historiography essay intro

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How to create a historiography.

• Historiography: Definitions

Step-By-Step Creation

• Examples of Historiographies

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Step 1: Find a topic

There are several useful strategies for coming up with a topic. The easiest method is to use one of your assigned readings; adopt the topic that the author covers as your own. You can use their bibliography as the starting point for the historiography (especially if they critique previous positions), and branch out from there.

Alternately, you can brainstorm a topic from scratch. If you take that approach, try using concept mapping to narrow down your topic to a specific area or field within the overall framework of the class.

Try to choose a topic that interests you- it will make the reading and writing easier.

Step 2: Develop an annotated bibliography

Once you have a topic, start looking for works on your subject. A mixture of articles and books can be useful, depending on the subject and time period:

Generally, books tend to be more influential and widely referenced than articles for most older subjects.

For more modern subjects, articles will be more available, but books will still cover more ground than most periodical articles.

Step 3: Evaluation of Authors' stances

There are different strategies you can use, depending on the type of source that you are using.

Book Reviews: An excellent way to figure out the point of an author's work is to read book reviews. This will also provide insight of how the reviewers (usually other historians) respond to the author's thesis or argument. This is a great strategy for creating the annotated bibliography.

Books: Watch the structure of the book; how does the author build their argument and what do they imply is the most important part?

Once you get a feel for the general arguments in the field, you will be able to skim through books searching for key terms.

• Collections: With edited collections of articles or chapters, watch which topics were included and what the general theme of the book seems to be. The argument of the editor is shown by the scope of the combined articles.
• Periodicals: These generally are easier to process; the trick is to figure out the importance of the article to the field as a whole. Look to see if the article is frequently cited by other authors writing about a similar subject.

One good tactic is to combine step 3 with step 4, plugging each source into the overall framework as you go and thus saving you from having to reread every source twice.

There are a number of ways to organize your historiography:

• You can report your writers in chronological order, tracing changes in the field over time.
• You can talk about major schools of thought regarding your topic, and discuss each one separately.
• If you are writing a larger paper, you can integrate your historiography over the course of the paper addressing the work of previous historians as they relate to your own analysis.

The first two methods are generally more what is expected of you when you are assigned to "write a historiography."

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History 300: A Guide to Research: Historiography

• Getting Started
• Reference/Tertiary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Primary Sources
• Phillips Academy Archives Collections This link opens in a new window
• Addison Gallery Resources
• Requesting Items Outside the OWHL
• Historical Eras / Time Periods
• Indian Removal Act of 1830 and its after-effects in the US
• Labor and Industrialism in the US
• Personalities from Early America through the Civil War
• Progressive Reformers
• U.S. Imperialism
• World War II
• Cold War in the US
• US History through a Different Lens This link opens in a new window
• Constitution Essay
• Topics & Research Questions
• Evaluating Sources
• Reading Scholarly Articles This link opens in a new window
• Analyzing Primary Sources
• Annotated Bibliography
• Writing Strategies (Harvard University) This link opens in a new window
• Historiography

What is a Historiography?

A historiography (noun) or  historiographical paper  is an analysis of the interpretations of a specific topic written by past historians. 

• Specifically, a historiography identifies influential thinkers and reveals the shape of the scholarly debate on a particular subject.
• You can think of this as a narrative description of the web of scholars writing on the same or similar topics. A historiography traces how scholars' understanding of historical events has evolved and how scholars are in conversation with each other, both building on and disputing previous works. The process is similar to that used for creating literature reviews in other disciplines. 

The major purpose of writing a historiographical paper is to convey the scholarship of other historians on a particular subject, rather than to analyze the subject itself.

• A historiography can be a stand-alone paper, in which case your paper examines the work completed by other historians. 
• Alternately, a historiography can act as an introduction to a major research paper, in which you will go on to add your own analysis.

Thus, a good historiography does the following:

• Points out influential books and papers that exemplified, shaped, or revolutionized a topic or field of study.
• Shows which scholars were most effective in changing the scope of the discussion/debate.
• Describes the current trends in the field of study, such as which interpretations are currently in the mainstream.
• Allows the writer (that's you!) to position themselves in the discussion for their analysis.

Writing a Historiography

Parts of a historiography.

• presents the issue or event at stake, then introduces your sources and articulates, in brief, their authors' perspectives and their main points of (dis)agreement. 
• elaborates upon and develop your introduction, pulling out specific points of (dis)agreement, juxtaposing quotes (and/or paraphrasing arguments) and subjecting them to analysis as you go along. As you do so, ask (and answer)  why  you think the authors of your various sources disagree. Is their disagreement a product of personal or professional rivalry, ideological incompatibility, national affiliation? 
• briefly summarizes your findings and, more importantly, assess the credibility of your various sources, and specify which one(s) you find to be most compelling, and why. In final conclusion you might articulate in brief the insights you have gained into the event or issue at stake, the sources you have used, and the implications for the scholarly discussion about your topic/historical event overall.

Sample Historiographies

• Sample Historiographic Essay (CUNY)
• University of Toronto LibGuide: Examples of historiographic essays
• Historiographical essay examples

Historiographical Questions

Questions of historiography include the following:

• who writes history, with what agenda in mind, and towards what ends?
• how accurate can a historian ever hope to be, analyzing past events from the vantage point of the historian's present?
• does the historian's  own  perspective, impacted as it undoubtedly is by gender, age, national and ideological affiliation, etc., contribute to an "agenda" that the historian's work is playing into, unwittingly or consciously?
• what about the types of sources, both primary and secondary, an historian chooses to base their work upon? Do  they  too contribute to the above-mentioned "agenda"?
• does the very selection of sources (and, by extension, the decision to exclude certain other sources) prejudice the outcome of the historian's work in certain ways?  et cetera ...

As you can tell, the underlying sentiment of historiography is one of skepticism. This is due to the recognition that historians  do  have agendas and  do  select sources with the intent of "proving" certain preconceived notions. History is therefore never truly "objective," but always a construct that presents the historian's view of things.

Historiographical Evaluation

General source questions (the five ws).

• Who  – Who made the source - did they have an opinion or bias? Were they involved?
• What  – What information does the source give? Is it the full story? Is it accurate?
• Why  – Why was the source made? Was it made to persuade people of a particular opinion? Was it made to take the mickey out of something/someone?
• When  – Was it made at the time? Or years later? Was the person there?
• Where  – Where was the source made? Were they involved in the event? Did they have an opinion?

Questions for Evaluating Secondary Sources

• Who is the author (their expertise, previous research, affiliations, positionality, etc.), and what seems to have been their likely intention in writing this?
• What is the source's main argument?
• When was the source written, and does the date of publication potentially impact upon the source's information or argument?
• Who seems to be the intended audience for the source?
• How is the source structured?
• Does the structure of the source (its various parts, sections, and/or chapters) reinforce its larger argument? How?
• What kinds of sources, or examples, does the source offer in support of its argument, and which are most (and least) effective? Why?
• Does the source engage other writers' works on the same subject and, even if not, how would you position the source in relation to other texts you are aware of on the same subject (texts you have read for class, for example)?
• does the author uses inflammatory language: in the most extreme cases, racial epithets, slurs, etc.;
• does the author consistently makes claims whose larger purpose is to elevate (or demean) one social, ethnic, national, religious, or gender group as compared to another, or all others;
• does the author consciously presents evidence that serves to tell only one side of an event or issue, purposefully withholding or ignoring information that may shed the opposing view in a more positive light;
• does the author manufactures, falsifies and/or dishonestly cites evidence in order to present his or her case in a more positive light.
• and if so, is that prejudice the product of the author's own background, ideology, research agenda, etc. as far as you can tell?
• How persuasive is the source (if certain aspects are more persuasive than others, explain why)
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• Written Essays

How to write source-based history essays

The biggest assessment task you will be required to complete is a written research essay which develops an argument and uses a range of sources.

All types of assessment tasks will need you to use essay-writing skills in some form, but their fundamental structure and purpose remains the same.

Therefore, learning how to write essays well is central to achieving high marks in History.

What is an 'essay'?

A History essay is a structured argument that provides historical evidence to substantiate its points. 

To achieve the correct structure for your argument, it is crucial to understand the separate parts that make up a written essay. 

If you understand how each part works and fits into the overall essay, you are well on the way to creating a great assessment piece.

Most essays will require you to write:

• 1 Introduction Paragraph
• 3 Body Paragraphs
• 1 Concluding Paragraph

Explanations for how to structure and write each of these paragraphs can be found below, along with examples of each: 

Essay paragraph writing advice

How to write an Introductory Paragraph

This page explains the purpose of an introduction, how to structure one and provides examples for you to read.

How to write Body Paragraphs

This page explains the purpose of body paragraphs, how to structure them and provides examples for you to read.

How to write a Conclusion

This page explains the purpose of conclusions, how to structure them and provides examples for you to read.

More essay resources

What do you need help with, download ready-to-use digital learning resources.

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Historical Methods & Theory

• Thinking Like a Historian
• Finding Books & Videos
• Finding Articles

What is a Historiographical Essay?

Historiographical essays, evaluating secondary sources, acknowledgement.

• Citing Sources This link opens in a new window
• Need Help? Ask a Librarian This link opens in a new window

A historiographical essay:

• Is based on a broad, less focused topic or theme, e.g., Reconstruction in the United States)
• Critically examines secondary sources written by historians
• Puts emphasis on the historian, the historian's bias and how the writing of a particular topic has changed over the years
• Examines and compares other historians' arguments in opposition to each other

The purpose of an historiographic essay is threefold:

• To allow you to view an historical event or issue from multiple perspectives by engaging multiple sources;
• To display your mastery over those sources and over the event or issue itself; and
• To develop your critical reading skills as you seek to answer why your sources disagree, and what their disagreement tells you about the event or issue and the very nature of history itself.

Selected Titles About Historiography

• What information is given about the author? Is the author an historian?
• Can you identify the historian's school of thought?
• Read the table of contents, preface and other introductry material. Does the author set up his/her thesis (or point of view) in these sections? Who is the intended audience? Is it written for historians or for a general audience?
• What is the date of publication? If the book or article is old, it will not highlight recent scholarship. Is this important? Is it a reflection of the histories of the time or does it deviate from the norm?
• What primary source material does the author use? What primary source material may have been available to the author at the time?
• Consider the bibliography. Do the sources listed indicate serious works that are relevant to your topic? You may want to consult works used by the author. 

All materials from: Historiography: Ramapo College,   https://libguides.ramapo.edu/HIST201rice

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Write a Historiography

1. narrow your topic and select books and articles accordingly, 2. search for literature, 3. read the selected books and articles thoroughly and evaluate them, 4. organize the selected sources by looking for patterns and by developing subtopics, 5. develop a thesis statement, 6. draft the paper, 7. review your work.

• Resources for Gathering and Reading the Literature
• Resources for Writing and Revising
• Additional Resources and Guides

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Consider your specific area of study. Think about what interests you and other researchers in your field.  

Talk to your professor or TA, brainstorm, and read lecture notes and current issues in periodicals in the field.  

