globalization in uzbekistan essay

Search Menu

Sign in through your institution

Conflict, Security, and Defence
East Asia and Pacific
Energy and Environment
Global Health and Development
International History
International Governance, Law, and Ethics
International Relations Theory
Middle East and North Africa
Political Economy and Economics
Russia and Eurasia
Sub-Saharan Africa
Advance Articles
Editor's Choice
Special Issues
Virtual Issues
Reading Lists
Archive Collections
Book Reviews
Author Guidelines
Submission Site
Open Access
Self-Archiving Policy
About International Affairs
About Chatham House
Editorial Board
Advertising & Corporate Services
Journals Career Network
Journals on Oxford Academic
Books on Oxford Academic
< Previous

Uzbekistan's international relations

Article contents
Figures & tables
Supplementary Data

Ana-Maria Anghelescu, Uzbekistan's international relations, International Affairs , Volume 98, Issue 6, November 2022, Pages 2178–2179, https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiac245

Permissions Icon Permissions

The botched US withdrawal from Afghanistan in 2021 has brought the central Asian states to the public's attention once again. For great powers, the region presents both an opportunity to create a ring of allies in a contested area, and a potential threat given its own domestic vulnerabilities. Against this backdrop, Oybek Madiyev's book provides a timely analysis of Uzbekistan's relations with the great powers as a post-Soviet independent nation. In it, the author attempts to paint a more nuanced picture of how Russia and China have successfully engaged with this landlocked country.

The literature analysing contemporary central Asian states is divided into two broad strands: one taking a bottom-up perspective (looking at the domestic dynamic of foreign policy-making in the region); and another taking a systemic view concerned with the ‘New Great Game’ (re-enacting the nineteenth-century geopolitical competition for regional influence, then between the British and Russian empires and nowadays between Russia, the US and China). Madiyev undertakes the difficult task of bridging the gap between these two views with a neo-Gramscian reading of Uzbekistan's international relations. He looks at a broader set of domestic and external factors underpinning the country's foreign policy and highlights the interdependence between politics and economic interests. This way, the book's conclusions come full circle and validate Madiyev's chosen theoretical perspective, drawn from international political economy.

The Royal Institute of International Affairs members

Personal account.

Sign in with email/username & password
Get email alerts
Save searches
Purchase content
Activate your purchase/trial code
Add your ORCID iD

Institutional access

Sign in with username/password
Recommend to your librarian
Institutional account management
Get help with access

Access to content on Oxford Academic is often provided through institutional subscriptions and purchases. If you are a member of an institution with an active account, you may be able to access content in one of the following ways:

IP based access

Typically, access is provided across an institutional network to a range of IP addresses. This authentication occurs automatically, and it is not possible to sign out of an IP authenticated account.

Choose this option to get remote access when outside your institution. Shibboleth/Open Athens technology is used to provide single sign-on between your institutionâ€™s website and Oxford Academic.

Click Sign in through your institution.
Select your institution from the list provided, which will take you to your institution's website to sign in.
When on the institution site, please use the credentials provided by your institution. Do not use an Oxford Academic personal account.
Following successful sign in, you will be returned to Oxford Academic.

If your institution is not listed or you cannot sign in to your institutionâ€™s website, please contact your librarian or administrator.

Enter your library card number to sign in. If you cannot sign in, please contact your librarian.

Society Members

Society member access to a journal is achieved in one of the following ways:

Sign in through society site

Many societies offer single sign-on between the society website and Oxford Academic. If you see â€˜Sign in through society siteâ€™ in the sign in pane within a journal:

Click Sign in through society site.
When on the society site, please use the credentials provided by that society. Do not use an Oxford Academic personal account.

If you do not have a society account or have forgotten your username or password, please contact your society.

Sign in using a personal account

Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members. See below.

A personal account can be used to get email alerts, save searches, purchase content, and activate subscriptions.

Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members.

Viewing your signed in accounts

Click the account icon in the top right to:

View your signed in personal account and access account management features.
View the institutional accounts that are providing access.

Signed in but can't access content

Oxford Academic is home to a wide variety of products. The institutional subscription may not cover the content that you are trying to access. If you believe you should have access to that content, please contact your librarian.

For librarians and administrators, your personal account also provides access to institutional account management. Here you will find options to view and activate subscriptions, manage institutional settings and access options, access usage statistics, and more.

Short-term Access

To purchase short-term access, please sign in to your personal account above.

Don't already have a personal account? Register

Month:	Total Views:
November 2022	20
December 2022	13
January 2023	3
February 2023	2
April 2023	5
July 2023	5
August 2023	5
October 2023	1
November 2023	2
January 2024	4
February 2024	1
March 2024	8
April 2024	6
June 2024	3
July 2024	4
August 2024	2
September 2024	2

Email alerts

Citing articles via.

Recommend to Your Librarian
Advertising and Corporate Services

Affiliations

Online ISSN 1468-2346
Print ISSN 0020-5850
Copyright © 2024 The Royal Institute of International Affairs
About Oxford Academic
Publish journals with us
University press partners
What we publish
New features
Open access
Rights and permissions
Accessibility
Advertising
Media enquiries
Oxford University Press
Oxford Languages
University of Oxford

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide

Copyright © 2024 Oxford University Press
Cookie settings
Cookie policy
Privacy policy
Legal notice

This Feature Is Available To Subscribers Only

This PDF is available to Subscribers Only

For full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription.

How Uzbekistan is transforming into an open economy

Subscribe to global connection, lilia burunciuc , lilia burunciuc regional director, central asia - world bank wolfgang fengler , wolfgang fengler ceo - world data lab wiebke schloemer , and wiebke schloemer regional director, europe and central asia - ifc daria taglioni daria taglioni principal country economist - ifc.

December 20, 2018

Uzbekistan is in its second year of a wide-ranging market-oriented program of reforms . The government is making three fundamental shifts to the economy: from a command-and-control to a market-based economy; from a public sector-dominated to a private sector-driven economy; and from being inward-looking and isolationist to outward looking and open. These reforms are taking place amid growing external imbalances and a youth bulge that cannot be tackled without more jobs from the private sector.

It is challenging to navigate a transformation by shifting the role of the government from being the main allocator of resources to one of guiding and regulating markets to address informational asymmetries, dealing with externalities, providing public goods, and creating safety nets. For Uzbekistan to seize the new opportunities—from the digital economy, from Asia’s rising middle class , and from investments associated to the Belt-and-Road Initiative —Uzbekistan must close four development deficits: employment, enterprises, exports, and energy efficiency. We highlighted this in the forthcoming Country Private Sector Diagnostics.

Employment. Uzbekistan has a fast-growing working-age population and can use its labor force to drive growth. In 2017, Uzbekistan had a working-age population of about 23 million, which is 72 percent of its population. About 13 million participated in the labor force. By 2030, the labor force will increase by 4 million, making Uzbekistan’s the fifth largest in the Eastern Europe and Central Asia (ECA) region. But many in the working-age population are inactive, unemployed, or working abroad. Youth are especially discouraged—one in 10 people aged 20 to 24 are not even looking for work.

Enterprise. Most jobs are in agriculture and services, and state-owned enterprises (SOEs) dominate the formal sector. Four out of five workers work in agriculture and small-scale services, similar to the share of these sectors in GDP. One in three workers works in SOEs and one in three is self-employed. This results in a “missing middle” of medium-sized fast-growing companies, with the country still dominated by large underperforming SOEs and small firms, 70 percent of which do not employ any additional workers.

Exports. Uzbekistan’s export competitiveness has been deteriorating over the past decade. The poor business environment and distance to global markets have prevented Uzbekistan from integrating quickly into global value chains. Meanwhile, neighboring Kazakhstan’s competitiveness has increased by 14 percent, while in East Asia and Pacific (EAP) region it has grown by an average 42 percent. Uzbekistan’s weakening trade competitiveness represents a huge lost opportunity given the emergence of a growing consumer class in Asia. With an improved economic environment, Uzbek goods and services will have larger markets in Western Europe and East Asia to serve—and better conditions to reach them.

Energy Efficiency. Uzbekistan’s performs poorly in energy efficiency and is one of the most energy-inefficient economies in the world. Energy waste, water use, and CO2 emissions per unit of GDP, are among the highest globally. An inefficient chemical and petrochemical sector is a major contributor to this problem. Energy subsidies exacerbate environmental harm and, paradoxically, hamper other industries: low energy prices cause excessive consumption—especially during the winter—causing energy shortages.

Figure 1. Uzbekistan’s development deficits: Employment, Enterprise, Exports, Energy Efficiency

In addressing these deficits, Uzbekistan is creating new opportunities for the private sector. These opportunities are strongest in tradable sectors which can generate more sustainable and higher-paying employment. The World Bank-IFC team looked at four parts of the economy which seem critical for Uzbekistan’s prosperity.

As a land-locked country, air connectivity is critical for Uzbekistan. Travelers will not come by road or rail, and most of Uzbekistan’s produce, especially higher-value and perishable goods, needs reliable and competitive air transport and logistics. Uzbekistan has recently liberalized its visa regime. Now it needs to make Uzbekistan Airways competitive in a growing but cutthroat market, perhaps by modeling itself after Emirates and Singapore Airlines, both state-led companies. A key reform is unbundling functions—separating the airline, airport management, and air traffic control—and instituting an independent regulator. But first it must deal with a serious debt crisis.
Uzbekistan’s nascent digital economy will require significant reforms and investment to build infrastructure that is universal and affordable. Governments worldwide have transformed telecoms from SOEs into vibrant digital growth sectors. But Uzbekistan is a laggard. It can build a robust skills base and use the experience of successful “new economy” Uzbek companies. Similar to air connectivity, unbundling functions and reducing the state’s footprint are key.
The chemicals sector has great potential and is ripe for modernization. Uzbekistan is unique in having its own natural gas, potash, and phosphate ores critical for fertilizers, and producing methanol-derived products for manufacturing. This has made Uzbekistan a strong regional player. But the production of chemicals is also a creator of carbon emissions, making Uzbekistan one of the least energy-efficient countries in the world. Many quick wins in modernization and efficiency are at hand; the sector also has foreign companies participating in joint ventures with SOEs, and others interested in privatization. The modernization of chemicals will increase Uzbekistan’s competitiveness and make it more energy efficient.
The horticulture sector is also important, as exports total $1 billion annually. However, Uzbekistan is not exploiting its comparative advantage. Eighty percent of exports are fresh produce for neighboring Kazakhstan and Russia. But Uzbekistan could be Asia’s “California” in terms of potential and distance to markets; it produces high-value foods that it could export to Europe and East Asia. In some cases, it has few competitors: East Asia’s cherries are supplied by California and Washington, while Turkey and Iran supply nuts and dried fruits to Europe. Uzbekistan exports to Russia and Kazakhstan because of proximity and lower quality thresholds, though margins are far higher in Europe and East Asia.

These ambitious reforms will bring enormous gains, but could also deliver many setbacks. Besides, they are not easy to start and sustain. But the payoff to being persistent is that Uzbekistan will achieve the goals of a more competitive, open, and wealthy society.

Distinctive Features o f Economic Development o f Uzbekistan in Terms o f Globalization

In given article are analyzed particularities, the main trends and totals of the economic reforms in Republic Uzbekistan at year of independence. As well as, lit particularities and problems to integrations of the economy of the republic in modern process globalization.

Related Papers

As modern history of development of the Republic of Uzbekistan shows that situation formed in the late 80-ies and early 90-ies of XX century was extremely critically evaluated by various international experts and specialists. Uzbekistan took one of the last places among the former Soviet republics according to all main economic and social indicators. It lagged twice in average union index according to national income per capita of the republic. Agriculture dominated in economy of the country this period. Its share took over third of gross domestic product while share of industry in which there also dominated industries oriented to agriculture was only about 14%. In this intense political and economic situation in world arena which was typical for geopolitical intrigue Uzbekistan first had to protect itself from chain reaction effect and secondly form almost a new civil society, new socially oriented economy and also declared new domestic and foreign policy.

Theoretical & Applied Science

Konstantin Kurpayanidi

CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research - Zenodo

Madina Yuldasheva

Riyaz Sheikh

SSRN Electronic Journal

prof. G.N. khaki

Giovanni Andrea Cornia

Features and Prospects of Development of The Labor Market in Uzbekistan

Salimov S H E R Z O D Yunusovich

There are different approaches on determining the object that causes of buying-selling interactions in labor market. Discussions about labor market has been continuing since the middle of the last century. If the economists of CIS countries had the common view about it before the market economy, it becomes intricate under the influence of western economics. From practical point of view, among the whole population of Uzbekistan the tendency of the growth of the population of working age and the shrink of dependency is observed, which requires to increase the number of employed among economic active population. It is important to mention that, during the financial-economic recession, the republic of Uzbekistan adopted anticrisis program, which mainly directed to the most important problems such as creating new labor places and improving the living standards of the population.

SWP Research Paper 12, 2020

Andrea Schmitz

IOSR Journals

Purpose-Study intends to find the cause and effect relationship of globalization and international trade , extent to the factors of globalization affect the international trade in Uzbekistan. For the purpose study selected government policies, inflation, tax system , markets and infrastructure. Design/Methodology/Approach-Study adopted quantitative analysis approach based on 5 likert questionnaire, conducting online surveys due to Covid-19. For the purpose of theoretical support study selected Transformationalism theory of globalisation to lens the problem and its solution. Study depends on primary data collection and literature basis. Treatment-For the statistical analysis and treatment study selected IBM SPSS as tool and different techniques to analyze data such as: T-test, P-test, Z-test, Regression Analysis and Correlation Analysis. Parametric analysis is used to nullify the null hypotheses. Findings-After the thorough investigation study finds a positive relationship between globalisation and international trade of Uzbekistan. Study finds correlation of dependent and independent variables. Both the factors are linear in function. Originality values-This work is original in nature and never been published before in any journal, data collected is from first hand managers, executives and directors working in multinational organizations from Uzbekistan.

Zulayho Kadirova

Loading Preview

Sorry, preview is currently unavailable. You can download the paper by clicking the button above.

The Permanent Mission of the Republic of Uzbekistan to the United Nations

New Uzbekistan – A New Model of Foreign Policy

Google Plus

On 29 December 2020, the President of the Republic of Uzbekistan Shavkat Mirziyoyev addressed the Oliy Majlis and the people of Uzbekistan. In his Address, the Head of the state-defined further goals and set the most important tasks aimed at ensuring a consistent increase in the level of welfare and wellbeing of the country's population.

In his Address, the President mainly focused on the issues of conducting an effective foreign policy capable of providing the necessary conditions for the implementation of a large-scale program of reforming and modernizing all spheres of life of society and the state.

For this purpose, President Shavkat Mirziyoyev noted the need for improving the foreign policy strategy of the country and adopting an updated concept of activities in this area. At the same time, the importance of ensuring the consistency of Uzbekistan's open, proactive and constructive foreign policy was emphasized.

The demand for conceptualizing foreign policy is due to the high dynamics of transformation of Uzbekistan, the transition to a new stage in the formation of a democratic rule of law with a developed market economy. Without exaggeration it is worth noting that the foundation of a new era of the Renaissance is being laid in the country, requiring qualitatively new approaches in foreign policy.

