ]. The mean score obtained from the Attitude Scale for Digital Technology by the participants who had experience in using digital technology in the courses was statistically significantly higher than was that of the participants who did not have experience (t:3.057, p:0.002). Digital technology is critical for the academic performance development of students [ 28 ], and their attitudes are positively affected as they experience digital technology, which suggests that positive views on the use of Metaverse and digital technologies in education are associated with higher scores and more positive attitudes towards these technologies. It can be concluded that the integration of digital technologies and the Metaverse into education can improve students’ productivity and their learning experience.

The present study has some limitations. One of the limitations is that it is a cross-sectional study. Another limitation is that the findings were obtained from a single institution. Thus, the results obtained from the present study are applicable only to the students surveyed and they cannot be generalized to all health sciences students. The other limitation is that there was no educational initiative about Metaverse in the university where the study was carried. To overcome these limitations, studies with larger samples including health sciences students studying at different institutions both in Turkey and in other countries of the world can be carried out, and action research can be conducted on this topic. Education policies can be developed to promote the use of Metaverse and digital technologies, which are considered innovative approaches used in educational programs, and educators can be encouraged to participate in faculty development programs to use these technologies.

In the present study, it was aimed to determine the digital technology-related attitudes of health sciences students attending a public university about metaverse and their awareness of the Metaverse. Therefore, as the topic of the study is the first conducted with health science students, it is expected to fill the knowledge gap regarding digital technology attitudes and Metaverse awareness of those students. It was determined that health sciences students displayed positive attitudes towards digital technology and their level of awareness of the Metaverse was above the average. It is recommended that educators in the field of health sciences should provide students with appropriate technology-enriched educational environments by using the data on digital technology and Metaverse obtained in the present study.

Data availability

The data associated with the paper are not publicly available but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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The authors thank all of the students for their participation in this research.

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Ethical approval was obtained from the “Noninvasive Clinical Research Ethics Committee of Izmir Bakırçay University” (date: 15/03/2023 no: 921). Participation in this research was voluntary. The students accepted to participate in the study by checking a button on the questionnaire form. The consent that was obtained from all of the nursing students was informed. Karaca et al. (2021), who had developed the scale, were consulted about the use of the scale on nursing students, and their permission was obtained via e-mail.

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Sezer, H., Gül, A. Health sciences students’ perspectives on metaverse and digital technology use: cross-sectional descriptive study. BMC Nurs 23 , 656 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12912-024-02309-w

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SRC honors Professor Chris Kim with Sustainable Future Award

The Semiconductor Research Corporation has awarded Professor Chris Kim with the 2024 Sustainable Future Award for his “groundbreaking contributions to energy efficiency and sustainability.” Kim, who is a McKnight Presidential Endowed Chair at the University of Minnesota, has been the innovative force behind the development of a quantum inspired Ising solver chip that is based on existing silicon-based semiconductor technology. The chip is capable of solving complex optimization problems, most common and relatable examples of which are scheduling (for instance, airline schedules) and logistics (delivery of goods and services).

Kim and his team of scientists have designed this particular Ising solver chip keeping in mind that problems in the real world are most efficiently and effectively solved by all round connectivity, where messages in the form of signals can be sent and received to multiple entities/nodes simultaneously. Such an arrangement enables free exchange of information from each node to all other nodes which speeds up time to solution.

To overcome the hardware, connectivity, and time limitations of this approach, Kim uses quantum computing as a launching point while situating the chip design within standard CMOS technology. Straddling the worlds of quantum computing and classical silicon-based computing, the quantum-inspired Ising solver chip emulates qubit behavior using classical device technologies. The design enables faster computation, so you can arrive at a solution rapidly while also consuming less energy. Besides, the use of existing silicon technology provides the added advantage of better scalability. In a nutshell, existing chip manufacturing technologies and design software have been combined to demonstrate a microchip that can find the  optimal solution by emulating quantum properties. The details of the research were published in a Nature article in August 2023 titled, “An Ising solver chip based on coupled ring oscillators with a 48-node all-to-all connected array architecture.” At the time of publication Kim had commented, “The Ising solver chip our team has developed offers distinct advantages: it can solve complex optimization problems rapidly by offering faster computation, consuming less energy, and better scalability.”

SRC in its news post on Kim’s award emphasizes the significant energy impact of his work. They indicate that while current state-of-the-art quantum machines demand a staggering 25 kilowatts of power for cryogenic cooling, Kim's solution operates on a mere 0.03 watts using standard CMOS technology, which is approximately one-millionth of the power required by conventional quantum systems.  

Reflecting on the award Kim says, “When I received the news from SRC about winning this year’s Sustainable Future Award, I thought it had something to do with the lifestyle changes I made almost five years ago—becoming a vegan, selling my gas car and barbeque grill, cutting back on personal travel, and adopting a minimalist lifestyle. Since then, sustainability has become the foremost consideration in both my professional and personal life. As a direct result, my students and I developed a method for quantum computing that doesn’t require huge amounts of energy to cool these exotic devices. We are all fortunate to work in a field where our technical contributions have a direct positive impact on the sustainability of our planet.”

The award was presented at SRC's TECHCON held earlier in September in Austin, Texas. TECHCON is the key event in SRC's research and workforce development efforts, and it is attended exclusively by member company engineers, scientists, and recruiters, and offers opportunities to network, exchange knowledge, and share career insights.

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Bibliometrics & citations, view options, index terms.

Computing methodologies

Artificial intelligence

Computer vision

Computer vision problems

Object identification

Object recognition

Computer vision tasks

Scene understanding

Security and privacy

Security services

Authentication

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Published in.

Springer-Verlag

Berlin, Heidelberg

Publication History

Author tags.

• Facial recognition
• MTCNN integration
• Attendance monitoring
• Biometric modalities
• Research-article

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