Limit your scope appropriately based on the assignment guidelines (i.e., focusing on France's role in the Second World War, not the whole world, or on the legal agency of women in medieval Scotland, not all medieval European women). 

• Four Steps to Narrow Your Research Topic (Video) This 3-minute video provides instructions on how to narrow the focus of your research topic.
• Developing a Research Question + Worksheet Use this worksheet to develop, assess, and refine your research questions. There is also a downloadable PDF version.

Define your source selection criteria (i.e., articles published within a specific date range or written through specific historical lenses; or research applying specific theories and methodologies or focusing on a specific geographic region, chronological period, or historical event).  

Using keywords, search a library database. If you need help finding the literature, contact a librarian through 

• Ask Us Contact a librarian via chat, email, phone or the AskUs desk on the main floor of McLaughlin Library
• Book an appointment Book a consultation to get research help.

Published articles and books always cite earlier studies in the footnotes, endnotes or bibliography: you can use these to trace the development of the subject.  

Include studies with conflicting points of view to help create a more engaging discussion within your historiographical paper.  

Evaluate and synthesize the studies' findings and conclusions.  

Note the following:  

• assumptions some or most historians seem to make.  
• methodologies, theories, and sources that historians have used to answer historical questions.  
• experts in the field, usually recognized as names that come up repeatedly in the literature (cited in the text or in the footnotes).  
• conflicting assumptions, theories, methodologies, and types of sources.  
• popular theories and interpretations, and how these have changed (or not) over time.  

You may not agree with everything you read and, indeed, the point of historiography is to critique (positively and constructively) the work of other historians on a given subject. With that in mind, remember the following historical conventions:  

• Someone writing in 1883 about the Norman Conquest of 1066 may not consider questions that are central to more recent kinds of history, but this does not mean that earlier historians and antiquarians were unqualified, unintelligent, or uninformed: they simply had different biases and experiences. These are worth discussing (for example, it might be worthwhile to compare how Protestant and Catholic historians of the late nineteenth century wrote about the sixteenth-century Protestant Reformation) but avoid condemning the authors outright without a thoughtful explanation of your critiques.  
• Consider why historians writing in the 1930s were not engaging with questions about gender history and compare the outcomes of their methods and research to the arguments being made by feminist scholars writing since the 1970s. Dig into how different theories, assumptions, and methodologies have led scholars to different conclusions about the same events. 

Note the following: 

• Findings that are common/contested. 
• Important trends in the research. 
• Popular sources, important theories, and common methodologies. 
• For example, the histories of many topics, regions, and periods have had “phases” like the Great Man Theory of History, the Cultural Turn, Feminist History, Disability Studies, and Queer History. Each of these has been tied to contemporary social changes, such as interest in nationalism during and after the World Wars, influences from sociology and anthropology, and different waves of social justice activism in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries.

Tip: If your historiography is extensive, find a large table surface, and on it place post-it notes or filing cards to organize all your findings into categories.

• Move them around if you decide that (a) they fit better under different headings, or (b) you need to establish new topic headings. 
• Develop headings/subheadings that reflect the major themes and patterns you detected. 

Write a one- or two-sentence statement summarizing the conclusion you have reached about the major trends and developments you see in the research that has been conducted on your subject.

Some example statements to help you get started are: 

• Historians disagree about X (your topic), but I am the most convinced by the scholars who say Y because… 
• Historians disagree about X (your topic), but there is something bigger going on, and the whole debate should be reframed with Y in mind. 
• Historians have come to a consensus about X (your topic), but I disagree and propose a different interpretation (e.g., one that considers gender, one that takes a middle view, or one that incorporates underused primary sources). 

Explore the following library resources to help you create and revise your thesis statement: 

• Templates for Writing Thesis Statements This template provides a two-step guide for writing thesis statements. There is also a downloadable PDF version.
• 5 Types of Thesis Statements Learn about five different types of thesis statements to help you choose the best type for your research. There is also a downloadable PDF version.
• 5 Questions to Strengthen Your Thesis Statement Follow these five steps to strengthen your thesis statements. There is also a downloadable PDF version.

Note: The thesis statement is typically located in the first paragraph of a short paper (fewer than 2000 words) but can be left to the second paragraph of a larger paper (more than 2000 words) if you feel the reader needs more contextual or background information before you begin your argument. 

Follow the organizational structure you developed above, including any headings and subheadings you constructed. 

Make certain that each section links logically to the one before and after. 

Structure your sections by themes or subtopics, not by individual theorists or researchers. 

• Tip: If you find that each paragraph begins with a researcher's name, it might indicate that, instead of evaluating and comparing the research literature from an analytical point of view, you have simply described what research has been done. 

Prioritize analysis over description. 

• For example, look at the following two passages and note that Student A merely describes the literature. The writing is strong, but Student A has not explained how these two historians came to different conclusions. The paragraph would be stronger if it followed Student B’s approach. 
• Student B takes a more analytical and evaluative approach by comparing the methods and sources used by the historians. One thing to look for (and use) in historiographical writing is keywords that suggest there is some evaluation happening. Here, Student B makes logical connections (“conversely,” “this is due to,” and “as a result”). These techniques demonstrate Student B's ability to synthesize knowledge and explain the differences in the studies based on the sources used. 

Student A: Keith M. Brown argues that, although James VI had clear ideas about what he wanted the reformed Scottish and English churches to look like, he relied on his relationships with magnates and ministers to ensure the speed, success, and cohesion of reform efforts. A different scholar, Julian Goodare, argues that James VI came awfully close and indeed, in some cases, succeeded at reorganizing Scotland’s dissident authoritative bodies—the kirk, nobility, parliament, and crown—into a centralized and moderately absolutist government. According to Goodare, by the end of James VI’s reign, the state attained sufficient command of its organization to reintroduce an episcopal structure to the contemporary kirk. It also gained the authority to define the role of church and state in the trial and conviction of moral and criminal offences. In other words, the crown itself wielded sufficient authority to govern independently, and Scottish nobles acquiesced to or resisted its demands as they performed their institutional duties, with varying rewards and consequences.

Student B: Julian Goodare and Keith Brown have reached quite different conclusions about the role that the Scottish nobility played in helping or hindering the efforts of Protestant reformers.  This is due in part to the bodies of sources each employed. Brown drew on a wide variety of archival sources that provided insight into the lives of individuals and families: family papers and letters, local court records, and documents relating to bloodfeud. For Brown, these records demonstrate that, although James VI had clear ideas about what he wanted the reformed Scottish and English churches to look like, he relied on his relationships with magnates and ministers to ensure the speed, success, and cohesion of reform efforts. Conversely, Goodare offers a more traditional political examination of Scotland’s development from a medieval kingdom into an early modern state. After consulting crown financial documents, proceedings of the general assemblies, state papers, and the records of the privy seal records and justiciary court, Goodare argues that James VI came awfully close and indeed, in some cases, succeeded at reorganizing Scotland’s dissident authoritative bodies—the kirk, nobility, parliament, and crown—into a centralized and moderately absolutist government. As a result, the concepts of personal kingship and crown-magnate negotiations of power so central to Brown’s analysis are absent from Goodare’s assessment, in which the latter argues that the crown itself wielded sufficient authority to govern independently and that Scottish nobles merely acquiesced to or resisted its demands as they performed their institutional duties.

Note: These examples have been reproduced and modified with the permission of the student author. For the purposes of these example paragraphs, citations have been omitted, but you should always indicate your sources using footnotes.

Content 

Make an outline of each section of the paper and decide whether you need to add information, delete irrelevant information, or re-structure sections.  

Look at the topic sentences of each paragraph. If you were to read only these sentences, would you find that your paper presented a clear position, logically developed, from beginning to end? The topic sentences of each paragraph should indicate the main points of your historiography. 

Read your work aloud (or use the speech-to-text feature in your word processor to have the computer read it to you). That way you will be better able to identify where you need punctuation marks to signal pauses or divisions within sentences, where you have made grammatical errors, or where your sentences are unclear. 

Avoid over-generalizations: societies are made up of individuals and they vary regionally and temporally. Starting your paper with “Since the first history was written...” or claiming that "scholars agree that the Enlightenment was the Age of Reason” is neither specific nor accurate. 

Evidence 

Since the purpose of historiography is partly to demonstrate that the writer is familiar with the important literature on the chosen subject, check to make certain that you have covered a broad selection of the important, up-to-date, and pertinent texts. What is considered relevant will depend on your subject, region, and period. Good strategies are to pick a few monographs from each decade of the past fifty years and to follow up on authors whose names show up frequently in the historiography sections of other papers. If you need help, ask your instructor or TA for advice once you have picked your topic. 

Check to make sure that you have not plagiarized either by failing to cite a source of information or by using words quoted directly from a source. (Usually, if you take four or more words—in a row—directly from another source, you should put those words within quotation marks, and cite the page.) 

Formatting 

Make certain that all the citations and references are correct and that you are using the appropriate formatting style for your discipline. Most history courses at the University of Guelph ask that you use the Chicago Manual of Style: Notes & Bibliography. If you are uncertain which style to use, ask your instructor.

Sentences should flow smoothly and logically. The text should be written in a clear and concise academic style; it should not be descriptive in nature or use the language of everyday speech (colloquialisms, slang) or excessive disciplinary jargon (specialist words). There should be no grammatical or spelling errors. 

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Introductions & Conclusions

The introduction and conclusion serve important roles in a history paper.  They are not simply perfunctory additions in academic writing, but are critical to your task of making a persuasive argument.

A successful introduction will:

• draw your readers in
• culminate in a thesis statement that clearly states your argument
• orient your readers to the key facts they need to know in order to understand your thesis
• lay out a roadmap for the rest of your paper

A successful conclusion will:

• draw your paper together
• reiterate your argument clearly and forcefully
• leave your readers with a lasting impression of why your argument matters or what it brings to light

How to write an effective introduction:

Often students get slowed down in paper-writing because they are not sure how to write the introduction.  Do not feel like you have to write your introduction first simply because it is the first section of your paper.  You can always come back to it after you write the body of your essay.  Whenever you approach your introduction, think of it as having three key parts:

• The opening line
• The middle “stage-setting” section
• The thesis statement

“In a 4-5 page paper, describe the process of nation-building in one Middle Eastern state.  What were the particular goals of nation-building?  What kinds of strategies did the state employ?  What were the results?  Be specific in your analysis, and draw on at least one of the scholars of nationalism that we discussed in class.”

Here is an example of a WEAK introduction for this prompt:

“One of the most important tasks the leader of any country faces is how to build a united and strong nation.  This has been especially true in the Middle East, where the country of Jordan offers one example of how states in the region approached nation-building.  Founded after World War I by the British, Jordan has since been ruled by members of the Hashemite family.  To help them face the difficult challenges of founding a new state, they employed various strategies of nation-building.”

Now, here is a REVISED version of that same introduction:

“Since 1921, when the British first created the mandate of Transjordan and installed Abdullah I as its emir, the Hashemite rulers have faced a dual task in nation-building.  First, as foreigners to the region, the Hashemites had to establish their legitimacy as Jordan’s rightful leaders.  Second, given the arbitrary boundaries of the new nation, the Hashemites had to establish the legitimacy of Jordan itself, binding together the people now called ‘Jordanians.’  To help them address both challenges, the Hashemite leaders crafted a particular narrative of history, what Anthony Smith calls a ‘nationalist mythology.’  By presenting themselves as descendants of the Prophet Muhammad, as leaders of the Arab Revolt, and as the fathers of Jordan’s different tribal groups, they established the authority of their own regime and the authority of the new nation, creating one of the most stable states in the modern Middle East.”