In these conditions, the adoption of this Concept of Foreign Policy is intended to accelerate the consistent formation of a favorable external environment for the sustainable internal development of the country, the effective promotion of national interests in the international arena and the progressive increase of the competitiveness of the country's economy in the world market.

In this regard, today the primary tasks are the consolidation and mobilization of all internal and external resources for the unconditional achievement of national development goals. The formation of a new version of the foreign policy concept also indicates the country's adherence to the previously chosen foreign policy course, thanks to which Uzbekistan has achieved significant success.

In general, a systematic analysis of the basic principles and characteristic features of the modern foreign policy strategy of Uzbekistan demonstrates a deep thoughtfulness of its foreign policy, which today could serve as an exemplary model for many countries, especially in conditions when international relations are experiencing a crisis of trust, a lack of dialogue and mutually beneficial cooperation.

These distinctive features of the new external course of the country, the leading role in the construction of which belongs to the President of the Republic of Uzbekistan Shavkat Mirziyoyev, include the following basic principles.

First, a characteristic feature of the modern foreign policy of Uzbekistan is pragmatism in building relationships with all traditional partners, as well as the countries near and far abroad.

In this context, Uzbekistan proceeds from the tasks of internal development. Among them are maintaining high growth rates, modernizing and sustainable development of the economy, raising the standard of living of the population and ensuring full integration into the structure of world economic relations.

Achieving these goals is impossible without accompanying the launched large-scale internal reforms with an appropriate regional strategy, establishing close relations with closest neighbors, coordinating plans within international organizations such as the UN, SCO, CIS, Turkic Council, WTO, EAEU, EBRD and other structures.

In a word, Uzbekistan's foreign policy interests are based primarily on the priorities of internal development, which actually means an obvious shift towards the economization of the country's international cooperation and the strengthening of economic pragmatism in external relations.

Thanks to the active use of this approach, the efficiency of work on attracting foreign investment and new technologies, expanding the tourist flow, as well as increasing the export of national products to world markets has significantly increased.

In particular, one of the drivers of economic growth in recent years has been a sharp increase in investment activity. Over the past 4 years, the average annual investment growth rate was 22 percent. The total volume of attracted foreign investments reached $26.6 billion, including direct investments of $17.5 billion. For comparison, such a volume of investments was attracted to the country's economy between 2007 and 2017.

In general, the total volume of investments over the past 4 years has grown by more than 2.1 times, including foreign investments by 2.7 times. The share of investment in GDP in 2019 exceeded 38 percent for the first time, which creates a solid foundation for ensuring economic growth in the coming years.

At the same time, the GDP of Uzbekistan in 2019 grew by 5.6 percent. Despite the difficult conditions that have arisen due to the consequences of the pandemic, the World Bank experts predict the country's GDP growth in 2021 by 4.8 percent, which is one of the best indicators among developing countries.

Thus, Uzbekistan's foreign trade turnover is growing much faster than GDP and in 2019 increased by 26.2 percent, amounting to $42.2 billion. While in just 9 months of 2020, despite the pandemic, the country's foreign trade reached $27.5 billion.

Uzbekistan's plans to strengthen its role in the establishment of international transport corridors and joint implementation of other infrastructure projects with foreign partners also received a new impetus.

For instance, the wide involvement of Uzbekistan in the implementation of the Trans-Afghan corridor and joining various international transport corridors («North-South», «Trans-Caspian corridor», «China-Kyrgyzstan-Uzbekistan») create favorable prerequisites not only for the country's exit from the state of transport isolation but also for increasing its importance as a transport and transit hub and providing access to promising markets.

The implementation of these plans will also contribute to strengthening the role of the country in the process of drawing up a new transport map of the world and strengthening its position in the emerging modern model of global supply chains.

Second, Uzbekistan today constantly promotes the principle of multilateralism in the country's foreign policy. Uzbekistan stands for the development of creative processes of globalization, the establishment of mutually beneficial and equal international cooperation based on dialogue, mutual trust and respect for each other's interests.

This dictates the transboundary nature of modern challenges and threats. Among them, the epidemiological crisis and its socio-economic consequences, terrorism, cross-border crime, the food crisis, the fight against poverty and the problem of global climate change remain relevant, which can only be countered by joint efforts.

Recognizing this, Uzbekistan today is active in shaping not only a regional but also a global agenda, building collective mechanisms to counter various challenges and threats that directly affect the security, prosperity and sustainable development of the international community.

Clear evidence of this is the productive participation of the President of Uzbekistan in international platforms. So, during the first outbreak of the pandemic, the President of Uzbekistan, speaking at an emergency meeting of the Turkic Council, was one of the first leaders of the world countries to call on the international community to cohesion in the face of a common threat.

This approach also becomes evident in the increasing role of the country in international lawmaking – in the initiation and adoption of conceptual multilateral documents aimed at resolving urgent problems at the center of the global agenda.

In particular, since 2016, at the initiative of the President of Uzbekistan Shavkat Mirziyoyev, four resolutions have been adopted within the framework of the UN, designed to improve the foundations and mechanisms of international cooperation in tourism, regional interaction, interfaith understanding and sustainable development.

Special attention also deserves the important initiatives put forward by the Head of the state during the meeting of the 75th UN General Assembly, which became a solid contribution of the country to the development of mutually beneficial international cooperation.

Among them are proposals for the development of an International Code on voluntary commitments of world states during pandemics and the adoption of a UN General Assembly resolution on enhancing the role of parliaments in achieving the Sustainable Development Goals and ensuring human rights.

In this context, the plans to hold several international events in Uzbekistan, voiced by the President of the country during the Address to the Oliy Majlis, are another indicator of strengthening the role of the country in the international arena. One of them is a global forum under the auspices of the United Nations on "Human Rights Education"; an international conference on youth rights; regional conference on freedom of conscience.

Finally, Uzbekistan's strong commitment to multilateralism is evidenced by the President's statement during his Address to the Oliy Majlis about the country's readiness to further develop a constructive cooperation with all international organizations, including the UN.

Third, the country relies on proactivity in foreign policy and distances itself from the role of a passive observer of the ongoing processes in the region and the world. This is confirmed by the fact that by now Uzbekistan has become a member of more than 100 different international organizations and a party to more than 200 international multilateral treaties.

In this context, particular attention is drawn to the activation of Uzbekistan within the framework of the SCO, the adoption of the chairmanship in the CIS and entry as a permanent member to the Turkic Council.

The growing initiative of the country on these platforms, the mutually beneficial nature of the proposals put forward and their focus on solving problems that meet collective interests also speaks of the intensification of Uzbekistan's foreign policy activities.

In particular, in 2017-2020, the Uzbek side at the SCO summits put forward more than 30 initiatives, and during this period, 36 proposals were initiated within the CIS.

In recent years, the participation of Uzbekistan within the framework of the UN has also acquired intensive dynamics. A significant event in this regard was the country's election for the first time in its history as a member of the UN Human Rights Council.

At the same time, the country began an active dialogue on joining the World Trade Organization to gain its worthy place in the world trade system, corresponding to our resource and economic capabilities and human potential.

Another notable event in this regard is the receipt by Uzbekistan of the observer status in the EAEU, which opens up new opportunities for the country in achieving the goals of progressive economic development.

Negotiations are nearing completion on an Enhanced Partnership and Cooperation Agreement with the European Union, which will help create more favorable conditions for mutual trade and soften the foreign trade regime.

In this context, it should be noted that the goals outlined by the President of Uzbekistan during the Address to the Oliy Majlis on the development of individual programs and interaction strategies with the main external partners can fill the country's international cooperation with new concrete content.

Fourth, an important distinguishing feature of the newly introduced strategy is openness, one might say, the democratization of foreign policy. Dialogue with the people, which has been declared a key principle of the activities of state power and administration bodies, has in recent years turned into an open dialogue with the outside world.

Wherein, the role of the public in the formation of the foreign policy agenda has significantly increased, and the circle of subjects involved in its implementation is expanding. In particular, the activity of parliamentary and people's diplomacy is growing.

Parliamentarians and the people, today determine the vector and guidelines of foreign policy, take on the role of active conductors of foreign policy priorities and spokesmen for the country's interests in the international arena.

Over the past three years, our country has become a member of the Inter-Parliamentary Union, the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly and the CIS Interparliamentary Assembly. During this period, the total number of formed inter-parliamentary friendship groups reached 48, and last year the legislative body adopted the Concept of Parliamentary Diplomacy.

At the same time, international non-governmental organizations and public associations are actively involved in foreign policy, contacts at the level of twin-cities are increasing, ties between youth and women's organizations are strengthening.

The openness of foreign policy is also confirmed by the expansion of the range of politically sensitive topics discussed and jointly resolved with foreign partners. Thus, the country resumed cooperation with international human rights organizations, unblocked access to various foreign news resources.

Fifth, another significant principle is constructivism. Uzbekistan is convinced that the confrontational defense of national interests in foreign affairs, especially with neighbors, will not give the expected long-term effect.

It is important to search for reasonable compromises and a mutually acceptable balance of interests in resolving acute issues of bilateral and multilateral interaction. At the same time, any controversial issue should be a subject of discussion and not an obstacle to political dialogue.

This approach is based on other principles of our country's foreign policy. This is peacefulness and good neighborliness, which reflect the peculiarities of the mentality of the people of Uzbekistan.

The practical implementation of the above principles in a short period of time led to the settlement of the problems accumulated in Central Asia, which for many years were considered systemic irritants hindering the development of regional cooperation.

The issues of water use, delimitation and demarcation of state borders between Uzbekistan and neighboring countries, the use of transport communications and border crossing have been resolved.

Thanks to this approach, Uzbekistan has significantly intensified its participation in peacebuilding in Afghanistan, contributes to strengthening the international and regional consensus on achieving long-term and sustainable peace in the neighboring country.

Meanwhile, Uzbekistan's efforts in the Afghan arena are not limited only to the goals of preventing the emergence of new hotbeds of tension or ensuring security in the region. Practical assistance in transferring Afghanistan to the track of socio-economic recovery and ensuring its integration into the system of regional interconnectedness remains a priority.

The President of Uzbekistan paid special attention to this issue in his next Address, stressing the intensification of work on the creation of a trans-Afghan corridor. This demonstrates the country's long-term commitment to helping to rebuild Afghanistan's peaceful economy and ensuring its integration into international trade and economic relations.

As a result, the political climate in Central Asia is radically changing. If earlier the region was seen as a powder keg or a tangle of intractable disagreements, today it is turning into a space of stability, good-neighborliness and peace.

All Central Asian states without exception are becoming beneficiaries of such a transformation in the perception of the region in the world. This is evidenced by the improvement in the aggregate economic indicators of the region’s countries.

In particular, in 2019 compared to 2016, the total GDP of the region increased by 19.6 percent, and foreign trade by 56 percent. At the same time, the total volume of attracted investments for the specified period showed an increase of 40 percent. Despite the pandemic, the commitment to the chosen course of regional cooperation will undoubtedly keep the dynamics of growth in the region in the long term.

Another indication of the changing approaches and increasing international attention to the region was the revision of their strategies towards Central Asia by the world's leading states. Thus, the United States, the EU and India have already presented new strategies for the region; the key place of Central Asia is highlighted in China’s Belt and Road Initiative and Russia’s Great Eurasian Partnership Project. Uzbekistan invariably advocates the conjugation of all these strategies to turn the region into space for mutually beneficial cooperation, and not into a zone of competition.

Most importantly, thanks to the use of this approach, the authority of Uzbekistan in the world arena is significantly strengthened and its international subjectivity is growing. The country has established itself as a regional actor capable of exerting a stabilizing effect on the processes taking place in the region.

In his Address to the Oliy Majlis, the President once again paid special attention to the issues of bringing interregional cooperation to a new level, announcing plans to hold the third Consultative meeting of the heads of Central Asian states.

Sixth, another principle that began to prevail in the foreign policy, reformed under the leadership of the Head of the state, is the humanization of foreign policy.

This can be seen in the example of the increased concern of the state for the interests of citizens of Uzbekistan abroad, including through the provision of state services to compatriots and involvement in the implementation of socio-economic, cultural and humanitarian projects.

In particular, back in 2018, the President of Uzbekistan signed a resolution on improving the state policy on working with compatriots living abroad. And this year, some practical measures have been implemented to promptly resolve the problems of Uzbekistan citizens living abroad.

Thus, during the pandemic, more than 500,000 labor migrants returned to the country. The assistance of various kinds was provided to about 100,000 compatriots, who found themselves in a difficult situation outside the country. Humanitarian measures continue to return citizens, mainly women and children, who, by the will of fate, found themselves in the zone of armed conflicts.

In this context, the initiative to create the fund “Vatandoshlar” (Compatriots), put forward by the leader of the country during the Address to the Oliy Majlis, deserves special attention.

The implementation of this initiative will be another significant step in supporting the citizens abroad and strengthening dialogue with them.

The humanization of Uzbekistan's foreign policy is also manifested in expanding the geography of humanitarian aid provided by the country. Recently recipients of humanitarian support from Uzbekistan have become not only residents of neighboring countries but also the peoples of remote regions, such as the Palestinians and Rohingya, who find themselves in a difficult situation.

In recent years, Uzbekistan has achieved a qualitative shift in the international arena. The country seeks to become a responsible and predictable partner, ready in a constructive and open dialogue to solve the most pressing problems of both regional and global agendas, creating the necessary favorable external conditions for the implementation of a large-scale program of reform and modernization of the country, primarily for the benefit of the people living in Uzbekistan.

In this regard, the approval of the Concept of Foreign Policy Activity in the new edition is an objective necessity and is intended to lay a solid foundation for conducting an effective foreign policy aimed at ensuring the further dynamic growth of Uzbekistan in post-pandemic realities.

Akramjon Nematov,

First Deputy Director of the Institute

for Strategic and Regional Studies

under the President of the Republic of Uzbekistan

Azizjon Karimov,

Leading Research Fellow of the Institute

Some Responses to Globalisation in Uzbekistan

State authoritarianism, migrant labour and neo-traditionalism, purchase this article.

All currencies in US Dollar

Get Citation Alerts
Get Permissions

Uzbekistan offers a case study of a country that has blocked the liberalisation of its economy and that is being marginalised in the world market as well as in the international community. Even still, two typical expressions of globalisation processes can be identified: first, an attempt to reconstruct the legitimacy of the state through the reinvention of a 'national identity', and, second, the elimination of a specific form of protected salaried work that had arisen during the Soviet era, along with a concurrent proletarianisation of the population, in particular in the rural areas. The research shows that political coercion and the inculcation of a nationalist ideology, on the one hand, and the economic degradation of living standards, on the other, result in the reinforcement of family ties and repression of individuality, in spite of huge labour migrations and a (minimal) introduction of the market.

Share on facebook Share on linkedin Share on twitter

Anthropology of the Middle East

Article Information

Issue table of contents, google scholar.

Article by Laurent Bazin

	All Time	Past Year	Past 30 Days
Abstract Views	916	365	37
Full Text Views	29	8	0
PDF Downloads	44	10	1

Accessibility
Terms & Conditions
Privacy Policy

[109.248.223.228]
109.248.223.228

Read The Diplomat , Know The Asia-Pacific

Central Asia
Southeast Asia
Environment
Asia Defense
China Power

Crossroads Asia

Flashpoints
Pacific Money
Tokyo Report
Trans-Pacific View
Photo Essays
Write for Us
Subscriptions

Uzbekistan’s Transition to a Green Economy: Challenges and Opportunities

Recent features.

Japan’s LNG Future: Balancing Energy Security With Sustainability Commitments

Why Is South Korea’s President Yoon So Unpopular?

The Logic of China’s Careful Defense Industry Purge

The Ko Wen-je Case Points to Deeper Problems in Taiwan Politics

Anarchy in Anyar: A Messy Revolution in Myanmar’s Central Dry Zone

The Complex Legacy of Ahmad Shah Massoud

Diplomacy Beyond the Elections: How China Is Preparing for a Post-Biden America

Sri Lanka’s Presidential Manifestos: What’s Promised for Women?

The Global Battle for Chip Talent: South Korea’s Strategic Dilemma

Bangladesh’s New Border Stance Signals a Shift in Its Approach to India

The Solomon Islands-China Relationship: 5 Years On

Finding Home in Bishkek: Kyrgyzstan’s South Asian Expats

Privatization in Uzbekistan: Potential Far From Fulfilled

By bryn windsor.

How Are Patterns of Labor Migration From Uzbekistan Changing?

By niginakhon saida.

Acute Shortage of Cotton Pickers Results in Coercion by Officials

By lynn schweisfurth.

What Are Central Asia’s Economic Prospects in 2023?

By catherine putz.

Arakan Army Commander-in-Chief Twan Mrat Naing on the Future of Rakhine State

By rajeev bhattacharyya.

US Air Force Deploys More Stealth Jets to Southeast Asia

By christopher woody.

Islamic Fundamentalism Raises Its Head in Post-Hasina Bangladesh

By snigdhendu bhattacharya.

Kim Jong Un Abandoned Unification. What Do North Koreans Think?

By kwangbaek lee and rose adams.

By John Calabrese

By Mitch Shin

By K. Tristan Tang

By James Baron

The World Bank in Uzbekistan

Latest news and information from the World Bank and its development work in Uzbekistan. Access the country data, statistics, project information, research from our experts, and many more.

Country Context


Population, million	36.2
GDP, current $ billion	90.9
GDP per capita, current $	2,510.1
Life Expectancy at Birth, years	70.9

Uzbekistan has undertaken extensive reforms in recent years, liberalizing certain economic sectors and enhancing the private sector's prospects.

In 2023, the Government made several key moves, such as (i) establishing an independent energy regulator; (ii) initiating energy tariff reforms, (iii) restructuring the state-owned rail operator; (iv) privatizing a major chemical plant and a bank; and (v) separating the leading chemical state-owned enterprise to foster competition.

Furthermore, the authorities set up the National Agency for Social Protection, enacted new laws to tackle gender-based violence, and broadened the availability of free legal aid to citizens.

Uzbekistan has also embraced a greener development trajectory by setting more ambitious environmental goals, implementing a new pollution control system, and establishing a national green taxonomy. The Government continues to invest in new sources of green energy and takes further measures to enhance efficiency both in the use of electricity and water adapting to climate change.

Given the high rate of population growth and the influx of young people into the job market annually, the country's economic expansion must focus on robust job creation. Continuing the reform agenda is crucial for this, which includes further market liberalization and enhancing competition.

Key strategies involve diminishing the economic influence of state-owned enterprises, fortifying land rights, deregulating the telecommunications sector and the trade of raw materials, and reducing elevated trade costs by improving logistics and connectivity. Additionally, to spur faster job creation and productivity, there is a need for more investment in enhancing the skills of the labor force.


Number of active projects	27
Lending	$6.07 billion
IBRD	$2.34 billion
IDA	$3.68 billion

In May 2022, the World Bank Group’s new Country Partnership Framework for Uzbekistan (CPF) was endorsed by the World Bank’s Board of Executive Directors . The document outlines the World Bank’s financial and analytical support to the Government of Uzbekistan for the next five years in support of the National Development Strategy for 2022–26.

The CPF aims to expedite the country's move towards an inclusive and sustainable market economy through three overarching goals: boosting private sector employment, enhancing human capital, and facilitating a transition to greener growth that betters livelihoods and resilience.

Additionally, the CPF aids the Government in narrowing gender disparities and in fortifying citizen involvement and accountability within public services.

Since 2017, the World Bank's financial and analytical assistance to Uzbekistan has significantly increased, reinforcing the Government's comprehensive market reform agenda.

Today, the country is the World Bank's third-largest client in the Europe and Central Asia region and has the largest International Development Association (IDA) allocation in this region.

As of April 1, 2024, the World Bank’s country program in Uzbekistan consisted of 27 projects, with net commitments totaling around $6.07 billion, of which about $2.4 billion is yet to be disbursed. These projects include loans from the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) for $2.34 billion and concessional credits from IDA for $3.68 billion.

The portfolio also includes a $46.25 million grant from the Transformative Carbon Asset Facility (TCAF) to support the implementation of the Innovative Carbon Resource Application For Energy Transition Project , which is the World Bank’s first carbon reduction policy crediting operation.

World Bank-funded projects, which are implemented by the Government, are pivotal in driving critical macroeconomic reforms and modernizing a wide array of sectors. These projects target improvements in agriculture, water and land resource management, water supply and sanitation, energy, transport, health, education, and social protection systems. They also focus on enhancing both urban and rural infrastructure, investing in institutional capacity building, and developing national innovation, tax administration, statistical, and financial systems.

Additionally, the World Bank's engagement in Uzbekistan includes a comprehensive suite of technical assistance, advisory, and analytical services provided to the government. These services support the preparation and implementation of national strategies aimed at poverty reduction, health, education, and social protection, as well as sector-specific reforms in energy, aviation, tax administration, and banking.

Recent Economic Developments

In 2023, Uzbekistan's economy grew by 6%, fueled by investment, private consumption, and exports. Inflation reached a seven-year low. In December 2023, consumer prices dropped to 8.8%, compared to 12.3% in 2022. The Uzbek som saw a 9% depreciation against the US dollar, partly due to the depreciation of the Russian ruble.

The current account deficit worsened, driven by increased imports and reduced remittances in 2023, which were linked to the depreciation of the Russian ruble.

The fiscal deficit widened to 5.8% of GDP in 2023, influenced by emergency energy spending during the cold winter, higher spending on wages, social benefits, energy subsidies, and subsidized lending to state-owned enterprises (SOEs) via state-owned banks.

By December 2023, foreign reserves remained robust at $34.6 billion, equating to over eight months of import coverage.

The poverty rate declined from 5.0% in 2022 to 4.5% in 2023, measured at the lower-middle-income poverty line ($3.65/day, 2017 PPP).

The unemployment rate dropped to 8.1% in 2023, down from 8.9% in 2022. Average real wages in 2023 increased by 7.8%, not only due to growing demand but also because of shortages in skills in the labor market.

Economic Outlook

The country’s GDP growth is projected at 5.3% in 2024 given the expected fiscal consolidation and slower export growth prospects to Russia and China, Uzbekistan’s key trading partners.

Growth will be supported mainly by the continued implementation of structural reforms, notably SOEs’ restructuring and privatization, and high energy sector investment.

Inflation is expected to increase in 2024 due to relatively sharp increases in domestic energy prices because of the energy tariff reforms (accompanied by social protection measures).

Remittances in 2024 are projected to decline mainly due to an expected reduction in the number of labor migrants to Russia.

With decreasing remittances and strong imports, the current account deficit will widen slightly but remain sustainable as Uzbekistan’s transformation process brings in foreign savings to finance the deficit.

This economic outlook is expected to reduce poverty moderately to 4.3% in 2024, measured at the lower-middle income poverty line ($3.65/day, 2017 PPP).

The fiscal deficit is expected to fall to 4.2% of GDP in 2024 and towards 3% of GDP by 2026.

The Government is expected to adhere to its debt limits (60% of GDP for total Public and Publicly Guaranteed debt), with public debt slightly increasing to 36.5% of GDP in 2024 and then gradually declining to 34.4% of GDP by 2026.

Risks to outlook are tilted to the downside. External risks include possible deterioration of growth in key trading partners, notably China and Russia, and further tightening of external financial conditions.

Domestic risks stem from the growing contingent liabilities from SOEs, public-private partnerships, and state-owned banks. Upside risks include higher global gold and copper prices and stronger productivity growth due to ongoing structural reforms.

Uzbekistan: Commitments by Fiscal Year (in millions of dollars)*

World bank project improves irrigation system in south karakalpakstan, around the bank group.

Find out what the Bank Group's branches are doing in Uzbekistan.

STAY CONNECTED

Results in Uzbekistan

Study - Listening to the Citizens of Uzbekistan

Improving Irrigation System in South Karakalpakstan

Reflections on 30 Years of the Partnership Between the World Bank and Uzbekistan

Why a One Health approach is so crucial for Central Asia

Additional resources, country office contacts.

This site uses cookies to optimize functionality and give you the best possible experience. If you continue to navigate this website beyond this page, cookies will be placed on your browser. To learn more about cookies, click here .

DOI: 10.1080/13614560500402817
Corpus ID: 2841603

Resistance to globalization: Language and Internet diffusion patterns in Uzbekistan

Carolyn Y. Wei , Beth E. Kolko
Published in New Rev. Hypermedia Multim. 1 December 2005
Linguistics, Sociology
New Review of Hypermedia and Multimedia

56 Citations

The internet in developing countries: a medium of economic, cultural and political domination, disjuncture 2.0: youth, internet use and cultural identity in bishkek, diversity of attitudes to english in non-professional public discourse: a focus on lithuania, digital distrust: uzbek cynicism and solidarity in the internet age, social networking, socialization, and second language writers: the development of new identities and literacies, the internet and national solidarity: a theoretical analysis, identity practices of multilingual writers in social networking spaces, internet authorship: social and political implications within kyrgyzstan.

Highly Influenced

Emerging perspectives and contemporary debates: assessing the landscape of online media communication research in Central Asia

Insights into cypriot-greek attitudes toward multilingualism and multiculturalism in cyprus, 37 references, culture, globalization and the world-system: contemporary conditions for the representation of identity, africa.com: the self-representation of sub-saharan nations on the world wide web, global/local: cultural production and the transnational imaginary, language, dialect and national identity in switzerland, politics of language in the ex-soviet muslim states: azerbaijan, uzbekistan, kazakhstan, kyrgyzstan, turkmenistan and tajikistan, politics and media richness in world wide web representations of the former yugoslavia, linguistic capital in taiwan: the kmt's mandarin language policy and its perceived impact on language practices of bilingual mandarin and tai-gi speakers, nation-building in the post-soviet borderlands: the politics of national identities, imagined communities : reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism pdf, national borders on the world wide web, related papers.

Showing 1 through 3 of 0 Related Papers

News & Analysis
Asia Pacific
Middle East
Science & Health

Select Page

Asia Pacific · Essays · Europe · US

Uzbekistan: An Outpost Against Globalization

By Kerry R Bolton | Jun 5, 2011 | Asia Pacific , Essays , Europe , US | 6 |

There are few states remaining that have remained free from the international oligarchy. One of these is Uzbekistan, whose rejection of involvement with international financial institutions and maintenance of a sovereign currency has, despite economic problems such as hyper-inflation, enabled this state to stay secure from recent world financial turbulence. Since Uzbekistan remains a relatively sovereign nation, it is problematic to the globalist oligarchy.

Tashkent, the capital of Uzbekistan

A recent report from the authoritative Oilprice.com newsletter, in featuring investment opportunities in Uzbekistan, states of the former Soviet bloc states that the foreign investors who flooded in were mostly drawn to the hydrocarbon assets and focused on the Caspian, in particular Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan. During this time, Uzbekistan only attracted about $10 billion in investment. However the Uzbek Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Economic Relations now states that the aim is to attract over $50 billion of foreign investment in the next five years in over 500 projects.

Oilprice.com states that Uzbekistan is rich in resources, including proven natural gas reserves of 1.58 trillion cubic meters, 594 million barrels of proven oil reserves, and 190 oil and natural gas fields; lead, zinc, silver, molybdenum and coal; the world’s seventh largest amount of gold reserves; over 2,700 mineral deposits, and a variety of 100 different natural resources.[1]

The Oilprice report states that the reason for the lack of foreign investment until now has been that the country is landlocked, that its currency is “not yet fully convertible,” and that the state “has also pursued a cautious policy with international fiscal institutions…” The Oilprice.com writers add, “but the wisdom of such an approach has been vindicated during the global recession, which largely bypassed Uzbekistan.”[2] Oilprice.com frankly states that when Texas Governor George Bush lobbied with the Uzbek ambassador to get Enron into the country, despite a promising start, Enron was rebuffed, and “Uzbekistan wisely chose not to ingest the Enron Kool-aid.”[3] However other corporations have successfully entered Uzbekistan based on joint ventures with the State. These include: General Motors, Boeing, Coca Cola, Baker Hughes, Honeywell, Nukem, and Hewlett Packard.[4] Oilprice further states that according to Wikileaks , the US Embassy has advised that corporations wanting to invest in Uzbekistan will be assisted to aggressively negotiate in regard to state policy.

The Usual Suspects

While it is obviously to be hoped that Uzbekistan maintains its sovereign course and does not succumb to the glitter of foreign investment, the rulers of Uzbekistan seem canny enough to realize that they are playing a dangerous game, and that when supping with the Devil one must have a very long spoon.