The first draft of the introduction, while a good initial step, is not strong enough to set up a solid, argument-based paper.  Here are the key issues:

• This first sentence is too general.  From the beginning of your paper, you want to invite your reader into your specific topic, rather than make generalizations that could apply to any nation in any time or place.  Students often run into the problem of writing general or vague opening lines, such as, “War has always been one of the greatest tragedies to befall society.”  Or, “The Great Depression was one of the most important events in American history.”  Avoid statements that are too sweeping or imprecise.  Ask yourself if the sentence you have written can apply in any time or place or could apply to any event or person.  If the answer is yes, then you need to make your opening line more specific.
• Here is the revised opening line: “Since 1921, when the British first created the mandate of Transjordan and installed Abdullah I as its emir, the Hashemite rulers have faced a dual task in nation-building.”
• This is a stronger opening line because it speaks precisely to the topic at hand.  The paper prompt is not asking you to talk about nation-building in general, but nation-building in one specific place.
• This stage-setting section is also too general.  Certainly, such background information is critical for the reader to know, but notice that it simply restates much of the information already in the prompt.  The question already asks you to pick one example, so your job is not simply to reiterate that information, but to explain what kind of example Jordan presents.  You also need to tell your reader why the context you are providing matters.
• Revised stage-setting: “First, as foreigners to the region, the Hashemites had to establish their legitimacy as Jordan’s rightful leaders.  Second, given the arbitrary boundaries of the new nation, the Hashemites had to establish the legitimacy of Jordan itself, binding together the people now called ‘Jordanians.’  To help them address both challenges, the Hashemite rulers crafted a particular narrative of history, what Anthony Smith calls a ‘nationalist mythology.’”
• This stage-setting is stronger because it introduces the reader to the problem at hand.  Instead of simply saying when and why Jordan was created, the author explains why the manner of Jordan’s creation posed particular challenges to nation-building.  It also sets the writer up to address the questions in the prompt, getting at both the purposes of nation-building in Jordan and referencing the scholar of nationalism s/he will be drawing on from class: Anthony Smith.
• This thesis statement restates the prompt rather than answers the question.  You need to be specific about what strategies of nation-building Jordan’s leaders used.  You also need to assess those strategies, so that you can answer the part of the prompt that asks about the results of nation-building.
• Revised thesis statement: “By presenting themselves as descendants of the Prophet Muhammad, as leaders of the Arab Revolt, and as the fathers of Jordan’s different tribal groups, they established the authority of their regime and the authority of the new nation, creating one of the most stable states in the modern Middle East.”
• It directly answers the question in the prompt.  Even though you will be persuading readers of your argument through the evidence you present in the body of your paper, you want to tell them at the outset exactly what you are arguing.
• It discusses the significance of the argument, saying that Jordan created an especially stable state.  This helps you answer the question about the results of Jordan’s nation-building project.
• It offers a roadmap for the rest of the paper.  The writer knows how to proceed and the reader knows what to expect.  The body of the paper will discuss the Hashemite claims “as descendants from the Prophet Muhammad, as leaders of the Arab Revolt, and as the fathers of Jordan’s different tribal groups.”

If you write your introduction first, be sure to revisit it after you have written your entire essay.  Because your paper will evolve as you write, you need to go back and make sure that the introduction still sets up your argument and still fits your organizational structure.

How to write an effective conclusion:

Your conclusion serves two main purposes.  First, it reiterates your argument in different language than you used in the thesis and body of your paper.  Second, it tells your reader why your argument matters.  In your conclusion, you want to take a step back and consider briefly the historical implications or significance of your topic.  You will not be introducing new information that requires lengthy analysis, but you will be telling your readers what your paper helps bring to light.  Perhaps you can connect your paper to a larger theme you have discussed in class, or perhaps you want to pose a new sort of question that your paper elicits.  There is no right or wrong “answer” to this part of the conclusion: you are now the “expert” on your topic, and this is your chance to leave your reader with a lasting impression based on what you have learned.

Here is an example of an effective conclusion for the same essay prompt:

“To speak of the nationalist mythology the Hashemites created, however, is not to say that it has gone uncontested.  In the 1950s, the Jordanian National Movement unleashed fierce internal opposition to Hashemite rule, crafting an alternative narrative of history in which the Hashemites were mere puppets to Western powers.  Various tribes have also reasserted their role in the region’s past, refusing to play the part of “sons” to Hashemite “fathers.”  For the Hashemites, maintaining their mythology depends on the same dialectical process that John R. Gillis identified in his investigation of commemorations: a process of both remembering and forgetting.  Their myth remembers their descent from the Prophet, their leadership of the Arab Revolt, and the tribes’ shared Arab and Islamic heritage.  It forgets, however, the many different histories that Jordanians champion, histories that the Hashemite mythology has never been able to fully reconcile.”

This is an effective conclusion because it moves from the specific argument addressed in the body of the paper to the question of why that argument matters.  The writer rephrases the argument by saying, “Their myth remembers their descent from the Prophet, their leadership of the Arab Revolt, and the tribes’ shared Arab and Islamic heritage.”  Then, the writer reflects briefly on the larger implications of the argument, showing how Jordan’s nationalist mythology depended on the suppression of other narratives.

Introduction and Conclusion checklist

When revising your introduction and conclusion, check them against the following guidelines:

Does my introduction:

• draw my readers in?
• culminate in a thesis statement that clearly states my argument?
• orient my readers to the key facts they need to know in order to understand my thesis?
• lay out a roadmap for the rest of my paper?

Does my conclusion:

• draw my paper together?
• reiterate my argument clearly and forcefully?
• leave my readers with a lasting impression of why my argument matters or what it brings to light?

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His 423/his 489: historiography assignment, historiography basics, what is historiography, how to find seminal works & major thinkers, 1. start with what you have, 2. find a historiographical essay related to your topic, 3. search for specific article & cross-ref.

• Hist. of Med. Databases & Major Journals
• Soc. Hist. of Med. Historiography Examples

Your Librarian

What is Historiography? 

A historiography is a summary of the historical writings on a particular topic - the history of eugenics in America, or the history of epidemics, for example.  It sets out in broad terms the range of debate and approaches to the topic. It identifies the major thinkers and arguments , and establishes connections between them. If there have been major changes in the way a particular topic has been approached over time, the historiography identifies them.

Unlike a research paper, a historiography paper is not a study of a historical subject; instead, it is an analysis of the way in which historians have interpreted that topic. 

How to Write a Historiography?

The most important step in writing a historiography is to become familiar with the history of your topic in broad terms. A good historiography is written from a position of authority on a topic.

A historiography is best situated early on in an essay, preferably in the introduction in order to familiarize the reader with the topic and to set out the scope of previous work in broad terms.

Your historiography should establish:

• the major thinkers on the topic, and
• their main arguments (or theses).

Your historiography may also explain:

• the perspective from which the authors are writing (e.g. Marxist, feminist, postmodernist, structuralist, etc.)
• the type of history they have written (e.g. political, social, cultural, economic, etc.)

A good historiography will present this information in a way that shows the connections between these major works. For example, does one work respond to an argument set out in another? Does it expand on that argument or disagree with it? A good historiography will also situate the author's work within the dialogue, explaining whether his or her thesis builds on or rejects the work that has come before.

Still a little unsure of what a historiography is ? Check out these great examples  or get help . 

Adapated from: http://www.trentu.ca/history/workbook/historiography.php

Clear, quick video defining historiography. 

3. Search for Specific Article & Cross-Reference

The following may refer you to important works, thinkers, or schools of thought on your topic. 

• class notes
• course readings
• bibliographies/footnotes/endnotes of your textbook, journal articles, or other secondary sources
• sources for history of medicine background info

They can also help you identify relevant authors, concepts, works, or keywords for searching the library catalogue ,  history databases , or specific history of medicine journals .  

There are lots of ways to find historiographical essays. Here's one strategy: 

Did you know when a bibliographic database (ex. America: History & Life or MEDLINE) receives an article, indexers apply a certain number of SUBJECT HEADINGS to an article to describe the article's content? Did you know that those subject headings are searchable? Did you know that Historiography is a subject heading? 

The following sample search strategies in 3 databases of history secondary sources available in EbscoHost (ex. America: History & Life; History of Science Technology and Medicine; Historical Abstracts) are a quick way to find historiographical essays. 

1. DE "Historiography" AND (psychiatry OR psychoanalysis OR psychosurgery)

2. DE "Historiography" AND social AND medicine

3. DE "Historiography" AND (eugenics OR social darwinism)

What's going on here? 

DE "Historiography" -> searches Historiography as the SUBJECT of the article. The DE code tells these particular databases to search the subject field. Other databases use different codes (ex. CINAHL uses MH). Library databases all have helpful HELP features that tell you which code searches which field. 

DE "Historiography" is combined with keywords on a topic (ie. psychiatry OR psychoanalysis OR psychosurgery)

This query is applied to three databases, and results that have Historiography in the subject field AND psychiatry OR psychoanalysis OR psychosurgery in the text fields are retrieved. 

Now try to make a search strategy of your own!

Want more HELP with databases? 

Use a citation database like SCOPUS or WEB of SCIENCE to search for a specific article, and use the database features to find its references, see who has cited it, and search for any related citations. 

For example, if I search SCOPUS for ' Grand Narrative and Its Discontent: Medical History in the Social Transformation of American Medicine ' in the Article Title field, I see that it has been cited 7 times in the SCOPUS database and that there are 5,113 other citations that share references with my article. I can also easily link to the full-text or catalogue records for each of the author's references. 

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How to Write a History Essay with Outline, Tips, Examples and More

Samuel Gorbold

Before we get into how to write a history essay, let's first understand what makes one good. Different people might have different ideas, but there are some basic rules that can help you do well in your studies. In this guide, we won't get into any fancy theories. Instead, we'll give you straightforward tips to help you with historical writing. So, if you're ready to sharpen your writing skills, let our history essay writing service explore how to craft an exceptional paper.

What is a History Essay?

A history essay is an academic assignment where we explore and analyze historical events from the past. We dig into historical stories, figures, and ideas to understand their importance and how they've shaped our world today. History essay writing involves researching, thinking critically, and presenting arguments based on evidence.

Moreover, history papers foster the development of writing proficiency and the ability to communicate complex ideas effectively. They also encourage students to engage with primary and secondary sources, enhancing their research skills and deepening their understanding of historical methodology. Students can benefit from utilizing essay writers services when faced with challenging assignments. These services provide expert assistance and guidance, ensuring that your history papers meet academic standards and accurately reflect your understanding of the subject matter.