Despite the aim of securing foreign investment, this is unlikely to satisfy the globalists, who see in Uzbekistan a source of enormous, largely untapped wealth. A “velvet revolution” will continue to be on the globalist agenda. Uzbekistan remains high on the globalist hit-list, as does Turkmenistan and Belarus. The Turkmenistan Helsinki Foundation for Human Rights states that “Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan [rank] among the world’s least democratic states. In the Economist Intelligence Unit’s Democracy Index 2010, published at the end of the year, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan were fourth and third lowest-placed, respectively…” However, Tajigul Begmedova, head of the Turkmen Helsinki Fund for Human Rights based in Bulgaria, sees hope in the new generation of halfwits emerging, who are too stupid to see beyond the dream of their homeland joining the “new world order” of Hollywood, MTV, Twitter, and consumerism. They, like their counterparts in other former Soviet bloc states, and the current round in North Africa, are the basis for a “velvet revolution.” Begmedova states:

There’s a generation growing up who’ve been educated abroad and experienced freedom. They have a different way of thinking; they cannot accept it when the government behaves in an illogical fashion and they discuss it with their peers.[5]

The report is stated as being “ produced as part of IWPR’s News Briefing Central Asia output, funded by the National Endowment for Democracy.” [6]

Despite the supposed superiority of outlook of the young over their parents and grandparents, as enthusiastically observed by Ms Begmedova, it’s merely the old story of kids rebelling against their elders, in the cock sure belief that they are right and the oldsters are wrong, and they remain oblivious to being nothing more than a new generation of lickspittles for plutocracy.[7]

The Institute for War and Peace Reporting focuses specifically on Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan.[8] The Institute reports on the recent formation of forces that are clearly designed to agitate for a “velvet revolution” in Uzbekistan, stating of the People’s Movement of Uzbekistan, that the movement announced

[p]lans to stage acts of civil disobedience inside Uzbekistan to press their demand for regime change…. Muhammad Solih, whose Erk movement has joined the People’s Movement, was elected to head the group. He told NBCentralAsia that active resistance was bound to be effective. “Events in the Arab world prove this,” he added.[9]

Of particular interest,

Kamoliddin Rabbimov, an Uzbek political analyst living in France, said the People’s Movement differed from early efforts to coordinate opposition in that it had both supporters and financial backing in Europe and North America. He believes intensive publicity campaigns could spark popular protests inside Uzbekistan.[10]

Who these financial backers from European and America are is not difficult to surmise; given that, for a start, IWPR states that it is funded by the National Endowment for Democracy. Like Iran, the secret to Uzbekistan’s survival as a sovereign state might include the awareness of its rulers as to the machinations of the global oligarchy. Hence the Soros projects were closed down in Uzbekistan in 2004, the Government having ordered registration of all international organizations in 2003.[11]

Clampdown on Capitalist Subversion

The Uzbek move against subversive organizations, and the shutting down of Soros, provoked the protests of the US Government, which supports Soros initiatives around the world.[12] Further, this year the Government closed down Human Rights Watch, with Freedom House stating, “HRW is widely regarded as an international standard bearer in providing objective, well-documented research on human rights cases in countries around the world.”[13] Contrary to the description of Human Rights Watch by Freedom Housed, HRW is linked to Soros, the Council on Foreign Relations (CFR), etc.,[14] and service as the means by which a targeted state is demonized through the world news media as a prelude for what often ends in military attack. Freedom House further remarks that it was among the NGOs kicked out by the Uzbeks in 2005.[15]

Hopefully, if the Uzbek government secures foreign investment without having its sovereignty undermined, it will have the revenue to providing funding and other support for dissidents in the USA, and campaign assistance for someone such as Ron Paul. After all, it will only be assisting with the democratic process. It might also take an example from the USA’s democratic heritage and form a State “Committee on Un-Uzbek Activities” to question subversives linked to Soros et al.

The banned organization, Open Society Institute Assistance Foundation–Uzbekistan, had been formed in 1996 and had spent “over $22 million in aid” in Uzbekistan. Putting its oily fingers into education was a major activity. The banning has not stopped Soros however. Actions against the Uzbek state continue via the Central Eurasia Project.[16] Soros works here as elsewhere closely with the International Crisis Group, one of the networks of interlocking globalist organizations promoting “the world velvet revolution.”[17]

Millions for “Regime Change”

The National Endowment for Democracy is a major financier of activities directed against the Uzbek regime. This follows the same pattern that myself and others have documented in regard to “regime change” presently taking place in North Africa.[18] NED funding in regard to Uzbekistan seems to start from 2002.[19] Over the past few years, NED funding has included:

2009: “Human Rights” (legal issues) $58,970

2008: $169,874 “Human Rights” (legal issues)

2007: $97,150 for “human rights activists.” $26,500 to establish an Uzbek newspaper.

2006: “ In FY 2006, the Endowment made grants for democracy-building programs in Uzbekistan totalling $201,960.” Of particular interest was:

Center for International Private Enterprise

To assist a group of Tashkent-based economic consultants with data analysis and preparation of a series of individual sector-specific background papers and policy analyses that will be used by an economic advisory council to develop a menu of economic reform policy options. The advisory council will use the data from the papers to identify and prioritize the economic challenges likely to be faced by a post-Karimov reform government, and engage opposition leaders in a discussion of the socio-economic ramifications of alternative reform policies.[20]

Note that this was to formulate privatization policies once a globalist-approved Government has been installed.

2005: $92,830 for oppositionist media, including “publication of an independent quarterly journal, a twice-weekly electronic newsletter, and public opinion polls.” $112,298, for “Human Rights,” which comprises legal matters. $34,350 “NGO Development,” which means “promoting networking” oppositionist groups.

The Uzbek rulers, like those in Iran,[21] know the score in regard to Soros et al. Hopefully, in seeking out foreign investment, their resolve to keep their nation sovereign will remain firm. With the “democratisation” of the economy (i.e. “privatisation”), inevitably comes the excrescence of decadent American anti-culture, and the inexorable decline of nationhood.

Uzbek, Russian & US Relations

Uzbekistan is of significant importance to the globalists for reasons additional to its natural resources. The earlier US position[22] was replaced in 2005 when Russia and Uzbekistan signed a mutual defense pact.[23] That year the USA was told to shut down its base, the Uzbek leadership being mindful of the US/globalist orchestrated “color revolutions” in Georgia, Ukraine and Kyrgyzstan, as indicated also by the closure of sundry NGOs.[24]

While NED and Soros are predictably major factors in the agitation against Uzbekistan the range of globalist NGOs are again present. The pattern is the same as that played out against Eastern Europe, North Africa, Myanmar, and other states in Central Asia. Again we have Freedom House (one of the outfits banned by Uzbekistan),[25] and the International Republican Institute…;[26] the same rat-pack that has brought “freedom” around the world in the service of predatory capital.

[1] “Investors, Look East?,” Oilprice.com , Issue #94, June 3, 2011.

[5] “Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan Score Poorly in Democracy Ranking,” Institute for War and Peace Reporting, http://iwpr.net/report-news/turkmenistan-uzbekistan-score-poorly-democracy-ranking

[6] Ibid. For the National Endowment for Democracy and how it relates to globalization and the US Government see: K R Bolton, “Tunisian Revolt: another Soros/NED Jack-Up?,” Foreign Policy Journal , January 18, 2011, https://www.foreignpolicyjournal.com/2011/01/18/Tunisian-revolt-another-sorosned-jack-up

[7] For the way by which youthful “rebels” have historically been manipulated by plutocracy, see: K R Bolton, “The Dialectics of Youth Rebellion,” Veritas , Vol. 2: 2, May 2011, St Clements University, pp. 8-15. Also: “Twitterers of the World Revolution: The Digital New-New Left,” Foreign Policy Journal , Feb. 28, 2011, https://www.foreignpolicyjournal.com/2011/02/28/twitterers-of-the-world-revolution-the-digital-new-new-left/

[8] IWPR, “News Briefing Central Asia,” http://iwpr.net/programme/news-briefing-central-asia

[9] IWPR, “New Uzbek Opposition Force Formed,” http://iwpr.net/report-news/new-uzbek-opposition-force-formed

[11] “The decision of the government of Uzbekistan to close the Soros Foundation was political,” Ferghana News Information Agency, April 26, 2004, http://enews.fergananews.com/article.php?id=387

[12] “Uzbek Government Forces Closure of Local Soros Foundation, Uzbek Staff of International Organizations Branded Traitors,” Open Society Foundations, April 18, 2004, http://www.soros.org/newsroom/news/uzbekistan_20040418

[13] Freedom House Press Release, “Freedom House Condemns Closure of Human Rights Watch in Uzbekistan,” March 16, 2011, http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=70&release=1362

[14] For examples of how the supposedly neutral Human Rights Watch is associated with the CFR and Soros, see: K R Bolton, “Myanmar Targeted by Globalists,” Foreign Policy Journal , June 1, 2011, https://www.foreignpolicyjournal.com/2011/06/01/myanmar-targeted-by-globalists

[15] Freedom House Press Release, “Freedom House Condemns Closure of Human Rights Watch in Uzbekistan,” op. cit.

[16] http://www.soros.org/initiatives/cep/focus_areas/uzbekistan

[17] For the interlocking nature of these organizations, see: K R Bolton, “The Globalist Web of Subversion,” Foreign Policy Journal , https://www.foreignpolicyjournal.com/2011/02/07/the-globalist-web-of-subversion/ Also: New Dawn , Special Issue 16pp. 17-30.

Tony Cartalucci, “Naming Names: Your Real Government,” Land Destroyer http://landdestroyer.blogspot.com or New Dawn , op. cit., pp. 35-38.

[18] K R Bolton, “Globalist Web of Subversion, “ op. cit.

[19] National Endowment for Democracy, “Uzbekistan,” http://www.ned.org/search_results.html?cx=008846551274917761505%3A1i0zdvf5gsi&cof=FORID%3A11&q=uzbekistan&sa.x=8&sa.y=12#950

[20] National Endowment for Democracy, “Uzbekistan,” http://www.ned.org/publications/annual-reports/2006-annual-report/eurasia/description-of-2006-grants/uzbekistan

[21] K R Bolton, “Iran: The Next Domino?,” Foreign Policy Journal, Feb. 22, 2011 https://www.foreignpolicyjournal.com/2011/02/22/iran-the-next-domino

Iran had the foresight to ban dozens of subversive globalist organizations.

[22] “Declaration on Strategic Partnership and Cooperation Framework” signed between the USA and Uzbekistan in 2002.

[23] Jyotsna Bakshi, “Russia and Uzbekistan Sign ‘Treaty of Alliance Relations’,” Institute for Defense Studies and Analyses, December 27, 2011, http://www.idsa.in/idsastrategiccomments/RussiaandUzbekistanSignTreatyofAllianceRelations_jbakshi_271205

[24] “The ‘colour’ revolutions in Georgia, Ukraine and in Kyrgyzstan between 2003 and 2005 alarmed the Uzbek authorities about the dangers of a close embrace with the West. They suspected that Western NGOs were seeking to prepare opposition forces as an alternative to the present government and consequently began to place restrictions on the activities of West-aided NGOs.” Jyotsna Bakshi, ibid.

Interestingly, happenings in Uzbekistan demonstrate simmering Sino-Russian rivalry, despite the façade of being aligned. After the US was obliged to shut its base in Uzbekistan, the Chinese made enquiries to take over the base. Russia moved quickly to pre-empt the Chinese. Jyotsna Bakshi, ibid.

[25] Freedom House, “Uzbekistan,” http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?search=Uzbekistan&submit_search=Search&page=287

[26] IRI, Uzbekistan, http://www.iri.org/search/node/uzbekistan

Normal 0 false false false EN-US X-NONE X-NONE

Uzbekistan: an outpost against globalization

By Dr K R Bolton

The Oilprice report states that the reason for the lack of foreign investment until now has been that the country is landlocked, that its currency is “not yet fully convertible,” and that the state “has also pursued a cautious policy with international fiscal institutions…” The Oilprice.com writers add, “but the wisdom of such an approach has been vindicated during the global recession, which largely bypassed Uzbekistan.” [2] Oilprice.com frankly states that when Texas Governor George Bush lobbied with the Uzbek ambassador to get Enron into the country, despite a promising start, Enron was rebuffed, and “Uzbekistan wisely chose not to ingest the Enron Kool-aid.” [3] However other corporations have successfully entered Uzbekistan based on joint ventures with the State. These include: General Motors, Boeing, Coca Cola, Baker Hughes, Honeywell, Nukem, and Hewlett Packard. [4] Oilprice further states that according to Wikileaks , the US Embassy has advised that corporations wanting to invest in Uzbekistan will be assisted to aggressively negotiate in regard to state policy.

The Institute for War and Peace Reporting focuses specifically on Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan. [8] The Institute reports on the recent formation of forces that are clearly designed to agitate for a “velvet revolution” in Uzbekistan, stating of the People’s Movement of Uzbekistan, that the movement announced

The Uzbek move against subversive organizations, and the shutting down of Soros, provoked the protests of the US Government, which supports Soros initiatives around the world. [12] Further, this year the Government closed down Human Rights Watch, with Freedom House stating, “HRW is widely regarded as an international standard bearer in providing objective, well-documented research on human rights cases in countries around the world.” [13] Contrary to the description of Human Rights Watch by Freedom Housed, HRW is linked to Soros, the Council on Foreign Relations (CFR), etc., [14] and service as the means by which a targeted state is demonized through the world news media as a prelude for what often ends in military attack. Freedom House further remarks that it was among the NGOs kicked out by the Uzbeks in 2005. [15]

The banned organization, Open Society Institute Assistance Foundation–Uzbekistan, had been formed in 1996 and had spent “over $22 million in aid” in Uzbekistan. Putting its oily fingers into education was a major activity. The banning has not stopped Soros however. Actions against the Uzbek state continue via the Central Eurasia Project. [16] Soros works here as elsewhere closely with the International Crisis Group, one of the networks of interlocking globalist organizations promoting “the world velvet revolution.” [17]

The National Endowment for Democracy is a major financier of activities directed against the Uzbek regime. This follows the same pattern that myself and others have documented in regard to “regime change” presently taking place in North Africa. [18] NED funding in regard to Uzbekistan seems to start from 2002. [19] Over the past few years, NED funding has included:

2009: “ Human Rights” (legal issues) $58,970

2008: $169,874 “ Human Rights” (legal issues)

The Uzbek rulers, like those in Iran, [21] know the score in regard to Soros et al. Hopefully, in seeking out foreign investment, their resolve to keep their nation sovereign will remain firm. With the “democratisation” of the economy (i.e. “privatisation”), inevitably comes the excrescence of decadent American anti-culture, and the inexorable decline of nationhood.

Uzbekistan is of significant importance to the globalists for reasons additional to its natural resources. The earlier US position [22] was replaced in 2005 when Russia and Uzbekistan signed a mutual defense pact. [23] That year the USA was told to shut down its base, the Uzbek leadership being mindful of the US/globalist orchestrated “color revolutions” in Georgia, Ukraine and Kyrgyzstan, as indicated also by the closure of sundry NGOs. [24]

While NED and Soros are predictably major factors in the agitation against Uzbekistan the range of globalist NGOs are again present. The pattern is the same as that played out against Eastern Europe, North Africa, Myanmar, and other states in Central Asia. Again we have Freedom House (one of the outfits banned by Uzbekistan), [25] and the International Republican Institute…; [26] the same rat-pack that has brought “freedom” around the world in the service of predatory capital.

[23] Jyotsna Bakshi, “ Russia and Uzbekistan Sign ‘Treaty of Alliance Relations’,” Institute for Defense Studies and Analyses, December 27, 2011, http://www.idsa.in/idsastrategiccomments/RussiaandUzbekistanSignTreatyofAllianceRelations_jbakshi_271205

Tags: Ukraine

About the Author

Kerry R Bolton

K R Bolton, Th.D., Ph.D. (Hist. Th.), is a contributing writer for Foreign Policy Journal, Geopolitica.ru, and New Dawn. He is widely published in the scholarly and general media on a variety of subjects. Books include: Artists of the Right; Peron and Peronism; Opposing the Money Lenders; The Banking Swindle; Geopolitics of the Indo-Pacific; Yockey: A Fascist Odyssey; Zionism, Islam and the West; The Decline and Fall of Civilisations; Revolution from Above; Stalin: The Enduring Legacy; The Psychotic Left, Babel Inc.

About The Author

Very informative and interesting article.

Good article. Clearly stated and indicates those who behind all the recent revolutions. Revolts are not for the people, it is only in the interests of the global oligarchy and for some educated population, half of the former soviet member-states have its people education levels among highest in the world, it is obvious and I doubt that they have a change to raise the people against the current stability and sustainable development. All the revolt are not helping, they have destroyed in a few days what had been achieved within the last few decades. I see no logic in them for the countries under the pressure. Democratic games are more like WMD than anything else.

Hmm…bizarre piece about one of the world’s nastiest dictatorships.

All that avoidance of the “international oligarchy” has helped the Uzbek masses remain impoverished and backward.