History Essay Outline

The outline is there to guide you in organizing your thoughts and arguments in your essay about history. With a clear outline, you can explore and explain historical events better. Here's how to make one:

Introduction

• Hook: Start with an attention-grabbing opening sentence or anecdote related to your topic.
• Background Information: Provide context on the historical period, event, or theme you'll be discussing.
• Thesis Statement: Present your main argument or viewpoint, outlining the scope and purpose of your history essay.

Body paragraph 1: Introduction to the Historical Context

• Provide background information on the historical context of your topic.
• Highlight key events, figures, or developments leading up to the main focus of your history essay.

Body paragraphs 2-4 (or more): Main Arguments and Supporting Evidence

• Each paragraph should focus on a specific argument or aspect of your thesis.
• Present evidence from primary and secondary sources to support each argument.
• Analyze the significance of the evidence and its relevance to your history paper thesis.

Counterarguments (optional)

• Address potential counterarguments or alternative perspectives on your topic.
• Refute opposing viewpoints with evidence and logical reasoning.
• Summary of Main Points: Recap the main arguments presented in the body paragraphs.
• Restate Thesis: Reinforce your thesis statement, emphasizing its significance in light of the evidence presented.
• Reflection: Reflect on the broader implications of your arguments for understanding history.
• Closing Thought: End your history paper with a thought-provoking statement that leaves a lasting impression on the reader.

References/bibliography

• List all sources used in your research, formatted according to the citation style required by your instructor (e.g., MLA, APA, Chicago).
• Include both primary and secondary sources, arranged alphabetically by the author's last name.

Notes (if applicable)

• Include footnotes or endnotes to provide additional explanations, citations, or commentary on specific points within your history essay.

History Essay Format

Adhering to a specific format is crucial for clarity, coherence, and academic integrity. Here are the key components of a typical history essay format:

Font and Size

• Use a legible font such as Times New Roman, Arial, or Calibri.
• The recommended font size is usually 12 points. However, check your instructor's guidelines, as they may specify a different size.
• Set 1-inch margins on all sides of the page.
• Double-space the entire essay, including the title, headings, body paragraphs, and references.
• Avoid extra spacing between paragraphs unless specified otherwise.
• Align text to the left margin; avoid justifying the text or using a centered alignment.

Title Page (if required):

• If your instructor requires a title page, include the essay title, your name, the course title, the instructor's name, and the date.
• Center-align this information vertically and horizontally on the page.
• Include a header on each page (excluding the title page if applicable) with your last name and the page number, flush right.
• Some instructors may require a shortened title in the header, usually in all capital letters.
• Center-align the essay title at the top of the first page (if a title page is not required).
• Use standard capitalization (capitalize the first letter of each major word).
• Avoid underlining, italicizing, or bolding the title unless necessary for emphasis.

Paragraph Indentation:

• Indent the first line of each paragraph by 0.5 inches or use the tab key.
• Do not insert extra spaces between paragraphs unless instructed otherwise.

Citations and References:

• Follow the citation style specified by your instructor (e.g., MLA, APA, Chicago).
• Include in-text citations whenever you use information or ideas from external sources.
• Provide a bibliography or list of references at the end of your history essay, formatted according to the citation style guidelines.
• Typically, history essays range from 1000 to 2500 words, but this can vary depending on the assignment.

How to Write a History Essay?

Historical writing can be an exciting journey through time, but it requires careful planning and organization. In this section, we'll break down the process into simple steps to help you craft a compelling and well-structured history paper.

Analyze the Question

Before diving headfirst into writing, take a moment to dissect the essay question. Read it carefully, and then read it again. You want to get to the core of what it's asking. Look out for keywords that indicate what aspects of the topic you need to focus on. If you're unsure about anything, don't hesitate to ask your instructor for clarification. Remember, understanding how to start a history essay is half the battle won!

Now, let's break this step down:

• Read the question carefully and identify keywords or phrases.
• Consider what the question is asking you to do – are you being asked to analyze, compare, contrast, or evaluate?
• Pay attention to any specific instructions or requirements provided in the question.
• Take note of the time period or historical events mentioned in the question – this will give you a clue about the scope of your history essay.

Develop a Strategy

With a clear understanding of the essay question, it's time to map out your approach. Here's how to develop your historical writing strategy:

• Brainstorm ideas : Take a moment to jot down any initial thoughts or ideas that come to mind in response to the history paper question. This can help you generate a list of potential arguments, themes, or points you want to explore in your history essay.
• Create an outline : Once you have a list of ideas, organize them into a logical structure. Start with a clear introduction that introduces your topic and presents your thesis statement – the main argument or point you'll be making in your history essay. Then, outline the key points or arguments you'll be discussing in each paragraph of the body, making sure they relate back to your thesis. Finally, plan a conclusion that summarizes your main points and reinforces your history paper thesis.
• Research : Before diving into writing, gather evidence to support your arguments. Use reputable sources such as books, academic journals, and primary documents to gather historical evidence and examples. Take notes as you research, making sure to record the source of each piece of information for proper citation later on.
• Consider counterarguments : Anticipate potential counterarguments to your history paper thesis and think about how you'll address them in your essay. Acknowledging opposing viewpoints and refuting them strengthens your argument and demonstrates critical thinking.
• Set realistic goals : Be realistic about the scope of your history essay and the time you have available to complete it. Break down your writing process into manageable tasks, such as researching, drafting, and revising, and set deadlines for each stage to stay on track.

Start Your Research

Now that you've grasped the history essay topic and outlined your approach, it's time to dive into research. Here's how to start:

• Ask questions : What do you need to know? What are the key points to explore further? Write down your inquiries to guide your research.
• Explore diverse sources : Look beyond textbooks. Check academic journals, reliable websites, and primary sources like documents or artifacts.
• Consider perspectives : Think about different viewpoints on your topic. How have historians analyzed it? Are there controversies or differing interpretations?
• Take organized notes : Summarize key points, jot down quotes, and record your thoughts and questions. Stay organized using spreadsheets or note-taking apps.
• Evaluate sources : Consider the credibility and bias of each source. Are they peer-reviewed? Do they represent a particular viewpoint?

Establish a Viewpoint

By establishing a clear viewpoint and supporting arguments, you'll lay the foundation for your compelling historical writing:

• Review your research : Reflect on the information gathered. What patterns or themes emerge? Which perspectives resonate with you?
• Formulate a thesis statement : Based on your research, develop a clear and concise thesis that states your argument or interpretation of the topic.
• Consider counterarguments : Anticipate objections to your history paper thesis. Are there alternative viewpoints or evidence that you need to address?
• Craft supporting arguments : Outline the main points that support your thesis. Use evidence from your research to strengthen your arguments.
• Stay flexible : Be open to adjusting your viewpoint as you continue writing and researching. New information may challenge or refine your initial ideas.

Structure Your Essay

Now that you've delved into the depths of researching historical events and established your viewpoint, it's time to craft the skeleton of your essay: its structure. Think of your history essay outline as constructing a sturdy bridge between your ideas and your reader's understanding. How will you lead them from point A to point Z? Will you follow a chronological path through history or perhaps dissect themes that span across time periods?

And don't forget about the importance of your introduction and conclusion—are they framing your narrative effectively, enticing your audience to read your paper, and leaving them with lingering thoughts long after they've turned the final page? So, as you lay the bricks of your history essay's architecture, ask yourself: How can I best lead my audience through the maze of time and thought, leaving them enlightened and enriched on the other side?

Create an Engaging Introduction

Creating an engaging introduction is crucial for capturing your reader's interest right from the start. But how do you do it? Think about what makes your topic fascinating. Is there a surprising fact or a compelling story you can share? Maybe you could ask a thought-provoking question that gets people thinking. Consider why your topic matters—what lessons can we learn from history?

Also, remember to explain what your history essay will be about and why it's worth reading. What will grab your reader's attention and make them want to learn more? How can you make your essay relevant and intriguing right from the beginning?

Develop Coherent Paragraphs

Once you've established your introduction, the next step is to develop coherent paragraphs that effectively communicate your ideas. Each paragraph should focus on one main point or argument, supported by evidence or examples from your research. Start by introducing the main idea in a topic sentence, then provide supporting details or evidence to reinforce your point.

Make sure to use transition words and phrases to guide your reader smoothly from one idea to the next, creating a logical flow throughout your history essay. Additionally, consider the organization of your paragraphs—is there a clear progression of ideas that builds upon each other? Are your paragraphs unified around a central theme or argument?

Conclude Effectively

Concluding your history essay effectively is just as important as starting it off strong. In your conclusion, you want to wrap up your main points while leaving a lasting impression on your reader. Begin by summarizing the key points you've made throughout your history essay, reminding your reader of the main arguments and insights you've presented.

Then, consider the broader significance of your topic—what implications does it have for our understanding of history or for the world today? You might also want to reflect on any unanswered questions or areas for further exploration. Finally, end with a thought-provoking statement or a call to action that encourages your reader to continue thinking about the topic long after they've finished reading.

Reference Your Sources

Referencing your sources is essential for maintaining the integrity of your history essay and giving credit to the scholars and researchers who have contributed to your understanding of the topic. Depending on the citation style required (such as MLA, APA, or Chicago), you'll need to format your references accordingly. Start by compiling a list of all the sources you've consulted, including books, articles, websites, and any other materials used in your research.

Then, as you write your history essay, make sure to properly cite each source whenever you use information or ideas that are not your own. This includes direct quotations, paraphrases, and summaries. Remember to include all necessary information for each source, such as author names, publication dates, and page numbers, as required by your chosen citation style.

Review and Ask for Advice

As you near the completion of your history essay writing, it's crucial to take a step back and review your work with a critical eye. Reflect on the clarity and coherence of your arguments—are they logically organized and effectively supported by evidence? Consider the strength of your introduction and conclusion—do they effectively capture the reader's attention and leave a lasting impression? Take the time to carefully proofread your history essay for any grammatical errors or typos that may detract from your overall message.

Furthermore, seeking advice from peers, mentors, or instructors can provide valuable insights and help identify areas for improvement. Consider sharing your essay with someone whose feedback you trust and respect, and be open to constructive criticism. Ask specific questions about areas you're unsure about or where you feel your history essay may be lacking. If you need further assistance, don't hesitate to reach out and ask for help. You can even consider utilizing services that offer to write a discussion post for me , where you can engage in meaningful conversations with others about your essay topic and receive additional guidance and support.

History Essay Example

In this section, we offer an example of a history essay examining the impact of the Industrial Revolution on society. This essay demonstrates how historical analysis and critical thinking are applied in academic writing. By exploring this specific event, you can observe how historical evidence is used to build a cohesive argument and draw meaningful conclusions.

FAQs about History Essay Writing

How to write a history essay introduction, how to write a conclusion for a history essay, how to write a good history essay.

Samuel Gorbold , a seasoned professor with over 30 years of experience, guides students across disciplines such as English, psychology, political science, and many more. Together with EssayHub, he is dedicated to enhancing student understanding and success through comprehensive academic support.

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How to Write an Introduction For a History Essay Step-by-Step

An introduction of a historical essay acquaints the reader with the topic and how the writer will explain it. It is an important first impression. The introduction is a paragraph long and about five to seven sentences. The parts include the opening sentence, arguments and/or details that will be covered, and a thesis statement (argument of the essay). 

What Is A History Essay?

An essay is a short piece of writing that answers a question (“Who are the funniest presidents ”) discusses a subject (“What is Japanese feudalism ”), or addresses a topic (“ Causes and Effects of the Industrial Revolution ”).  A historical essay specifically addresses historical matters.

These essays are used to judge a student’s progress in understanding history. They also are used to teach and analyze a student’s ability to write and express their knowledge.  A person can know their stuff and still have problems expressing their knowledge.  

Skillful communication is an essential tool.  When you write your introduction to a historical essay remember that both the information and how you express it are both very important.  

Purpose of An Introduction

If a person is formally introduced to you, it is a means of getting acquainted.  

An introduction of a historical essay acquaints the reader with the topic and how the writer will explain it.  The introduction is a roadmap that lays out the direction you will take in the essay.

This is done by the opening paragraph, which is about five to seven sentences long.  

Grab the Reader’s Attention 

The introduction of a historical essay should grab the attention of your reader.   

It is the first time the reader has to react to your essay.  Make sure it is clear, confident, and precise .  The introduction should not be generic.  It should not be vague.  

Do not provide sources in the introduction.  You do not want the reader to check them out instead of finishing the introduction.  Leave sources to the body of the essay.  

When Should You Write The Introduction?

A movie is not filmed straight through.  Parts of a movie are filmed separately and later edited together.  This is also possible when writing an essay, especially with the ease of computers.

An introduction works off the rest of the essay.  If you have already written the whole essay, it can be easier to write an introduction.  I often write the blog summary on top last.  

Others will find it useful to write the introduction first, perhaps because it provides a helpful outline for the rest of the essay.  It is a matter of personal taste and comfort level.  

Step-By-Step Instructions 

Step one: opening sentence.

The first sentence of your introduction sets the stage and draws the reader in.  

The opening sentence should introduce the historical context of the subject matter of your historical essay.  Historical context is the political, social, cultural, and economic setting for a particular document, idea, or event.  For instance, consider this opening sentence:

The Emancipation Proclamation was an official presidential declaration handed down in the middle of the Civil War declaring slavery was now abolished in areas under Confederate control.  

A possible topic of the historical essay is “ The Strengths & Weaknesses of the Emancipation Proclamation .”  This opening sentence sets the stage.  We are no longer in the current day reading about something in the living room.  We are in the middle of the Civil War.  

There are various ways to start things off.  For instance, you can use a quotation such as President Wilson’s or Winston Churchill’s famous sayings about democracy .  

The important thing is to grab the reader’s attention and start the ball rolling.  Know your audience.  An academic audience expects a more studious approach.  And, don’t just start with a catchy sentence that has no value to the rest of the historical essay.  

Step Two: Facts/Statistics/Evidence

The next step in writing an introduction is to write a few sentences (three to five) summarizing the argument you will be making. These sentences would provide the facts and arguments that will be expanded upon in the body of the paper.  The sentences are basically an outline.  

If we continue with the previous subject, the summary section can be like this:

It was a major moral accomplishment to use the abolishment of slavery as a war measure. Meanwhile, it had pragmatic benefits, including as a matter of foreign policy, and harmed the South’s chances to win the war. Nonetheless, the measure was of questionable legality and had the possibility of causing major divisions. 

The introduction should be clear and crisp.  Try to remove unnecessary content.  This is not just about filling a word quota.  The introduction should have actual content, not empty calories.  

Step Three: Thesis Statement  

The finale of the introduction is the thesis statement , the argument being made in the essay.  This should be one sentence long.  An example would be:

The Emancipation Proclamation was as a whole very successful while having various disadvantages that still made it a risky proposition.  

The thesis sentence is very important.  It summarizes the core of the essay.  The reader is now informed about what you are about to argue.  The body of the essay should fill in the details.  

In Conclusion About Introductions … 

An introduction at a party, date, or in a historical essay is about making a good first impression.  The basics are the same.  Catch the other person’s attention, provide a snapshot of what you are trying to say, and make the person hungry for more.  

The other person often has the obligation to “hear” what you have to say.  Take it as an opportunity.  And, remember, if you mess up, it will be a lot harder to impress later on.

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HIST 300 - Introduction to Historical Studies: Historical Writing

• Getting Started
• Ask-a-Librarian
• Annotated Bibliography
• Spartanburg Community College Annotated Bibliography Examples
• Historiographic Essay (Literature Review)
• What are Reference Sources and When Should I Use Them?
• Developing Keywords and Related Ideas
• Types of Searches
• Evaluating Websites for Credibility
• Search Strategies for Books
• Finding Credible Sources
• Online Statistical Resources
• Finding Articles from Citations
• Citation Mining
• Primary Sources for China scholarship
• Important Journals on Modern China
• U.K. Parliamentary Papers
• Historic Newspapers and Digital Newspaper Collections
• Objectivity and Bias - Newspapers
• How to Google for Primary Sources
• Using Google and Google Scholar
• Chicago Style Citation Basics
• New York Times - complimentary online access
• Library Session Online Evaluation Links

Historical Writing - An Overview

Academic writing within the discipline of history will primarily ask a student to participate first-hand in the historical research process, interpreting your findings to add new perspectives to an existing area of study or to answer a question about the past.  Research papers are one of the most commonly used methods for presenting this information in a history course.

Your GOALS when writing a historical research paper include the following:

• Choose a topic that asks a good historical question , and that allows an event to be understood or examined in a new or different way from previous historians.  
• Ensure that your topic is BROAD enough to find sufficient sources to support your research, but NARROW enough to prevent overloading yourself with unrelated or marginally-related results during the search phase.
• Focus on how your ideas and research connect to the work of previous historians.
• Make sure you have a clear, persuasive, well-organized thesis of your own .  
• Princeton University Historiography LibGuide

What is Historiography?

Definition of  historiography.

• a course in  historiography
• a survey of the country's  historiography

(retrieved from  https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/historiography)

Essentially, historiography is the writing of history, or the writing of "the history of history" by historians .  For the purposes of this course, you need to know that a historiographic essay:

• summarizes the changing ideas and approaches to a particular topic of history 
• discusses why those ideas may have changed over time.    

Organizing Your Sources

There are different ways to organize sources.  One basic division is between non-written artifacts (remains, buildings, coins, statues, clothing, etc.), and written documents (records, diaries, newspapers, treaties, etc.).  For most courses, you will only need to understand written sources.

Among written sources, historians usually assign three levels of relevance:   Primary ,  Secondary  and  Tertiary .  These categories take their names from the Latin for one, two or three steps removed from the original event. 

Steps in Historical Writing

Historical writing follows a general pattern; by following this structure you will increase the strength of your research.  

• Was slavery the main cause of the American Civil War?
• Was Martin Luther a failure or a success?    
• Where do the arguments seem weak?
• How does this information make me react, and what questions does it leave unanswered?
• Are there other conclusions that could be drawn from this material that are left unstated?
• Have I stated my thesis quickly and concisely, ideally in the first paragraph?
• Have I provided examples as evidence for any and all assertions I make?
• Have I preemptively addressed counter-arguments and possible sources of contention within my paper?
•  An introduction that includes your thesis and the main argument that you will make.
• A systematic development of that argument that includes both evidence and your own analysis.
• A concise conclusion that ties all your ideas together.
• Complete citations for all the sources you use to support your arguments and ideas.
• comparing the past to the present, unless specifically asked to do so
• broad generalizations

something   or   someone   that   is   not   in   its   correct   historical   or  chronological  

time,   especially   a   thing   or   person   that   belongs  to   an  earlier   time:

an   error   in   chronology   in   which   a   person,   object,   event,   etc.,   is  assigned  

a   date   or   period   other   than   the   correct   one:

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An Introduction to Historiography

Selected essays on the history of history, what is historiography.

While reading history often seems like an adventure into the past, it never fully leaves the present. The ways in which existing power structures, political ideologies, personal interests, cultural criticism, and professional conventions impose on our interpretations of the past are rarely obvious. Historiography examines what these are and shows why we must aware of them for any critical reading of history.

Why Historiography?

In studying history, doubt is not only healthy, but necessary to the pursuit of ‘truth’. The most dangerous histories are those which are believed wholly and without hesitation.

Greek Historiography

The interest in the study of history can be traced back to the Greeks as bards and poets traveled widely around the Mediterranean before knowledge was recorded. Historical tradition in the ancient Greek world consisted of firsthand accounts that were retold across generations.

Roman Historiography

Roman historical works emphasized the Romans' superiority in relation to the rest of the world. The inclusion of fables and myths would create new challenges as it would be harder to determine what is the 'truth' that they are setting out to find and what is the 'fictional' or unimportant details.

Only victors get to share their stories but one Greek prisoner refused to be silenced.

Were the so-called "Dark Ages" really all that dark? Despite popular conceptions, there were significant histriographic advancements taking place before the Rennaisance in Medieval Europe.

Byzantine Historiography

Byzantine historiography has been largely overlooked in the general discussion of the history of history, but in fact has a lot to say about how history as it is done today can be improved in order to provide a more nuanced and potentially more accurate account of the past.

Medieval Russian and Tsarist Historiography

The histories of Russia are largely unknown to western audiences. These historical narratives paint a picture of a people from the Varangians and the early empire of the Rus’ to the advent of the Tsardom of Russia.

Medieval Islamic Historiography

Middle Eastern scientific and cultural achievements have traditionally been ignored by Eurocentric Western academia, and Middle Eastern historiography has accordingly been excluded from the traditional historiographical narrative. The sources most commonly used for Historiography classes focus almost exclusively on Greco-Roman and European historiographers, and this section hopes to include a medieval Middle Eastern perspective.

Renaissance Historiography

With humanism the approach to history began to change as scholars studied individual events and people in a more secular context. This shift in focus changes the purpose of writing history.

Reforming History

Reformation historiography largely centered around the revision of history, removing the elites as the sole makers and consumers of history. Protestant historians attempted to write their religion into history and to provide Protestantism with authority through origin stories. In the end, the Reformation became the catalyst for secular history and the professionalization of history as a profession.

What Was the Scottish Enlightenment?

Centered around education, entertainment, and scientific accomplishments 18th and 19th century, Scotland was a cultural center for Enlightenment thinking. Many of the individuals inspired thinkers from other parts of the world. Defined by the shared humanist thinking that centered on practical ideas. Championing the theory of empiricism we are still influenced by many ideas from Scotland's period of Enlightenment.

Enlightened History

Often described as a long 18th century, the Enlightenment spanned from 1685-1815 and has held a crucial place in the narratives of history and the methods of historiography. The social and political situations of the past led to the need for new ways of thinking with various innovative and revolutionary methods that broke from the historical traditions of past centuries.

Romanticism

Romantic thought and historical writing during the 18th and 19th centuries emphasized concepts of beauty, feeling and emotion, and individual human action. Often, but not exclusively opposed to Enlightenment ideals, Romanticism was a short lived but fiery and influential period in history, components of which are still practiced today.

History Under the Third Reich

For scholars of the Third Reich, a striking aspect remains the compliance exhibited by the German people. Historians were not exempt in this regard, and held great power in shaping the cultural milieu of the Weimar era. The anti-republican atmosphere they fostered ultimately proved to amenable to takeover by far-right authoritarianism.