Get out of Tashkent and get a taste for how 90-+ % of the population lives. Betcha they’d welcome a little globalization.

Incidentally, who’s behind the labor migration movement to get Uzbeks–nearly 15% of the total population–to become slave laborers in Russia and elsewhere?

Dr. Bolton. If you truly beleive that globalization is an evil. You could not be more wrong to use Uzbekistan as a case study. If you of course do not have any financial interest in sugarcoating Uzbek governments actions, whoich duely should and must have been disclosed, this is a very poorly written piece. Compare Uazbekistan to Kazakhstan. The latter was a less developped and less industrilized Republic before the collapse of USSR. Thanks to more liberal economic reforms Kazakhstan is well ahead of building a well off middle class, importance of which for further economic development is well documented. What the uzbek governement has achieved is exactly the opposite. I do not want to speculate wheter they did it on purpose or it was just a result of not so well thought out economic reforms.

Truly yours, another uzbek

This is To–“Uzbek Educated in Abroad”—you dumb -freak your lil-a$$ is bieng educated in a wrong way I have seen an Educated –Baranov Uzbekov takih kak ti ochen mnogo—- Harp—Mol–Baran Thats good enough to Describe you Freak Ti -Baran –pro Kazakhistan tolkaesh tvoi Kazakistan Obosral –ego Kinuli Kak poslednogo Loha san Uzbek emassan–san Mol san

—Uzbek educated abroad—Learn how to speak English Onaini -Amiga-sikaini–Bolasi Ittan Tarkagan– sani–Otan-Onang —-Barandan-tarkashgan va sani shunaka—Challa -savot -Baran kilib Tarbiaylashgan Kallanga-Kutogim —-Esli ne sobrajaesh–Ebalo-zakroi

What Others Are Reading

Information

Author Services

Initiatives

You are accessing a machine-readable page. In order to be human-readable, please install an RSS reader.

All articles published by MDPI are made immediately available worldwide under an open access license. No special permission is required to reuse all or part of the article published by MDPI, including figures and tables. For articles published under an open access Creative Common CC BY license, any part of the article may be reused without permission provided that the original article is clearly cited. For more information, please refer to https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess .

Feature papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. A Feature Paper should be a substantial original Article that involves several techniques or approaches, provides an outlook for future research directions and describes possible research applications.

Feature papers are submitted upon individual invitation or recommendation by the scientific editors and must receive positive feedback from the reviewers.

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

Original Submission Date Received: .

Active Journals
Find a Journal
Proceedings Series
For Authors
For Reviewers
For Editors
For Librarians
For Publishers
For Societies
For Conference Organizers
Open Access Policy
Institutional Open Access Program
Special Issues Guidelines
Editorial Process
Research and Publication Ethics
Article Processing Charges
Testimonials
Preprints.org
SciProfiles
Encyclopedia

Article Menu

Subscribe SciFeed
Recommended Articles
Google Scholar
on Google Scholar
Table of Contents

Find support for a specific problem in the support section of our website.

Please let us know what you think of our products and services.

Visit our dedicated information section to learn more about MDPI.

JSmol Viewer

What are the implications of globalization on sustainability—a comprehensive study.

1. Introduction

2. the kof globalization index (kofgi), 3. sustainability indices, 3.1. human development index (hdi), 3.2. environment sustainability index (esi), 3.3. environmental performance index (epi), 3.4. red list index (rli), 3.5. sustainable development goal index (sdgi).

Establishing Sustainable development goals in the form of a valuable, working device for strategic action.
Supporting national debates on prioritizing basis and formulate SDGs with application plans.
Accompanying efforts to develop of a robust SDG checking structure by the UN Statistical Commission.
Identifying SDG data gaps, requirements for investments in arithmetical capability and research, and new forms of data.

4. Methods and Results

H0: HDI more globalized nations = HDI less globalized countries reject
H0: ESI more globalized nations = ESI less globalized countries reject
H0: EPI more globalized nations = EPI less globalized countries reject
H0: RLI more globalized nations = RLI less globalized countries accept
H0: SDGI more globalized nations = SDGI less globalized countries reject

5. Discussion

6. conclusion, author contributions, conflicts of interest.

Caro, J.M.B.; Golpe, A.A.; Iglesias, J.; Vides, J.C. A new way of measuring the WTI–Brent spread. Globalization, shock persistence and common trends. Energy Econ. 2020 , 85 , 104546. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
Jovanović, M.N. Is globalisation taking us for a ride? J. Econ. Integr. 2010 , 25 , 501–549. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
O’Rourke, K.H. Economic history and contemporary challenges to globalization. J. Econ. Hist. 2019 , 79 , 356–382. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
Van der Meulen Rodgers, Y.; Bebbington, A.; Boone, C.; Dell’Angelo, J.; Platteau, J.P.; Agrawal, A. Experimental approaches in development and poverty alleviation. World Dev. 2020 , 127 , 104807. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
Geels, F.W. Micro-foundations of the multi-level perspective on socio-technical transitions: Developing a multi-dimensional model of agency through crossovers between social constructivism, evolutionary economics and neo-institutional theory. Technol. Forecast. Soc. Chang. 2020 , 152 , 119894. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
Thurner, S.; Klimek, P.; Hanel, R. Schumpeterian economic dynamics as a quantifiable model of evolution. New J. Phys. 2010 , 12 , 075029. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
Lincoln, A.; Adedoyin, O.; Croad, J. Goal 16 of the UN Sustainable Development Agenda and Its Implications for Effective Governance and Sustainability in the Nigerian Banking ; Springer: Berlin, Germany, 2020. [ Google Scholar ]
Nepal, R.; Al Irsyad, M.I.; Nepal, S.K. Tourist arrivals, energy consumption and pollutant emissions in a developing economy–implications for sustainable tourism. Tour. Manag. 2019 , 72 , 145–154. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
Sarker, A.H.; Bornman, J.F.; Marinova, D. A Framework for Integrating Agriculture in Urban Sustainability in Australia. Urban Sci. 2019 , 3 , 50. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
Antonucci, L.; Varriale, S. Unequal Europe, unequal Brexit: How intra-European inequalities shape the unfolding and framing of Brexit. Curr. Sociol. 2020 , 68 , 41–59. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
Schwartz, H.M. States Versus Markets: Understanding the Global Economy ; Macmillan International Higher Education: London, UK, 2019. [ Google Scholar ]
Wadley, D. Population, Globalization, the Market and the Environment. In The City of Grace ; Palgrave Macmillan: Singapore, 2020; pp. 1–12. [ Google Scholar ]
Stiglitz, J.E.; Ocampo, J.A.; Spiegel, S.; Ffrench-Davis, R.; Nayyar, D. Stability with Growth: Macroeconomics, Liberalization and Development ; Oxford University Press on Demand: Oxford, UK, 2006. [ Google Scholar ]
Belk, R. The future of globalization: A comment. Int. Mark. Rev. 2019 , 36 , 545–547. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
Estrada, M.A.R.; Park, D.; Khan, A.; Tahir, M. Is terrorism, poverty, and refugees the dark side of globalization? Qual. Quant. 2019 , 53 , 1823–1835. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
Selwyn, B. Poverty chains and global capitalism. Compet. Chang. 2019 , 23 , 71–97. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
Ushakov, D.; Chich-Jen, S. Global Economy Urbanization and Urban Economies Globalization: Forms, Factors, Results. In Migration and Urbanization: Local Solutions for Global Economic Challenges ; IGI Global: Hershey, PA, USA, 2020; pp. 200–218. [ Google Scholar ]
Ercan, M.A. Regeneration, Heritage and Sustainable Communities in Turkey: Challenges, Complexities and Potentials ; Routledge: London, UK, 2019. [ Google Scholar ]
Ge, Y.; Zhang, K.; Yang, X. A 110-year pollen record of land use and land cover changes in an anthropogenic watershed landscape, eastern China: Understanding past human-environment interactions. Sci. Total Environ. 2019 , 650 , 2906–2918. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
Akinrinola, A.A.; Adebayo, S.B.; Onakpoya, L.U.; Nwaozuru, U.C. Toward Culturally-Inclusive Educational Technology in a Globalized World. In The Roles of Technology and Globalization in Educational Transformation ; IGI Global: Hershey, PA, USA, 2020; pp. 177–194. [ Google Scholar ]
Dreher, A.; Gaston, N.; Martens, P. Measuring Globalization: Gauging Its Consequences ; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2008; pp. 173–178. [ Google Scholar ]
Tisdell Clement, A. Will Bangladesh’s Economic Growth Solve its Environmental Problems? Economics, Ecology and Environment Working Papers 48740 ; University of Queensland, School of Economics: Queensland, Australia, 2002. [ Google Scholar ]
Brand, U.; Görg, C.; Wissen, M. Overcoming neoliberal globalization: Social-ecological transformation from a Polanyian perspective and beyond. Globalizations 2020 , 17 , 161–176. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
Jiang, Y.; Yuan, X. Environmentally Sustainable Industrial Development in China ; Routledge: London, UK, 2020. [ Google Scholar ]
Sano, H.O. How Can a Human Rights-Based Approach Contribute to Poverty Reduction? The Relevance of Human Rights to Sustainable Development Goal One. In Sustainable Development Goals and Human Rights ; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2020; pp. 11–27. [ Google Scholar ]
Goel, R.K.; Ram, R.; Schneider, F.; Potempa, A. International movements of money and men: Impact on the informal economy. J. Econ. Financ. 2020 , 44 , 179–197. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
Gygli, S.; Haelg, F.; Potrafke, N.; Sturm, J.E. The KOF globalisation index–revisited. Rev. Int. Organ. 2019 , 14 , 543–574. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
Rahman, M.M. Environmental degradation: The role of electricity consumption, economic growth and globalisation. J. Environ. Manag. 2020 , 253 , 109742. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
Robins, N.; Trisoglio, A. Restructuring industry for sustainable development. In Policies for a Small Planet ; Routledge: Abingdon-on-Thames, UK, 2019; pp. 157–194. [ Google Scholar ]
Setiawan, A.R.; Velasufah, W. Islamic Perspective Toward Education for Sustainable Development (ESD). 2019. Available online: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336121043_Islamic_Perspective_Toward_Education_for_Sustainable_Development_ESD (accessed on 10 April 2020).
Tamang, J.P.; Cotter, P.D.; Endo, A.; Han, N.S.; Kort, R.; Liu, S.Q.; Mayo, B.; Westerik, N.; Hutkins, R. Fermented foods in a global age: East meets West. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 2020 , 19 , 184–217. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
Nhamo, G.; Mukonza, C. Opportunities for women in the green economy and environmental sectors. In Sustainable Development ; Wiley Online Library: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2020. [ Google Scholar ]
Rani, W.N.M.W.M.; Kamarudin, K.H.; Razak, K.A.; Asmawi, Z.M. Climate Change Adaptation and Disaster Risk Reduction in Urban Development Plans for Resilient Cities. In IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science ; IOP Publishing: Bristol, UK, 2020; Volume 409, No. 1; p. 012024. [ Google Scholar ]
World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future ; Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK, 1987.
Fu, J.; Ng, A.W. Sustainable Energy and Green Finance for a Low-Carbon Economy ; Springer: Berlin, Germany, 2020. [ Google Scholar ]
Bilgili, F.; Ulucak, R.; Koçak, E.; İlkay, S.Ç. Does globalization matter for environmental sustainability? Empirical investigation for Turkey by Markov regime switching models. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2019 , 27 , 1087–1100. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
Parnell, S. Globalization and sustainable development: At the urban crossroad. Eur. J. Dev. Res. 2018 , 30 , 169–171. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
Yay, G.G.; Aksoy, T. Globalization and the welfare state. Qual. Quant. 2018 , 52 , 1015–1040. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
Human Development Indices: A Statistical Update 2018 ; United Nations Development Programme (UNDP): New York, NY, USA, 2018.
Human Development Report Dashboard 4: Environmental Sustainability ; United Nations Development Programme (UNDP): New York, NY, USA, 2018.
Wendling, Z.A.; Emerson, J.W.; Esty, D.C.; Levy, M.A.; De Sherbinin, A. Environmental performance index. In Yale Center for Environmental Law & Policy ; Yale University: New Haven, CT, USA, 2018. [ Google Scholar ]
IUCN. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2019-2. Available online: http://www.iucnredlist.org (accessed on 10 April 2019).
Agbedahin, A.V. Sustainable development, Education for Sustainable Development, and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development: Emergence, efficacy, eminence, and future. Sustain. Dev. 2019 , 27 , 669–680. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
Nerini, F.F.; Sovacool, B.; Hughes, N.; Cozzi, L.; Cosgrave, E.; Howells, M.; Tavoni, M.; Tomei, J.; Zerriffi, H.; Milligan, B. Connecting climate action with other sustainable development goals. Nat. Sustain. 2019 , 2 , 674–680. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
Salvia, A.L.; Leal Filho, W.; Brandli, L.L.; Griebeler, J.S. Assessing research trends related to Sustainable Development Goals: Local and global issues. J. Clean. Prod. 2019 , 208 , 841–849. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
Scholz, I. Reflecting on the Right to Development from the Perspective of Global Environmental Change and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. In Sustainable Development Goals and Human Rights ; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2020; pp. 191–206. [ Google Scholar ]
Sachs, J.; Schmidt-Traub, G.; Kroll, C.; Lafortune, G.; Fuller, G. Sustainable Development Report 2019 ; Bertelsmann Stiftung and Sustainable Development Solutions Network (SDSN): New York, NY, USA, 2019. [ Google Scholar ]

Globalization Index, de Facto	Weights	Globalization Index, de Jure	Weights


Trade in goods	38.8	Trade regulations	26.8
Trade in services	44.7	Trade taxes	24.4
Trade partner diversification	16.5	Tariffs	25.6
		Trade agreements	23.2

Foreign direct investment	26.7	Investment restrictions	33.3
Portfolio investment	16.5	Capital account openness 1	38.5
International debt	27.6	Capital account openness 2	28.2
International reserves	2.1
International income payments	27.1


International voice traffic	20.8	Telephone subscriptions	39.9
Transfers	21.9	Freedom to visit	32.7
International tourism	21.0	International airports	27.4
Migration	17.2
International students	19.1

Used internet bandwidth	37.2	Television	36.8
International patents	28.3	Internet user	42.6
High technology exports	34.5	Press freedom	20.6

Trade in cultural goods	28.1	Gender parity	24.7
Trademark applications	9.7	Expenditure on education	41.4
Trade in personal services	24.6	Civil freedom	33.9
McDonald’s restaurant	21.6
IKEA stores	16.0

Embassies	36.5	International organisations	36.2
UN peace keeping missions	25.7	International treaties	33.4
International NGOs	37.8	Number of partners in investment treaties	30.4

Top 10	Bottom 10
Belgium	Bhutan
Netherlands	Guinea-Bissau
Switzerland	Togo
Sweden	Chad
Austria	Myanmar
Denmark	Burundi
France	Haiti
United Kingdom	Central African Republic
Germany	Eritrea
Finland	Lithuania

	HDI	ESI	EPI	RLI	SDGI
KOFGI	0.8285 **	−0.1107	−0.4817 **	0.1587 *	0.7842 **
KOFGI domains
Economical	0.7028 **	−0.1202	−0.4429 **	0.1635 *	0.6310 **
Social	0.9107 **	−0.2472 **	−0.4787 **	0.1169	0.8132 **
Political	0.4766 **	0.0798	−0.3549 **	0.1430	0.5471 **

	HDI	ESI	EPI	RLI	SDGI
constant	0.32 **	80.29 **	36.38 **	0.82 **	42.23 **
Coefficient β	0.01 **	0.11	0.30 **	0.00	0.35 **
R-square	0.6020	0.0088	0.2196	0.0088	0.5365

	HDI	ESI	EPI	RLI	SDGI
t	−14.04 **	−2.36 *	−5.30 **	−0.66	−13.04 **

Share and Cite

Tang, S.; Wang, Z.; Yang, G.; Tang, W. What Are the Implications of Globalization on Sustainability?—A Comprehensive Study. Sustainability 2020 , 12 , 3411. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12083411

Tang S, Wang Z, Yang G, Tang W. What Are the Implications of Globalization on Sustainability?—A Comprehensive Study. Sustainability . 2020; 12(8):3411. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12083411

Tang, Sai, Zhuolin Wang, Gengqi Yang, and Wenwen Tang. 2020. "What Are the Implications of Globalization on Sustainability?—A Comprehensive Study" Sustainability 12, no. 8: 3411. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12083411

Article Metrics

Article access statistics, further information, mdpi initiatives, follow mdpi.