The Dunning School

For a long time after the Civil War, The Dunning School of Thought dominated historical scholarship of slavery and Reconstruction. This deeply racist ideology was often mistaken for the truth because it was written in such a way that upheld the historical industry's highest standards.

THE GREAT WAR

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The Annales School

Some of the most innovative and influential historiographic changes in the twentieth-century came from a group of French historians known as the Annales School. The methods they introduced challenged traditional historical focus from prominent and powerful individuals and shed light on often overlooked or dismissed populations and cultures.

Historiography of the British Empire

Early soviet historiography.

Historiography in the early years of the Soviet Union was a battle to fit the Marxist ideology into the Communist Party’s idea of what Soviet history should represent.

Fernand Braudel

Have you ever wondered how *where* you live has influenced *who* you are? Are you a person of the desert, the mountains, the sea? Have you ever questioned the relativity of time or thought of time in terms of its relationship to space?

Maximilian Karl Emil Weber

Max Weber (1864-1920) is well known for his social theory writings---but less appreciated are his impacts on the writing of history. His emphasis on rationalisation, secularisation, disenchantment, capitalism, and charismatic leaders changed the ways many historians approached their work.

The Meiji Restoration and Japanese Historiography

History has the power to create nations. 19th century Japan's response to Western colonialism was not only a period of rapid modernization, but a time where the country would reforge its past and construct a new identity.

Microhistory

Microhistory is the style of looking at the past by looking at a smaller scale than standard history writing.

Early Feminist History

Feminist historians criticized the notion that there was a natural place for women within the world. This was not a view that historians actively tried to perpetuate, but rather a concept that previous historians had conformed to.

Eurocentrism

Eurocentrism encompasses many Western concepts and their effects, including colonialism, capitalism, monotheism, racism, and patriarchy. Yet, viewing the world with a Western perspective even impacts less-obvious aspects of daily life, such as conceptions of time, the calendar, familial structures, cosmology, use of the environment, etc.

History Wars

This essay will focus on the “History Wars” of conflicting historical narratives, different approaches to studying history and ultimately, the battle for authority, particularly the conflict between popular history and academic history.

Postcolonialism

The writing of Postcolonialist histories is an effort to counteract the lasting effects of the colonial histories, which tend to ignore or gloss over the severe damage colonialism has had on society. This includes the loss of land and resources, which hold significant spiritual and economic value. Cultural traditions and knowledge of pre-colonial pasts have also been wiped out in many places, due to persecution and forced conversions.

Marxist Historiography

History of archival theory.

How did we get “from then to now” with the practice of archival record-keeping, and who were the key figures responsible for establishing the modern methods of archival theory? As an essential component of historiography, understanding the development of archival theories and how they impact modern historical research is key to historical writing today.

Chinese Historiography

Chinese historiography contains a longer continuous tradition than any other on Earth, stretching back to ancient times. The length of this tradition, and the long standing belief by Chinese academics that Chinese historiography is the paramount form of the discipline make it valuable counterpoint to European historiography.

Creating Narrativity from Source Material

Does creating a story narrative from information distort the true events of history, or will it bring clarity and understanding for today's audience?

The Historical Value of Film

When watching a film or documentary, the average viewer is immersed in a moment in history in a way that reading a text could never accomplish. When viewing film through a historian’s lens, we can be more objective in our observations of footage from the past.

Historical Truth

From the scrolls of ancient Greece to the jargon packed books of the modern academic historian, historians have searched for “true histories”. In studying what constitutes history, we must focus on some themes that belong to what we call today historiography.

The Responsibility of Accuracy

When it comes to creating a historical film, to what degree is the filmmaker responsible as an occassional historian? How does simplification, individual framework, and artistic agency contribute to a filmmakers ability to entertain, then inform?

Professional History

In mid-nineteenth century Germany, a professor at the University of Berlin would fundamentally change the way history is taught and applied. No individual contributed more to the professionalization of historiography than Leopold Von Ranke.

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19 Standards of Historical Writing

In this chapter, you will learn the basic expectations for writing an undergrad history research paper. At this point in your college career, you’ve likely had a great deal of instruction about writing and you may be wondering why this chapter is here. There are at least three reasons:

• For some of you, those lessons about writing came before you were ready to appreciate or implement them. If you know your writing skills are weak, you should not only pay close attention to this chapter, but also submit early drafts of your work to the History Tutoring Center (at UTA) or another writing coach. Only practice and multiple drafts will improve those skills.
• Those of you who were paying attention in composition courses know the basics, but may lack a good understanding of the format and approach of scholarly writing in history. Other disciplines permit more generalities and relaxed associations than history, which is oriented toward specific contexts and (often, but not always) linear narratives. Moreover, because historians work in a subject often read by non-academics, they place a greater emphasis on clearing up jargon and avoiding convoluted sentence structure. In other words, the standards of historical writing are high and the guidelines that follow will help you reach them.
• Every writer, no matter how confident or experienced, faces writing blocks. Going back to the fundamental structures and explanations may help you get past the blank screen by supplying prompts to help you get started.

As you read the following guide, keep in mind that it represents only our perspective on the basic standards. In all writing, even history research papers, there is room for stylistic variation and elements of a personal style. But one of the standards of historical writing is that only those who fully understand the rules can break them successfully. If you regularly violate the rule against passive voice verb construction or the need for full subject-predicate sentences, you cannot claim the use of sentence fragments or passive voice verbs is “just your style.” Those who normally observe those grammatical rules, in contrast, might on occasion violate them for effect. The best approach is first to demonstrate to your instructor that you can follow rules of grammar and essay structure before you experiment or stray too far from the advice below.

Introductions

Introductions are nearly impossible to get right the first time. Thus, one of the best strategies for writing an introduction to your history essay is to keep it “bare bones” in the first draft, initially working only toward a version that covers the basic requirements. After you’ve written the full paper (and realized what you’re really trying to say, which usually differs from your initial outline), you can come back to the intro and re-draft it accordingly. However, don’t use the likelihood of re-writing your first draft to avoid writing one. Introductions provide templates not only for your readers, but also for you, the writer. A decent “bare bones” introduction can minimize writer’s block as a well-written thesis statement provides a road map for each section of the paper.

So what are the basic requirements? In an introduction, you must:

• Pose a worthwhile question or problem that engages your reader
• Establish that your sources are appropriate for answering the question, and thus that you are a trustworthy guide without unfair biases
• Convince your reader that they will be able to follow your explanation by laying out a clear thesis statement.

Engaging readers in an introduction

When you initiated your research, you asked questions as a part of the process of narrowing your topic (see the “Choosing and Narrowing a Topic” chapter for more info). If all went according to plan, the information you found as you evaluated your primary sources allowed you to narrow your question further, as well as arrive at a plausible answer, or explanation for the problem you posed. (If it didn’t, you’ll need to repeat the process, and either vary your questions or expand your sources. Consult your instructor, who can help identify what contribution your research into a set of primary sources can achieve.) The key task for your introduction is to frame your narrowed research question—or, in the words of some composition instructors, the previously assumed truth that your inquiries have destabilized—in a way that captures the attention of your readers. Common approaches to engaging readers include:

• Telling a short story (or vignette) from your research that illustrates the tension between what readers might have assumed before reading your paper and what you have found to be plausible instead.
• Stating directly what others believe to be true about your topic—perhaps using a quote from a scholar of the subject—and then pointing immediately to an aspect of your research that puts that earlier explanation into doubt.
• Revealing your most unexpected finding, before moving to explain the source that leads you to make the claim, then turning to the ways in which this finding expands our understanding of your topic.

What you do NOT want to do is begin with a far-reaching transhistorical claim about human nature or an open-ended rhetorical question about the nature of history. Grand and thus unprovable claims about “what history tells us” do not inspire confidence in readers. Moreover, such broadly focused beginnings require too much “drilling down” to get to your specific area of inquiry, words that risk losing readers’ interest. Last, beginning with generic ideas is not common to the discipline. Typical essay structures in history do not start broadly and steadily narrow over the course of the essay, like a giant inverted triangle. If thinking in terms of a geometric shape helps you to conceptualize what a good introduction does, think of your introduction as the top tip of a diamond instead. In analytical essays based on research, many history scholars begin with the specific circumstances that need explaining, then broaden out into the larger implications of their findings, before returning to the specifics in their conclusions—following the shape of a diamond.

Clear Thesis Statements

Under the standards of good scholarly writing in the United States—and thus those that should guide your paper—your introduction contains the main argument you will make in your essay. Elsewhere—most commonly in European texts—scholars sometimes build to their argument and reveal it fully only in the conclusion. Do not follow this custom in your essay. Include a well-written thesis statement somewhere in your introduction; it can be the first sentence of your essay, toward the end of the first paragraph, or even a page or so in, should you begin by setting the stage with a vignette. Wherever you place it, make sure your thesis statement meets the following standards:

A good thesis statement :

• Could be debated by informed scholars : Your claim should not be so obvious as to be logically impossible to argue against. Avoid the history equivalent of “the sky was blue.”
• Can be proven with the evidence at hand : In the allotted number of pages, you will need to introduce and explain at least three ways in which you can support your claim, each built on its own pieces of evidence. Making an argument about the role of weather on the outcome of the Civil War might be intriguing, given that such a claim questions conventional explanations for the Union’s victory. But a great deal of weather occurred in four years and Civil War scholars have established many other arguments you would need to counter, making such an argument impossible to establish in the length of even a long research paper. But narrowing the claim—to a specific battle or from a single viewpoint—could make such an argument tenable. Often in student history papers, the thesis incorporates the main primary source into the argument. For example, “As his journal and published correspondence between 1861 and 1864 reveal, Colonel Mustard believed that a few timely shifts in Tennessee’s weather could have altered the outcome of the war.”
• Is specific without being insignificant : Along with avoiding the obvious, stay away from the arcane. “Between 1861 and 1864, January proved to be the worst month for weather in Central Tennessee.” Though this statement about the past is debatable and possible to support with evidence about horrible weather in January and milder-by-comparison weather in other months, it lacks import because it’s not connected to knowledge that concerns historians. Thesis statements should either explicitly or implicitly speak to current historical knowledge—which they can do by refining, reinforcing, nuancing, or expanding what (an)other scholar(s) wrote about a critical event or person.
• P rovide s a “roadmap” to readers : Rather than just state your main argument, considering outlining the key aspects of it, each of which will form a main section of the body of the paper. When you echo these points in transitions between sections, readers will realize they’ve completed one aspect of your argument and are beginning a new part of it. To demonstrate this practice by continuing the fictional Colonel Mustard example above: “As his journal and published correspondence between 1861 and 1864 reveals, Colonel Mustard believed that Tennessee’s weather was critical to the outcome of the Civil War. He linked both winter storms and spring floods in Tennessee to the outcome of key battles and highlighted the weather’s role in tardy supply transport in the critical year of 1863.” Such a thesis cues the reader that evidence and explanations about 1) winter storms; 2) spring floods; and 3) weather-slowed supply transport that will form the main elements of the essay.

Thesis Statement Practice

More Thesis Statement Practice

The Body of the Paper

What makes a good paragraph.

While an engaging introduction and solid conclusion are important, the key to drafting a good essay is to write good paragraphs. That probably seems obvious, but too many students treat paragraphs as just a collection of a few sentences without considering the logic and rules that make a good paragraph. In essence, in a research paper such as the type required in a history course, for each paragraph you should follow the same rules as the paper itself. That is, a good paragraph has a topic sentence, evidence that builds to make a point, and a conclusion that ties the point to the larger argument of the paper. On one hand, given that it has so much work to do, paragraphs are three sentences , at a minimum . On the other hand, because paragraphs should be focused to making a single point, they are seldom more than six to seven sentences . Though rules about number of sentences are not hard and fast, keeping the guidelines in mind can help you construct tightly focused paragraphs in which your evidence is fully explained.

Topic sentences

The first sentence of every paragraph in a research paper (or very occasionally the second) should state a claim that you will defend in the paragraph . Every sentence in the paragraph should contribute to that topic. If you read back over your paragraph and find that you have included several different ideas, the paragraph lacks focus. Go back, figure out the job that this paragraph needs to do—showing why an individual is important, establishing that many accept an argument that you plan on countering, explaining why a particular primary source can help answer your research question, etc. Then rework your topic sentence until it correctly frames the point you need to make. Next, cut out (and likely move) the sentences that don’t contribute to that outcome. The sentences you removed may well help you construct the next paragraph, as they could be important ideas, just not ones that fit with the topic of the current paragraph. Every sentence needs to be located in a paragraph with a topic sentence that alerts the reader about what’s to come.

Transitions/Bridges/Conclusion sentences in paragraphs

All good writers help their readers by including transition sentences or phrases in their paragraphs, often either at the paragraph’s end or as an initial phrase in the topic sentence. A transition sentence can either connect two sections of the paper or provide a bridge from one paragraph to the next. These sentences clarify how the evidence discussed in the paragraph ties into the thesis of the paper and help readers follow the argument. Such a sentence is characterized by a clause that summarizes the info above, and points toward the agenda of the next paragraph. For example, if the current section of your paper focused on the negative aspects of your subject’s early career, but your thesis maintains he was a late-developing military genius, a transition between part one (on the negative early career) and part two (discussing your first piece of evidence revealing genius) might note that “These initial disastrous strategies were not a good predictor of General Smith’s mature years, however, as his 1841 experience reveals.” Such a sentence underscores for the reader what has just been argued (General Smith had a rough start) and sets up what’s to come (1841 was a critical turning point).

Explaining Evidence

Just as transitional sentences re-state points already made for clarity’s sake, “stitching” phrases or sentences that set-up and/or follow quotations from sources provide a certain amount of repetition. Re-stating significant points of analysis using different terms is one way you explain your evidence. Another way is by never allowing a quote from a source to stand on its own, as though its meaning was self-evident. It isn’t and indeed, what you, the writer, believes to be obvious seldom is. When in doubt, explain more.

For more about when to use a quotation and how to set it up see “How to quote” in the next section on Notes and Quotation.”

Conclusio ns

There exists one basic rule for conclusions: Summarize the paper you have written . Do not introduce new ideas, launch briefly into a second essay based on a different thesis, or claim a larger implication based on research not yet completed. This final paragraph is NOT a chance to comment on “what history tells us” or other lessons for humankind. Your conclusion should rest, more or less, on your thesis, albeit using different language from the introduction and evolved, or enriched, by examples discussed throughout the paper. Keep your conclusion relevant and short, and you’ll be fine.

For a checklist of things you need before you write or a rubric to evaluate your writing click here

How History is Made: A Student’s Guide to Reading, Writing, and Thinking in the Discipline Copyright © 2022 by Stephanie Cole; Kimberly Breuer; Scott W. Palmer; and Brandon Blakeslee is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Remarks by the Deputy Prime Minister on the Canada Growth Fund’s investment to reduce greenhouse gas emissions while supporting jobs in Alberta

From: Department of Finance Canada

This is a place where history is being made. Things are happening here that aren’t happening anywhere else in the world, and this is made in Canada, made in Alberta innovation and technology.

August 19, 2024 – Saddle Hills, Alberta

Check against delivery

Introduction

Thank you everyone who is here. 

I do want to start by saying on behalf of the government and myself personally how sad we are about the wildfires in Jasper and other parts of Alberta. I do really want to thank the first responders who literally put their lives on the line to keep their neighbours safe. 

I’d like to recognize and acknowledge Morgan Kitchen, the young firefighter who lost his life while battling the wildfires in Jasper. He served Albertans with tremendous bravery, and I think we all feel his loss and extend condolences to his friends and family. 

On a brighter note, I am really happy to be here in Northern Alberta and I am delighted to be able to spend some time with the people here at Entropy and at Advantage Energy’s Glacier Natural Gas Plant. Thank you very much.

This is a place where history is being made. Things are happening here that aren’t happening anywhere else in the world, and this is made in Canada, made in Alberta innovation and technology. And I think every single Canadian, every single Albertan should be aware of and really, really proud of the amazing transformational work that is being done right here in Northwestern Alberta. So, congratulations everyone. 

You really are part of history, you are writing the next chapter of the natural gas industry in Alberta and the world. And I am really, really glad to be here to kind of shine a spotlight on the incredible work you’re doing. 

I was in Calgary last December, with some of the people here, to announce a $200 million investment in Entropy by the Canada Growth Fund.

This investment is helping Entropy scale-up its carbon capture technology, which is at work behind us. It is happening. It’s not just a theory anymore. You guys are doing it, and it’s going to reduce emissions by approximately 2.8 million tonnes over 15 years—all while supporting more than 1,200 good jobs for people here in Northwestern Alberta.

And that is so important for me as well. These are great jobs for people living in Grande Prairie, people living in Valleyview, for people living in these communities. 

In addition to the $200 million investment in Entropy, the Canada Growth Fund also provided Entropy with the world’s first carbon offtake agreement.

This is another first in the whole world and it is one of the pieces that is making this work, this project, this technology financially viable. And we are here today at the Glacier Gas Plant, which is the world’s first abated natural gas facility. That is so important. This is a true milestone and it’s happening right here. 

Carbon credit offtake agreements are a form of contracts for difference for carbon. They guarantee the price that companies can get for selling their carbon offsets.

For a company like Entropy, this helps it make decisions about the long-term investments the company needs to grow and create good jobs.

Entropy is an example of how carbon pricing in Canada is creating jobs and driving investment. It’s creating a revenue stream and an incentive for businesses—like this one here—to lower their emissions.

In fact, this Canada Growth Fund deal removed enough investment risk for Entropy to proceed with its next phase of the flagship carbon capture and storage project, that is right here behind me. And that’s why we’re here today. 

Just last month, Entropy announced its final investment decision at Glacier Phase 2 and Entropy’s first investment into the clean power generation market. Once the project is operational in 2026, it will be able to capture 160,000 tonnes of carbon dioxide per year, providing low-carbon, reliable power to Alberta’s electricity grid.

And the project here is exactly why we launched the Canada Growth Fund: to de-risk projects to encourage companies like Entropy to invest in great ideas and big projects—and to create great jobs for the innovative, entrepreneurial and extremely hardworking people.

Another cornerstone of our government’s economic plan is our $93 billion investment tax credit package, four of which are already available. Among these is the Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage investment tax credit that was signed into law in June, and for which Entropy should be eligible.

Investment tax credits are already working to give businesses the certainty and the financial support they need to make historic investments in Canada that create good jobs while reducing our emissions at the same time.

We are also supporting Canadian workers by linking many of our investment tax credits to labour requirements. That gives businesses an incentive to pay a prevailing union wage and to create apprenticeship opportunities.

In the last year alone, we have welcomed investments by major companies like Strathcona Resources, Shell Canada, Honda, and Dow. All of these investments are supported by investment tax credits, just like Entropy here is, and these are supporting thousands and thousands of great jobs in Alberta and across the country.

I want to talk for a minute about the Canadian economy. 

Canada’s leading the G7 in reaching a soft landing from the global post-pandemic surge in inflation and high interest rates. Canada was the first G7 country to cut interest rates and the first G7 country to cut interest rates for a second time. This is especially good news for homeowners who currently have mortgages that need to be renewed and also for people hoping to buy their first home. And it’s good for businesses of all sizes.

Things have been challenging over the past few years, but Canada’s economy is resilient and Canadians are resilient and entrepreneurial. Our government is working hard to support more jobs, better wages, and a higher standard of living.

We are focused on delivering fairness for every generation.

Canada has a strong fiscal position and we’re building on that to make the investments that Canadians need—in housing, in affordability, in economic growth, and in cutting-edge companies like Entropy right here, and the great jobs that they are supporting.

I am so excited by the work you guys have already done here. I am really excited to see what you’re going to continue to do as this made in Canada, made in Alberta technology transforms our economy and transforms the economy of the world. This really is a global success story and it’s happening right here in Northwest Alberta at the end of a kind of muddy track through the bush, and I could not be more excited about the great work that’s happening here. It’s something all Albertans, all Canadians should know about and we should be cheering these guys on. 

Thank you very much.

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• Introduction

Ford’s notable historical contributions

Founding and ownership history, 1903–1919: the model t and the moving assembly line, 1920s–1930s: new models and continued global expansion, 1940s–1960s: evolution of leadership and product expansion, 1970s–2000s: diversification and strategic acquisitions, 2000–2008: surviving the great recession, 2009–2020s: recovery, growth, and hybrid/ev sustainability.

Ford Motor Company

Who was the founder of Ford Motor Company?

Where is the ford motor company's headquarters, when did the ford motor company stop making the model t, when did the ford motor company sell the jaguar and land rover brands.

Ford Motor Company is an American automotive corporation that was founded in 1903 by Henry Ford and 11 associate investors. Emerging at the close of the American Industrial Revolution and fueled by the dynamic ethos of Gilded Age capitalism, Ford Motor Company revolutionized the automotive industry by mass-producing vehicles that were affordable to the masses and introducing the moving assembly line , an innovation that would transform the global manufacturing landscape.

Headquartered in Dearborn , Michigan , Ford—along with associated names such as Lincoln and Mercury (discontinued in 2011)—has remained one of the top automotive brands in the United States and around the world. Even in the face of sharp or prolonged economic crises, shifting consumer demand , and technological advances, Ford Motor Company has demonstrated a robust ability to adapt.

(Read Henry Ford’s 1926 Britannica essay on mass production.)

The moving assembly line. Ford’s moving assembly line marked a major innovation in manufacturing. It streamlined production, created incremental labor specialization, and significantly reduced the time and cost of production, allowing for the timely and efficient mass production of goods (in Ford’s case, automobiles).

The Model T—a car for the masses. The Ford Model T was the first affordable car mass-produced for the average U.S. consumer and marked a turning point in the history of transportation and the automotive industry. The Model T democratized vehicle ownership, transformed the way Americans traveled, and generally created a mobile society, greatly expanding geographical access for social and commercial purposes.