Subscribe to receive issue release notifications and newsletters from MDPI journals

Tools and Resources
Customer Services
Original Language Spotlight
Alternative and Non-formal Education
Cognition, Emotion, and Learning
Curriculum and Pedagogy
Education and Society
Education, Change, and Development
Education, Cultures, and Ethnicities
Education, Gender, and Sexualities
Education, Health, and Social Services
Educational Administration and Leadership
Educational History
Educational Politics and Policy
Educational Purposes and Ideals
Educational Systems
Educational Theories and Philosophies
Globalization, Economics, and Education
Languages and Literacies
Professional Learning and Development
Research and Assessment Methods
Technology and Education
Share Facebook LinkedIn Twitter

Article contents

Globalization and education.

Liz Jackson Liz Jackson University of Hong Kong
https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.013.52
Published online: 26 October 2016

Few would deny that processes of globalization have impacted education around the world in many important ways. Yet the term “globalization” is relatively new, and its meaning or nature, conceptualization, and impact remain essentially contested within the educational research community. There is no global consensus on the exact time period of its occurrence or its most significant shaping processes, from those who focus on its social and cultural framings to those that hold global political-economic systems or transnational social actors as most influential. Intersecting questions also arise regarding whether its influence on human communities and the world should be conceived of as mostly good or mostly bad, which have significant implications for debates regarding the relationship between globalization and education. Competing understandings of globalization also undergird diverse methodologies and perspectives in expanding fields of research into the relationship between education and globalization.

There are many ways to frame the relationship of globalization and education. Scholars often pursue the topic by examining globalization’s perceived impact on education, as in many cases global convergence around educational policies, practices, and values has been observed in the early 21st century. Yet educational borrowing and transferal remains unstraightforward in practice, as educational and cultural differences across social contexts remain, while ultimate ends of education (such as math competencies versus moral cultivation) are essentially contested. Clearly, specificity is important to understand globalization in relation to education. As with globalization generally, globalization in education cannot be merely described as harmful or beneficial, but depends on one’s position, perspective, values, and priorities.

Education and educators’ impacts on globalization also remain a worthwhile focus of exploration in research and theorization. Educators do not merely react to globalization and related processes, but purposefully interact with them, as they prepare their students to respond to challenges and opportunities posed by processes associated with globalization. As cultural and political-economic considerations remain crucial in understanding globalization and education, positionality and research ethics and reflexivity remain important research concerns, to understand globalization not just as homogeneity or oppressive top-down features, but as complex and dynamic local and global intersections of people, ideas, and goods, with unclear impacts in the future.

globalization
economic integration
education borrowing
global studies in education
comparative education
education development

Few would deny that processes of globalization have impacted education around the world in many important ways. Yet the term “globalization” is relatively new, and its meaning or nature, conceptualization, and impact remain essentially contested within the educational research community. Competing understandings of globalization undergird diverse methodologies and perspectives in the expanding web of fields researching the relationship between education and globalization examined below. The area of educational research which exploded at the turn of the 21st century requires a holistic view. Rather than take sides within this contentious field, it is useful to examine major debates and trends, and indicate where readers can learn more about particular specialist areas within the field and other relevant strands of research.

The first part below considers the development of the theorization and conceptualization of globalization and debates about its impact that are relevant to education. The next section examines the relationship between education and globalization as explored by the educational research community. There are many ways to frame the relationship between globalization and education. First explored here is the way that globalization can be seen to impact education, as global processes and practices have been observed to influence many educational systems’ policies and structures; values and ideals; pedagogy; curriculum and assessment; as well as broader conceptualizations of teacher and learner, and the good life. However, there is also a push in the other direction—through global citizenship education, education for sustainable development, and related trends—to understand education and educators as shapers of globalization, so these views are also explored here. The last section highlights relevant research directions.

The Emergence of Globalization(s)

At the broadest level, globalization can be defined as a process or condition of the cultural, political, economic, and technological meeting and mixing of people, ideas, and resources, across local, national, and regional borders, which has been largely perceived to have increased in intensity and scale during the late 20th and early 21st centuries. However, there is no global consensus on the exact time period of its occurrence, or its most significant shaping processes, from social and cultural framings to those that hold global political-economic systems or transnational social actors as most influential. Intersecting questions also arise regarding whether its influence on human communities and the world should be conceived as mostly good or mostly bad, which have clear and significant implications for understanding debates regarding the relationship between globalization and education.

Conceptualizing Globalization

Globalization is a relatively recent concept in scholarly research, becoming popular in public, academic, and educational discourse only in the 1980s. However, many leading scholars of globalization have argued that the major causes or shapers of globalization, particularly the movement and mixing of elements beyond a local or national level, is at least many centuries old; others frame globalization as representing processes inherent to the human experience, within a 5,000–10,000-year time frame. 1 Conceptualizations of globalization have typically highlighted cultural, political-economic, and/or technological aspects of these processes, with different researchers emphasizing and framing the relationships among these different aspects in diverse ways in their theories.

Cultural framings: Emphasizing the cultural rather than economic or political aspects of globalization, Roland Robertson pinpointed the occurrence of globalization as part of the process of modernity in Europe (though clearly similar processes were occurring in many parts of the world), particularly a growing mutual recognition among nationality-based communities. 2 As people began identifying with larger groups, beyond their family, clan, or tribe, “relativization” took place, as people saw others in respective outside communities similarly developing national or national-like identities. 3 Through identifying their own societies as akin to those of outsiders, people began measuring their cultural and political orders according to a broader, international schema, and opening their eyes to transnational inspirations for internal social change.

Upon mutual recognition of nations, kingdoms, and the like as larger communities that do not include all of humanity, “emulation” stemming from comparison of the local to the external was often a next step. 4 While most people and communities resisted, dismissed, or denied the possibility of a global human collectivity, they nonetheless compared their own cultures and lives with those beyond their borders. Many world leaders across Eurasia looked at other “civilizations” with curiosity, and began increasing intercultural and international interactions to benefit from cultural mixing, through trade, translation of knowledge, and more. With emulation and relativization also came a sense of a global standard of values, for goods and resources, and for the behavior and organization of individuals and groups in societies, though ethnocentrism and xenophobia was also often a part of such “global” comparison. 5

Political-economic framings: In political theory and popular understanding, nationalism has been a universalizing discourse in the modern era, wherein individuals around the world have been understood to belong to and identify primarily with largely mutually exclusive national or nation-state “imagined communities.” 6 In this context, appreciation for and extensive investigation of extranational and international politics and globalization were precluded for a long time in part due to the power of nationalistic approaches. However, along with the rise historically of nationalist and patriotic political discourse, theories of cosmopolitanism also emerged. Modern cosmopolitanism as a concept unfolded particularly in the liberalism of Immanuel Kant, who argued for a spirit of “world citizenship” toward “perpetual peace,” wherein people recognize themselves as citizens of the world. 7 Martha Nussbaum locates cosmopolitanism’s roots in the more distant past, however, observing Diogenes the Cynic (ca. 404–323 bce ) in Ancient Greece famously identifying as “a citizen of the world.” 8 This suggests that realization of commonality, common humanity, and the risks of patriotism and nationalism as responses to relativization and emulation have enabled at least a “thin” kind of global consciousness for a very long time, as a precursor to today’s popular awareness of globalization, even if such a global consciousness was in ancient history framed within regional rather than planetary discourse.

In the same way as culturally oriented globalization scholars, those theorizing from an economic and/or political perspective conceive the processes of globalization emerging most substantively in the 15th and 16th centuries, through the development of the capitalist world economic system and the growth of British- and European-based empires holding vast regions of land in Africa, Asia, and the Americas as colonies to enhance trade and consumption within empire capitals. According to Immanuel Wallerstein’s world system theory, which emerged before globalization theory, in the 1970s, the capitalist world economic system is one of the most essential framing elements of the human experience around the world in the modern (or postmodern) era. 9 Interaction across societies primarily for economic purposes, “ not bounded by a unitary political structure,” characterizes the world economy, as well as a capitalist order, which conceives the main purpose of international economic exchange as being the endless generation and accumulation of capital. 10 A kind of global logic was therein introduced, which has expanded around the globe as we now see ourselves as located within an international financial system.

Though some identify world system theory as an alternative or precursor to globalization theories (given Wallerstein’s own writing, which distinguished his view from globalization views 11 ), its focus on a kind of planetary global logic interrelates with globalization theories emerging in the 1980s and 1990s. 12 Additionally, its own force and popularity in public and academic discussions enabled the kind of global consciousness and sense of global interrelation of people which we can regard as major assumptions underpinning the major political-economic theories of globalization and the social imaginary of globalization 13 that came after.

Globalization emerged within common discourse as the process of international economic and political integration and interdependency was seen to deepen and intensify during and after the Cold War era of international relations. At that time, global ideologies were perceived which spanned diverse cultures and nation-states, while global economic and military interdependency became undeniable facts of the human condition. Thus, taking world systems theory as a starting point, global capitalism models have theorized the contemporary economic system, recognizing aspects of world society not well suited to the previously popular nationalistic ways of thinking about international affairs. Leslie Sklair 14 and William Robinson 15 highlighted the transnational layer of capitalistic economic activity, including practices, actors and social classes, and ideologies of international production and trade, elaborated by Robinson as “an emergent transnational state apparatus,” a postnational or extranational ideological, political, and practical system for societies, individuals, and groups to interact in the global space beyond political borders. 16 Globalization is thus basically understood as a process or condition of contemporary human life, at the broadest level, rather than a single event or activity.

Technological framings: In the 1980s and 1990s, the impact of technology on many people’s lives, beliefs, and activities rose tremendously, altering the global political economy by adding an intensity of transnational communication and (financial and information) trading capabilities. Manuel Castells argued that technological advancements forever altered the economy by creating networks of synchronous or near-synchronous communication and trade of information. 17 Anthony Giddens likewise observed globalization’s essence as “time-space distanciation”: “the intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa.” 18 As information became present at hand with the widespread use of the Internet, a postindustrial society has also been recognized as a feature of globalization, wherein skills and knowledge to manipulate data and networks become more valuable than producing goods or trading material resources.

Today, globalization is increasingly understood as having interrelating cultural, political-economic, and technological dimensions, and theorists have thus developed conceptualizations and articulations of globalization that work to emphasize the ways that these aspects intersect in human experience. Arjun Appadurai’s conception of global flows frames globalization as taking place as interactive movements or waves of interlinked practices, people, resources, and ideologies: ethnoscapes, mediascapes, technoscapes, finanscapes, and ideoscapes. 19 Ethnoscapes are waves of people moving across cultures and borders, while mediascapes are moving local, national, and international constructions of information and images. Technoscapes enable (and limit) interactions of peoples, cultures, and resources through technology, while finanscapes reflect intersection values and valuations; human, capital, and national resources; and more. Ideoscapes reflect competing, interacting, reconstructing ideologies, cultures, belief systems, and understandings of the world and humanity. Through these interactive processes, people, things, and ideas move and move each other, around the world. 20

Evaluating Globalization

While the explanatory function of Appadurai’s vision of globalization’s intersecting dimensions is highlighted above, many theories of globalization emphasize normative positions in relation to the perceived impact of global and transnational processes and practices on humanity and the planet. Normative views of globalization may be framed as skeptical , globalist , or transformationalist . As Fazal Rizvi and Bob Lingard note, these are ideal types, rather than clearly demarcated practical parties or camps of theorists, though they have become familiar and themselves a part of the social imaginary of globalization (that is, the way globalization is perceived in normative and empirical ways by ordinary people rather than researchers). 21 The positions are also reflected in the many educational discourses relating to globalization, despite their ideological rather than simply empirical content.

Skeptical views: Approaches to globalization in research that are described as skeptical may question or problematize globalization discourse in one of two different ways. The first type of skepticism questions the significance of globalization. The second kind of skepticism tends to embrace the idea of globalization, but regards its impact on people, communities, and/or the planet as negative or risky, overall.

As discussed here, global or international processes are hardly new, while globalization became a buzzword only in the last decades of the 20th century. Thus a first type of skeptic may charge that proponents of globalization or globalization theory are emphasizing the newness of global processes for ulterior motives, as a manner of gaining attention for their work, celebrating that which should instead be seen as problematic capitalist economic relations, for example. Alternatively, some argue that the focus on globalization in research, theorization, and popular discourse fails to recognize the agency of people and communities as actors in the world today, and for this reason should be avoided and replaced by a focus on the “transnational.” As Michael Peter Smith articulates, ordinary individual people, nation-states, and their practices remain important within the so-called global system; a theory of faceless, ahistorical globalization naturalizes global processes and precludes substantive elaboration of how human (and national) actors have played and continue to play primary roles in the world through processes of knowledge and value construction, and through interpersonal and transnational activities. 22

The second strand of globalization skepticism might be referred to as antiglobalist or antiglobalization positions. Thinkers in this vein regard globalization as a mark of our times, but highlight the perceived negative impacts of globalization on people and communities. Culturally, this can include homogenization and loss of indigenous knowledge, and ways of life, or cultural clashes that are seen to arise out of the processes of relativization and emulation in some cases. George Ritzer coined the term “McDonaldization” to refer to the problematic elements of the rise of a so-called global culture. 23 More than simply the proliferation of McDonalds fast-food restaurants around the world, McDonaldization, according to Ritzer, includes a valuation of efficiency over humanity in production and consumption practices, a focus on quantity over quality, and control and technology over creativity and culture. Global culture is seen as a negative by others who conceive it as mainly the product of a naïve cultural elite of international scholars and business people, in contrast with “low-end globalization,” which is the harsher realities faced by the vast majority of people not involved in international finance, diplomacy, or academic research. 24

Alternatively, Benjamin Barber 25 and Samuel Huntington 26 have focused on “Jihad versus McWorld” and the “clash of civilizations,” respectively, as cultures can be seen to mix in negative and unfriendly ways in the context of globalization. Although Francis Fukuyama and other hopeful globalists perceived a globalization of Western liberal democracy at the turn of the 21st century, 27 unforeseen global challenges such as terrorism have fueled popular claims by Barber and Huntington that cultural differences across major “civilizations” (international ideological groupings), particularly of liberal Western civilization and fundamentalist Islam, preclude their peaceful relativization, homogenization, and/or hybridization, and instead function to increase violent interactions of terrorism and war.

Similarly, but moving away from cultural aspects of globalization, Ulrich Beck highlighted risk as essential to understanding globalization, as societies face new problems that may be related to economy or even public health, and as their interdependencies with others deepen and increase. 28 Beck gave the example of Mad Cow disease (bovine spongiform encephalopathy) as one instance where much greater and more broadly distributed risks have been created through global economic and political processes. Skeptical economic theories of globalization likewise highlight how new forms of inequality emerge as global classes and labor markets are created. For instance, Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri argue that a faceless power impersonally oppresses grassroots people despite the so-called productivity of globalization (that is, the growth of capital it enables) from a capitalist economic orientation. 29 It is this faceless but perceived inhumane power that has fueled globalization protests, particularly of the meetings of the World Trade Organization in the 1990s and 2000s, in the United States and Europe.

In light of such concerns, Walden Bello argued for “deglobalization,” a reaction and response by people that aims to fight against globalization and reorient communities to local places and local lifestyles. Bello endorsed a radical shift to a decentralized, pluralistic system of governance from a political-economic perspective. 30 Similarly, Colin Hines argues for localization, reclaiming control over local economies that should become as diverse as possible to rebuild stability within communities. 31 Such ideas have found a broad audience, as movements to “buy local” and “support local workers” have spread around the world rapidly in the 2000s.

Globalist views: Globalists include researchers and advocates who highlight the benefits of globalization to different communities and in various areas of life, often regarding it as necessary or natural. Capitalist theories of globalization regard it as ideal for production and consumption, as greater specialism around the world increases efficiency. 32 The productive power of globalization is also highlighted by Giddens, who sees the potential for global inclusivity and enhanced creative dialogue arising (at least in part) from global processes. 33 In contrast with neoliberal (pro-capitalism) policies, Giddens propagated the mixture of the market and state interventions (socialism and Keynesian economy), and believed that economic policies with socially inclusive ideas would influence social and educational policies and thus promote enhanced social development.

The rise of global culture enhances the means for people to connect with one another to improve life and give it greater meaning, and can increase mutual understanding. As democracy becomes popular around the world as a result of global communication processes, Scott Burchill has argued that universal human rights can be achieved to enhance global freedom in the near future. 34 Joseph Stiglitz likewise envisioned a democratizing globalization that can include developing countries on an equal basis and transform “economic beings” to “human beings” with values of community and social justice. 35 Relatedly, some globalists contend against skeptics that cultural and economic-political or ideological hybridity and “glocalization,” as well as homogenization or cultural clashes, often can and do take place. Under glocalization , understood as local-level globalization processes (rather than top-down intervention), local actors interact dynamically with, and are not merely oppressed by, ideas, products, things, and practices from outside and beyond. Thus, while we can find instances of “Jihad” and “McWorld,” so too can we find Muslims enjoying fast food, Westerners enjoying insights and activities from Muslim and Eastern communities, and a variety of related intercultural dialogues and a dynamic reorganization of cultural and social life harmoniously taking place.

Transformationalist views: Globalization is increasingly seen by educators (among others) around the globe to have both positive and negative impacts on communities and individuals. Thus, most scholars today hold nuanced, middle positions between skepticism and globalism, such as David Held and Anthony McGrew’s transformationalist stance. 36 As Rizvi and Lingard note, globalization processes have material consequences in the world that few would flatly deny, while people increasingly do see themselves as interconnected around the globe, by technology, trade, and more. 37 On the other hand, glocalization is often a mixed blessing, from a comparative standpoint. Global processes do not happen outside of political and economic contexts, and while some people clearly benefit from them, others may not appear to benefit from or desire processes and conditions related to globalization.

Thus, Rizvi and Lingard identify globalization “as an empirical fact that describes the profound shifts that are taking place in the world; as an ideology that masks various expression of power and a range of political interests; and as a social imaginary that expresses the sense people have of their own identity and how it relates to the rest of the world, and … their aspirations and expectations.” 38 Such an understanding of globalization enables its continuous evaluation in terms of dynamic interrelated practices, processes, and ideas, as experienced and engaged with by people and groups within complex transnational webs of organization. Understandings of globalization thus link to education in normative and empirical ways within research. It is to the relationship of globalization to education that we now turn.

Historical Background

Globalization and education are highly interrelated from a historical view. At the most basic level, historical processes that many identify as essential precursors to political-economic globalization during the late modern colonial and imperialist eras influenced the development and rise of mass education. Thus, what we commonly see around the world today as education, mass schooling of children, could be regarded as a first instance of globalization’s impact on education, as in many non-Western contexts traditional education had been conceived as small-scale, local community-based, and as vocational or apprenticeship education, and/or religious training. 39 In much of Africa, Asia, the Middle East, and the indigenous Americas and Australasia, institutionalized formal schools emerged for the first time within colonial or (often intersecting) missionary projects, for local elite youth and children of expatriate officials.

The first educational scholarship with a global character from a historical point of view would thus be research related to colonial educational projects, such as in India, Africa, and East Asia, which served to create elite local communities to serve colonial officials, train local people to work in economic industries benefiting the colony, and for preservation of the status quo. Most today would describe this education as not part of an overall development project belonging to local communities, but as a foreign intervention for global empire maintenance or social control. As postcolonial educational theorists such as Paulo Freire have seen it, this education sought to remove and dismiss local culture as inferior, and deny local community needs for the sake of power consolidation of elites, and it ultimately served as a system of oppression on psychological, cultural, and material levels. 40 It has been associated by diverse cultural theorists within and outside the educational field with the loss of indigenous language and knowledge production, with moral and political inculcation, and with the spread of English as an elite language of communication across the globe. 41

Massification of education in the service of local communities in most developing regions roughly intersected with the period after the Second World War and in the context of national independence movements, wherein nationally based communities reorganized as politically autonomous nation-states (possibly in collaboration with former colonial parties). In 1945 , the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) emerged, as the United Nations recognized education as critical for future global peace and prosperity, preservation of cultural diversity, and global progress toward stability, economic flourishing, and human rights. UNESCO has advocated for enhancement of quality and access to education around the world through facilitating the transnational distribution of educational resources, establishing (the discourse of) a global human right to education, promoting international transferability of educational and teaching credentials, developing mechanisms for measuring educational achievement across countries and regions, and supporting national and regional scientific and cultural developments. 42 The World Bank, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), and United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) have engaged in similar work.

Thus, the first modern global educational research was that conducted by bodies affiliated with or housed under UNESCO, such as the International Bureau of Education, the UNESCO Institute for Statistics, and the International Institute of Educational Planning, which are regarded as foundational bodies sponsoring international and comparative research. In research universities, educational borrowing across international borders became one significant topic of research for an emerging field of scholars identified as comparative educational researchers. Comparative education became a major field of educational inquiry in the first half of the 20th century, and expanded in the 1950s and 1960s. 43 Comparative educational research then focused on aiding developing countries’ education and improving domestic education through cross-national examinations of educational models and achievement. Today, comparative education remains one major field among others that focuses on globalization and education, including international education and global studies in education.

Globalization as a contemporary condition or process clearly shapes education around the globe, in terms of policies and values; curriculum and assessment; pedagogy; educational organization and leadership; conceptions of the learner, the teacher, and the good life; and more. Though, following the legacy of the primacy of a nation-state and systems-theory levels of analysis, it is traditionally conceived that educational ideas and changes move from the top, such as from UNESCO and related bodies and leading societies, to the developing world, we find that often glocalization and hybridity, rather than simple borrowing, are taking place. On the other hand, education is also held by scholars and political leaders to be a key to enhancing the modern (or postmodern) human condition, as a symbol of progress of the global human community, realized as global citizenship education, education for sustainable development, and related initiatives. 44 The next subsections consider how globalization processes have been explored in educational research as shapers of education, and how education and educators can also be seen to influence globalization.

Research on Globalization’s Impact on Education

Global and transnational processes and practices have been observed to influence and impact various aspects of contemporary education within many geographical contexts, and thus the fields of research related to education and globalization are vast: they are not contained simply within one field or subfield, but can be seen to cross subdisciplinary borders, in policy studies, curriculum, pedagogy, higher education studies, assessment, and more. As mentioned previously, modern education can itself be seen as one most basic instance of globalization, connected to increased interdependency of communities around the world in economic and political affairs first associated with imperialism and colonialism, and more recently with the capitalist world economy. And as the modern educational system cannot be seen as removed or sealed off from cultural and political-economic processes involved in most conceptualizations of globalization, the impacts of globalization processes upon education are often considered wide-ranging, though many are also controversial.

Major trends: From a functionalist perspective, the globalization of educational systems has been influenced by new demands and desires for educational transferability, of students and educators. In place of dichotomous systems in terms of academic levels and credentialing, curriculum, and assessment, increasing convergence can be observed today, as it is recognized that standardization makes movement of people in education across societies more readily feasible, and that such movement of people can enhance education in a number of ways (to achieve diversity, to increase specialization and the promotion of dedicated research centers, to enhance global employability, and so on). 45 Thus, the mobility and paths of movement of students and academics, for education and better life opportunities, have been a rapidly expanding area of research. A related phenomenon is that of offshore university and school campuses—the mobility of educational institutions to attract and recruit new students (and collect fees), such as New York University in Abu Dhabi and Shanghai. By implication, education is often perceived as becoming more standardized around the globe, though hybridity can also be observed at the micro level.

How economic integration under globalization impacts local educational systems has been traced by Rizvi and Lingard. 46 As they note, from a broad view, the promotion of neoliberal values in the context of financial adjustment and restructuring of poorer countries under trade and debt agreements led by intergovernmental organizations, most notably the OECD, encouraged, first, fiscal discipline in educational funding (particularly impacting the payment of educators in many regions) and, second, the redistribution of funds to areas of education seen as more economically productive, namely primary education, and to efforts at privatization and deregulation of education. While the educational values of countries can and do vary, from democracy and peace, to social justice and equity, and so on, Rizvi and Lingard also observed that social and economic efficiency views have become dominant within governments and their educational policy units. 47 Though human capital theory has always supported the view that individuals gain proportionately according to the investment in their education and training, this view has become globalized in recent decades to emphasize how whole societies can flourish under economic interdependency via enhanced education.

These policy-level perspectives have had serious implications for how knowledge and thus curriculum are increasingly perceived. As mentioned previously, skills for gaining knowledge have taken precedent over knowledge accumulation, with the rise of technology and postindustrial economies. In relation, “lifelong learning,” learning to be adaptive to challenges outside the classroom and not merely to gain academic disciplinary knowledge, has become a focal point for education systems around the globe in the era of globalization. 48 Along with privatization of education, as markets are seen as more efficient than government systems of provision, models of educational choice and educational consumption have become normalized as alternatives to the historical status quo of traditional academic or intellectual, teacher-centered models. Meanwhile, the globalization of educational testing—that is, the use of the same tests across societies around the world—has had a tremendous impact on local pedagogies, assessment, and curricula the world over. Though in each country decision-making structures are not exactly the same, many societies face pressure to focus on math, science, and languages over other subjects, as a result of the primacy of standardized testing to measure and evaluate educational achievement and the effectiveness of educational systems. 49

However, there remains controversy over what education is the best in the context of relativization and emulation of educational practices and students, and therefore the 2010s have seen extraordinary transfers of educational approaches, not just from core societies to peripheral or developing areas, but significant horizontal movements of educational philosophies and practices from West to East and East to West. With the rise of global standardized tests such as the OECD’s Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), educational discourse in Western societies has increasingly emphasized the need to reorient education to East Asian models (such as Singapore or Shanghai), seen as victors of the tests. 50 On the other hand, many see Finland’s educational system as ideal in relation to its economic integration in society and focus on equity in structure and orientation, and thus educators in the Middle East, East Asia, and the United States have also been seen to consider emulating Finnish education in the 2010s. 51

Evaluations: From a normative point of view, some regard changes to local education in many contexts brought about by globalization as harmful and risky. Freire’s postcolonial view remains salient to those who remain concerned that local languages and indigenous cultural preservation are being sacrificed for elite national and international interests. 52 There can be no doubt that language diversity has been decreasing over time, while indigenous knowledge is being reframed within globalist culture as irrelevant to individual youths’ material needs. 53 Many are additionally skeptical of the sometimes uncritical adoption of educational practices, policies, and discourse from one region of the globe to another. In many countries in Africa and the Middle East, ideas and curricula are borrowed from the United Kingdom, the United States, or Finland in an apparently hasty manner, only to be discarded for the next reform, when it is not found to fit neatly and efficiently within the local educational context (for instance, given local educational values, structures and organizations, and educator and student views). 54 Others argue, in parallel to globalization skeptics, that globalization’s major impact on education has actually been the promotion of a thin layer of aspirational, cosmopolitan values among global cultural elites, who largely overlook the realities, problems, and challenges many face. 55

On the other hand, the case for globalization as a general enhancer of education worldwide has compelling evidence as well. Due to the work of UNESCO, the OECD, and related organizations, educational attainment has become more equitable globally, by nation, race, gender, class, and other markers of social inequality; and educational access has been recognized as positively aligned with personal and national economic improvement, according to quantitative educational researchers. 56 (David Hill, Nigel Greaves, and Alpesh Maisuria argue from a Marxist viewpoint that education in conjunction with global capitalism reinforces rather than decreases inequality and inequity; yet they also note that capitalism can be and often has been successfully regulated to diminish rather than increase inequality generally across countries. 57 ) As education has been effectively conceived as a human right in the era of globalization, societies with historically uneven access to education are on track to systematically enhance educational quality and access.

Changes to the way knowledge and the learner have been conceived, particularly with the rise of ubiquitous technology, are also often regarded as positive overall. People around the world have more access to information than ever before with the mass use of the Internet, and students of all ages can access massive open online courses (MOOCs); dynamic, data-rich online encyclopedias; and communities of like-minded scholars through social networks and forums. 58 In brick-and-mortar classrooms, educators and students are more diverse than ever due to enhanced educational mobility, and both are exposed to a greater variety of ideas and perspectives that can enhance learning for all participants. Credentials can be earned from reputable universities online, with supervision systems organized by leading scholars in global studies in education in many cases. Students have more choices when it comes to learning independently or alongside peers, mentors, or experts, in a range of disciplines, vocations, and fields.

The truth regarding how globalization processes and practices are impacting contemporary education no doubt lies in focusing somewhere in between the promises and the risks, depending on the context in question: the society, the educational level, the particular community, and so on. Particularly with regard to the proposed benefits of interconnectivity and networked ubiquitous knowledge spurred by technology, critics contend that the promise of globalization for enhancing education has been severely overrated. Elites remain most able to utilize online courses and use technologies due to remaining inequalities in material and human resources. 59 At local levels, globalization in education (more typically discussed as internationalization) remains contentious in many societies, as local values, local students and educators, and local educational trends can at times be positioned as at odds with the priorities of globalization, of internationalizing curricula, faculty, and student bodies. As part of the social imaginary of globalization, international diversity can become a buzzword, while cultural differences across communities can result in international students and faculty members becoming ghettoized on campus. 60 International exchanges of youth and educators for global citizenship education can reflect political and economic differences between communities, not merely harmonious interconnection and mutual appreciation. 61 In this context of growing ambivalence, education and educators are seen increasingly as part of the solution to the problems and challenges of the contemporary world that are associated with globalization, as educators can respond to such issues in a proactive rather than a passive way, to ensure globalization’s challenges do not exceed its benefits to individuals and communities.