Job creation and economic impact. Ford’s mass production methods rapidly led to the direct and indirect creation of jobs, first topping 100,000 in 1923 and rising to 256,000 at its peak in the late 1970s. Labor opportunities were particularly broad for workers who fell under the category of “unskilled labor.” Ford’s $5 daily wage policy, first implemented in 1914, helped usher in the emergence of the American middle class.

America’s newfound mobility transformed almost every facet of life in the United States. The ability to travel easily and engage in wider commerce led to the establishment of homes and businesses on the outskirts of cities and towns, broadening the geographical expanse of American society.

Innovations in automotive technology. Ford remained at the forefront of automotive innovation through most of the 20th century, but the end of the century brought intense foreign competition (particularly from Japan) and a host of other economic quandaries—all of which threatened to displace Ford’s market position.

To counter these threats, Ford strategically shifted its production focus. In the 1980s and 1990s, the automaker prioritized designing and building fuel-efficient cars and trucks. From the late 2000s onward, Ford shifted its focus again to include environmentally sustainable and “smart” products, leading to the development of hybrid, electric, and self-driving vehicles.

After its founding in 1903 by Henry Ford and associate investors, Ford Motor Company was reincorporated in 1919. Ford, his wife, Clara, and his son, Edsel, acquired full ownership. They, their heirs, and the Ford Foundation (formed in 1936) were sole stockholders until January 1956, when public sale of the common stock was first offered.

Henry Ford built his first experimental car in a workshop behind his home in Detroit in 1896. After he formed the Company in 1903, the first Ford car, the original Model A, was assembled at the Mack Avenue plant in July of that same year.

It wasn’t until five years later, in 1908, that the highly successful Model T was introduced. Demand for the car was so great that Ford developed new mass production methods to manufacture it in sufficient quantities. Ford opened its first international sales branch in Paris the same year.

In 1911, the company established the industry’s first U.S. branch assembly plant (in Kansas City, Missouri) and opened its first overseas production plant (in Manchester, England). Critically, Ford introduced the world’s first moving assembly line for cars in 1913. The new manufacturing process proved to be a game changer for both the automobile industry and American business as a whole.

Assembly-line production allowed the price of the Model T touring car to be lowered to less than $300 in 1925 (equivalent to about four months’ salary for an average wage) from $850 in 1908 (equivalent to about 18 months’ salary for an average wage). By mid-1914, there were more than 500,000 Model Ts on the world’s roads.

Yet, this innovation also came with challenges. The monotony and strain of assembly line tasks contributed to high turnover rates among workers. To improve labor productivity, Ford introduced the $5 daily wage for an eight-hour day (replacing $2.34 for a nine-hour day) in 1914.

By 1923, the company was producing more than half of America’s automobiles, marking a significant milestone in automotive history. As the decade progressed, Ford’s global presence would expand significantly. By the end of the 1920s, the company had established more than 20 overseas assembly plants in Europe, Latin America , Canada, Asia, South Africa , and Australia.

Ford’s domestic and overseas growth made it the world’s most familiar make of car, with 15 million Model Ts produced. In a notable transition, 1927 saw the end of Model T production and the beginning of a new Model A. Ford’s innovations continued with the introduction of the first Ford V-8 engine in 1932.

A decade earlier, in 1922, Ford added to its portfolio by acquiring the Lincoln Motor Company (founded in 1917). The acquisition would later produce Ford’s luxury Lincolns, including its flagship Continental. In 1938 Ford introduced the first Mercury, a mid-priced car positioned between standard Ford models and the higher-end Lincoln line.

As the automaker continued its rapid expansion in the 1940s, ’50s, and ’60s, the company’s leadership, management, and ownership evolved.

As early as 1906, Henry Ford had acquired 58.5% of the company’s stock. When the other stockholders balked at the idea of building the giant (and expensive) River Rouge plant in Dearborn, he bought them out, purchasing their shares to gain full control of the company.

Henry Ford’s son, Edsel Ford (1893–1943), took over as president in 1919. In 1942, Ford Motor Company shifted its focus from civilian cars to the production of vehicles, planes, and tanks for the U.S. military during World War II .

Henry Ford resumed the presidency after his son’s death in 1943, but passed the role to his grandson, Henry Ford II , in 1945. The younger Ford restructured the company’s tangled system of financial management. He reinvigorated its corporate culture by hiring talented younger managers—most notably Robert McNamara, who briefly served as Ford’s president before leaving to become the U.S. secretary of defense in 1961.

Under Henry Ford II’s leadership, the company launched successful models like the Thunderbird (1954) and the Mustang (1964). But this period also saw the introduction of the Edsel (model years 1958–60), a notable fiasco that made the name “Edsel” a synonym for failure. Henry Ford II guided the company as chief executive officer from 1945 to 1970 and as chair of the board from 1960 to 1980.

In the 1950s and ’60s, Ford Motor Company began a phase of limited diversification, highlighted by its purchase of the electronics company Philco in 1961. But by the 1990s, Ford had refocused attention on its automotive concerns and financial services. This strategy continued into the late 20th century and was marked by several key purchases:

• Jaguar—British luxury car manufacturer (1989–90)
• Aston Martin—British sports car manufacturer (1993)
• Hertz Corporation—American car rental company (1994)
• Volvo —automobile division of the Swedish manufacturer (1999)
• Land Rover—sport utility vehicle brand purchased from BMW (2000)

Ford also raised its stake in Mazda Motor Corporation to 33.4% in 1996.

The 1970s and 1980s were marked by a decline in American automotive production. The OPEC Oil Shock of 1973–74 , coupled with a decade of rising inflation, set the stage for a surge in demand for smaller, fuel-efficient vehicles versus so-called “gas guzzlers,” a term that would soon be used to describe many of the cars produced by the Big Three automakers in the U.S., including Ford.

In the 1980s, Japanese carmakers made inroads into the U.S. market, significantly impacting domestic manufacturers. Thanks to greater fuel efficiency and affordability—the result of various internal (production) and external ( exchange rate ) cost advantages—Japanese vehicles accounted for as much as 22% of all vehicle sales in the U.S.

In addition to losing market share to Japanese automakers and the financial challenges that persisted well into the 1990s, the demand for fuel-efficient vehicles prompted Ford (along with Chrysler and General Motors ) to undergo a strategic shift to attempt to produce vehicles whose fuel efficiency and quality were comparable to and competitive with Japanese imports.

As Ford struggled in the early 21st century, it began selling many of the acquisitions it made in the previous decade. Ford sold Hertz in 2005 and Aston Martin in 2007.

A defining economic moment during this period for Ford, along with almost every company in the U.S., was the financial crisis of 2008 (also referred to as the Great Recession ), which caused a significant drop in vehicle sales and overall consumer spending. Ford sold Jaguar and Land Rover to Tata Motors Ltd. of India in 2008. The company began selling its Mazda shares that same year, and completely divested itself of the automaker in 2015.

In December 2008, U.S. President George W. Bush announced an emergency financial rescue plan to aid the Big Three automakers—Chrysler LLC, General Motors Corporation (GM), and Ford—to prevent the collapse of the country’s struggling auto industry.

The plan made immediately available $13.4 billion in government loans from the Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP), a $700 billion fund approved by Congress to aid the financial industry following the subprime mortgage crisis.

TARP loans allowed automakers to continue operating through March 2009, when they were required to demonstrate “financial viability” or return the money. The money was initially made available to GM and Chrysler; Ford purportedly possessed adequate funds to continue operations and did not immediately require government relief. An additional stipulation required GM and Chrysler to undergo restructuring.

Able to avoid bankruptcy —for which both GM and Chrysler filed—Ford saw increased sales and market share in 2009. The growth was partially due to the federal government’s “cash-for-clunkers” plan, which gave consumers up to $4,500 toward trade-ins of older cars for new fuel-efficient models.

Ford also adopted various cost-cutting measures and focused on stronger brands. The automaker sold Volvo to the Chinese company Zhejiang Geely Holding in 2010. Several months later, Ford announced it would discontinue its Mercury line.

As sales slowed, the automaker looked to expand its products. In 2016, Ford Smart Mobility LLC was created to develop car-sharing ventures and self-driving vehicles, among other initiatives. The following year, the automaker announced that it was increasing its line of electric vehicles. In a nod to changing consumer tastes, Ford announced in 2018 that it was phasing out all passenger cars except the Mustang and Ford Focus Active. Instead, the company would focus on pickups (Ford’s F-series of pickups were the best-selling vehicles in the U.S. in the late 20th and early 21st centuries), SUVs, and crossover vehicles.

In the early 2020s, Ford announced an electrification and R&D commitment of over $50 billion through 2026. A key part of this strategy is the electrification of several of its existing models: the Mustang Mach-E, F-150 Lightning, E-Transit, Electric Explorer, Electric Puma, E-Transit Custom, and E-Transit Courier. The company also said it was aiming to achieve a zero carbon footprint by 2050.

Since its founding in 1903, Ford Motor Company has been a cornerstone of the American automotive industry and a pioneering innovator in mass production and manufacturing methods. Despite challenges from economic crises, competition worldwide, and technological advancements, Ford has continually adapted its products to meet the evolving demands of the global market.

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Guest Essay

The Ascent of Kamala Harris Should Not Come as a Surprise

By Annette Gordon-Reed

Ms. Gordon-Reed, a professor of law and American history at Harvard University is the author, most recently, of “On Juneteenth.”

As the Democratic Party’s nominee for president of the United States, Vice President Kamala Harris has generated a remarkable level of enthusiasm almost from the moment President Joe Biden endorsed her.

Observers along the political spectrum have been caught off guard by the Harris phenomenon. David Axelrod, the political consultant and former senior adviser to President Barack Obama, characterized Ms. Harris’s early strong poll numbers, when matched against those of former President Donald Trump, as a result of “ irrational exuberance .” This, instead of mere “exuberance,” which could, of course, be rational.

Upon viewing her filled-to-the-rafters and turbocharged campaign rallies along with her running mate, Gov. Tim Walz of Minnesota, Ms. Harris’s political opponents have cried foul. There is no way that many people are coming out to see her! With no evidence, Mr. Trump accused the Harris campaign of doctoring photos to make the crowds at her rallies seem larger.

The quick and strong reaction — part jubilation, part bewilderment — to Ms. Harris’s candidacy reminds us of the important role that contingency, shaped by timing, biography and historical context, plays in American politics. Viewed in the proper manner, Ms. Harris’s ascent should not come as a big surprise, both because of who we are now (and have been historically) and because of who she is.

We Americans have been through a great deal over the past 10 years, including a worldwide pandemic whose effects we have yet to sort out. Our Republic has been put to a stress test with an outcome that is still uncertain: Political norms, which had come to be seen as akin to law, have now been shattered. In fact, laws have been broken with no evident sense of urgency about repercussions.

A symbol of American democracy, the Capitol building, was attacked, creating scenes that would have seemed unthinkable to Americans (and probably to people around the world) in years past. Challenging the legitimacy of lost elections — or even elections not yet held — rather than regrouping to fight (or promising to regroup for) the next round, is now a recognizable and demoralizing feature of the political landscape. With the overturning of Roe v. Wade, a right that had been adjudged constitutional was taken away, an act that has caused great consternation and fear about just what other rights might be in jeopardy.

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