Education’s Potential Impact on Globalization

As globalization is increasingly regarded with ambivalence in relation to the perceived impact of global and transnational actors and processes on local educational systems, educators are increasingly asked not to respond passively to globalization, through enacting internationalization and global economic agendas or echoing simplistic conceptualizations or evaluations of globalization via their curriculum. Instead, education has been reframed in the global era as something youth needs, not just to accept globalization but to interact with it in a critical and autonomous fashion. Two major trends have occurred in curriculum and pedagogy research, wherein education is identified as an important potential shaper of globalization. These are global citizenship education (also intersecting with what are called 21st-century learning and competencies) and education for sustainable development.

Global citizenship education: Global citizenship education has been conceived by political theorists and educational philosophers as a way to speak back to globalization processes seen as harmful to individuals and communities. As Martha Nussbaum has argued, educators should work to develop in students feelings of compassion, altruism, and empathy that extend beyond national borders. 62 Kathy Hytten has likewise written that students need to learn today as part of global citizenship education not just feelings of sympathy for people around the world, but critical skills to identify root causes of problems that intersect the distinction of local and global, as local problems can be recognized as interconnected with globalization processes. 63 In relation to this, UNESCO and nongovernmental organizations and foundations such as Oxfam and the Asia Society have focused on exploring current practices and elaborating best practices from a global comparative standpoint for the dissemination of noncognitive, affective, “transversal” 21st-century competencies, to extend civic education in the future in the service of social justice and peace, locally and globally. 64

Questions remain in this area in connection with implementation within curriculum and pedagogy. A first question is whether concepts of altruism, empathy, and even harmony, peace, and justice, are translatable, with equivalent meanings across cultural contexts. There is evidence that global citizenship education aimed at educating for values to face the potential harms of globalization is converging around the world on such aims as instilling empathy and compassion, respect and appreciation of diversity, and personal habits or virtues of open-mindedness, curiosity, and creativity. However, what these values, virtues, and dispositions look like, how they are demonstrated, and their appropriate expressions remain divergent as regards Western versus Eastern and African societies (for example). 65 By implication, pedagogical or curriculum borrowing or transferral in this area may be problematic, even if some basic concepts are shared and even when best practices can be established within a cultural context.

Additionally, how these skills, competencies, and dispositions intersect with the cognitive skills and political views of education across societies with different cultures of teaching and learning also remains contentious. In line with the controversies over normative views of globalization, whether the curriculum should echo globalist or skeptical positions remains contested by educators and researchers in the field. Some argue that a focus on feelings can be overrated or even harmful in such education, given the immediacy and evidence of global social justice issues that can be approached rationally and constructively. 66 Thus, token expressions of cultural appreciation can be seen to preclude a deeper engagement with social justice issues if the former becomes a goal in itself. On the other hand, the appropriate focus on the local versus the global, and on the goods versus the harms of globalization, weighs differently across and within societies, from one individual educator to the next. Thus, a lack of evidence of best practices in relation to the contestation over ultimate goals creates ambivalence at the local level among many educators about what and how to teach global citizenship or 21st-century skills, apart from standardized knowledge in math, science, and language.

Education for sustainable development: Education for sustainable development is a second strand of curriculum and pedagogy that speaks back to globalization and that is broadly promoted by UNESCO and related intergovernmental and nongovernmental organizations. Education for sustainable development is, like global citizenship education, rooted in globalization’s impact upon individuals in terms of global consciousness. Like global citizenship, education for sustainable development also emphasizes global interconnection in relation to development and sustainability challenges. It is also a broad umbrella term that reflects an increasingly wide array of practices, policies, and programs, formal and informal, for instilling virtues and knowledge and skills seen to enable effective responses to challenges brought about by globalization. 67 In particular, education for sustainable development has seen global progress, like globalization, as enmeshed in intersecting cultural, social, and economic and political values and priorities. Education for All is an interrelated complementary thread of UNESCO work, which sees access to education as a key to social justice and development, and the improvement of human quality of life broadly. In developed societies, environmental sustainability has come to be seen as a pressing global issue worth curricular focus, as behaviors with regard to consumption of natural resources impact others around the world, as well as future generations. 68

A diversity of practices and views also marks this area of education, resulting in general ambiguity about overall aims and best means. Controversies over which attitudes of sustainability are most important to inculcate, and whether it is important to inculcate them, intertwine with debates over what crises are most pertinent and what skills and competencies students should develop. Measures are in place for standardizing sustainability knowledge in higher education worldwide, as well as for comparing the development of prosustainability attitudes. 69 However, some scholars argue that both emphases miss the point, and that education for sustainable development should first be about changing cultures to become more democratic, creative, and critical, developing interpersonal and prosocial capabilities first, as the challenges of environmental sustainability and global development are highly complex and dynamic. 70 Thus, as globalization remains contested in its impacts, challenges, and promise at local levels, so too does the best education that connects positively with globalization to enhance local and global life. In this rich and diverse field, as processes of convergence and hybridity of glocalization continue to occur, the promise of globalization and the significance of education in relation to it will no doubt remain lively areas of debate in the future, as globalization continues to impact communities in diverse ways.

Research Considerations

There is no shortage of normative and explanatory theories about globalization, each of which points to particular instances and evidence about domains and contexts of globalization. However, when it comes to understanding the interconnections of globalization and education, some consensus regarding best practices for research has emerged. In fields of comparative and international education and global studies in education, scholars are increasingly calling today for theories and empirical investigations that are oriented toward specificity, particularity, and locality, in contrast with the grand theories of globalization elaborated by political scholars. However, a challenge is that such scholarship should not be reduced artificially to one local level in such a way as to exclude understanding of international interactions, in what has been called in the research community “methodological nationalism.” 71 Such reductive localism or nationalism can arise particularly in comparative education research, as nation-states have been traditional units for comparative analysis, but are today recognized as being too diverse from one to the next to be presumed similar (while global processes impact them in disparate ways). 72 Thus, Rizvi has articulated global ethnography as a focused approach to the analysis of international educational projects that traces interconnections and interactions of local and global actors. 73 In comparative educational research, units of analysis must be critically pondered and selected, and it is also possible to make comparisons across levels within one context (for instance, from local educational interactions to higher-level policy-making processes in one society). 74

Qualitative and quantitative analyses can be undertaken to measure global educational achievements, values, policy statements, and more; yet researcher reflexivity and positionality, what is traditionally conceived of as research ethics, is increasingly seen as vital for researchers in this politically and ethically contentious field. Although quantitative research remains important for highlighting convergences in data in global educational studies, such research cannot tell us what we should do, as it does not systematically express peoples’ values and beliefs about the aims of education, or their experiences of globalization, and so on, particularly effectively. On the other hand, normative questions about how people’s values intersect with globalization and related educational processes can give an in-depth view of one location or case, but should be complemented by consideration of generalizable trends. 75

In either case, cultural assumptions can interfere or interact in problematic or unintentional ways with methodologies of data gathering and analysis, for instance, when questions or codes (related to race, ethnicity, or class, for example) are applied across diverse sites by researchers, who may not be very familiar and experienced across divergent cultural contexts. 76 Thus, beyond positionality, the use of collaborative research teams has become popular in global and comparative educational research, to ensure inevitable cultural and related differences across research domains are sufficiently addressed in the research process. 77 In this context, researchers must also contend with the challenges of collaborating across educational settings, as new methods of engaging, saving, and sharing data at distance through technology continue to unfold in response to ongoing challenges with data storage, data security, and privacy.

Among recent strands of educational research fueled by appreciation for globalization is the exploration of the global economy of knowledge. Such research may consider the practices and patterns of movement, collaboration, research production and publication, and authorship of researchers, and examine data from cultural, political, and economic perspectives, asking whose knowledge is regarded as valid and most prized, and what voices dominate in conversations and discourse around globalization and education, such as in classrooms studying global studies in education, or in leading research journals. 78 Related research emerging includes questions such as who produces knowledge, who is the subject of knowledge, and where are data gathered, as recurring historical patterns may appear to be reproduced in contemporary scholarship, wherein those from the global North are more active in investigating and elaborating knowledge in the field, while those from the global South appear most often as subjects of research. As globalization of education entails the globalization of knowledge itself, such inquiries can be directed to various sites and disciplines outside of education, in considering how communication, values, and knowledge are being dynamically revised today on a global scale through processes of globalization.

Research that focuses on globalization and education uses a wide array of approaches and methods, topics, and orientations, as well as diverse theoretical perspectives and normative assumptions. The foregoing sections have explored this general field, major debates, and topics; the relationships have been traced between globalization and education; and there have been brief comments on considerations for research. One key point of the analysis has been that the way globalization is conceived has implications for how its relationship with education is understood. This is important, for as is illustrated here, the ways of conceptualizing globalization are diverse, in terms of how the era of globalization is framed chronologically (as essential to the human condition, to modernity, or as a late 20th-century phenomena), what its chief characteristics are from cultural, political-economic, and technological views, and whether its impact on human life and history is seen as good or bad. A broad consideration of viewpoints has highlighted the emergence of a middle position within research literature: there is most certainly an intertwined meeting and movement of peoples, things, and ideas around the globe; and clearly, processes associated with globalization have good and bad aspects. However, these processes are uneven, and they can be seen to impact different communities in various ways, which are clearly not, on the whole, simply all good or all bad.

That the processes associated with globalization are interrelated with the history and future of education is undeniable. In many ways global convergence around educational policies, practices, and values can be observed in the early 21st century. Yet educational borrowing and transferral remain unstraightforward in practice, as educational and cultural differences across social contexts remain, while the ultimate ends of education (such as math competencies versus moral cultivation) are essentially contested. Thus, specificity is important to understand globalization in relation to education. As with globalization generally, globalization in education cannot be merely described as harmful or beneficial, but depends on one’s position in power relations, and on one’s values and priorities for local and global well-being.

Education and educators’ impact on globalization also remains an important area of research and theorization. Educators are no longer expected merely to react to globalization, they must purposefully interact with it, preparing students around the world to respond to globalization’s challenges. As cultural and political-economic considerations remain crucial in understanding major aspects of both globalization and education, positionality and research ethics and reflexivity remain important research concerns, to understand globalization not just as homogeneity or oppressive top-down features, but as complex and dynamic local, global, and transnational intersections of people, ideas, and goods, with unclear impacts in the future.

Besley, T. , & Peters, M. A. (Eds.). (2012). Interculturalism: Education and dialogue . New York: Peter Lang.
Bray, M. , Adamson, R. , & Mason, M. (2015). Comparative education research: Approaches and methods . Hong Kong: Comparative Education Research Centre, University of Hong Kong.
Held, D. , & McGrew, A. (Eds.). (2000). The global transformation reader: An introduction to the globalization debate . Cambridge, U.K.: Polity.
Ritzer, G. (Ed.). (2007). The Blackwell companion to globalization . Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Rizvi, F. , & Lingard, R. (2010). Globalizing educational policy . London: Routledge.
Robinson, W. I. (2003). Transnational conflicts: Central America, social change, and globalization . London: Verso.
Sklair, L. (2002). Globalization: Capitalism and its alternatives . New York: Oxford University Press.
Stiglitz, J. (2006). Making globalization work . New York: W. W. Norton.
Walby, S. (2009). Globalization and inequalities . London: SAGE.
Wallerstein, I. (1974). The modern world system . New York: Academic.

1. W. I. Robinson (2007), Theories of globalization, in G. Ritzer (Ed.), The Blackwell Companion to Globalization (pp. 125–143) (Malden, MA: Blackwell).

2. R. Robertson (1992), Globalization: Social theory and global culture (Thousand Oaks: SAGE, 1992).

3. Robertson, Globalization .

4. Robertson, Globalization.

5. For an historical example of how negative cultural comparison has interconnected with international political relations, see H. Kotef (2015), Little Chinese feet encased in iron shoes: Freedom, movement, gender, and empire in Western political thought, Political Theory, 43 , 334–355.

6. B. Anderson (1983), Imagined communities (London: Verso).

7. Anderson, Imagined communities.

8. M. Nussbaum (1996), For love of country? (Boston: Boston Press).

9. I. Wallerstein (1974), The modern world system (New York: Academic Press).

10. I. Wallerstein (2000), Globalization or the age of transition? International Sociology, 15 , 249–265.

11. Wallerstein, Globalization.

12. Robinson, Theories.

13. F. Rizvi and B. Lingard (2010), Globalizing educational policy (London: Routledge).

14. L. Sklair (2002), Globalization: Capitalism and its alternatives (New York: Oxford University Press).

15. W. I. Robinson (2003), Transnational conflicts: Central America, social change, and globalization (London: Verso)

16. Robinson, Theories.

17. M. Castells (1996), The rise of the network society (Oxford: Blackwell).

18. A. Giddens (1990), The consequences of modernity (Cambridge, U.K.: Polity), 64 ; see also D. Harvey (1990), The condition of post-modernity (London: Blackwell).

19. A. Appadurai (1997), Modernity at large: Cultural dimensions of globalization (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press).

20. See also D. Held , A. G. McGrew , D. Goldblatt , and J. Perraton (1999), Global transformations: Politics, economics, and culture (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press) ; M. Waters (1995), Globalization (London: Routledge).

21. Rizvi and Lingard, Globalizing.

22. M. P. Smith (2001), Transnational urbanism: Locating globalization (Oxford: Blackwell).

23. G. Ritzer (1993), The McDonaldization of society (Boston: Pine Forge).

24. G. Mathews (2011), Ghetto at the center of the world (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press).

25. B. Barber (1995), Jihad versus McWorld (New York: Random House).

26. S. Huntington (1993), The clash of civilizations? Foreign Affairs, 72 (3), 22–49.

27. F. Fukuyama (1992), The end of history and the last man (London: Free Press).

28. U. Beck (1992), The risk society: Toward a new modernity (Cambridge, U.K.: Polity).

29. M. Hardt and A. Negri (2000), Empire (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press) ; Hardt and Negri (2004), Multitude: War and democracy in the age of empire (New York: Penguin).

30. W. Bello (2004), Deglobalization: Ideas for a new world economy (London: New York University Press) ; Bello (2013), Capitalism’s last stand? Deglobalization in the age of austerity (London: Zed Books).

31. C. Hines (2000), Localization: A global manifesto (New York: Routledge).

32. See D. Harvey (1989), The condition of post-modernity: An enquiry into the conditions of cultural change (Oxford: Blackwell).

33. A. Giddens (1990), The consequences of modernity (Cambridge, U.K.: Polity).

34. S. Burchill (2009), Liberalism, in S. Burchill , A. Linklater , R. Devetak , J. Donnelly , T. Nardin , M. Paterson , C. Reus-Smit , and J. True (Eds.) (pp. 57–85), Theories of international relations (New York: Palgrave Macmillan).

35. See, for instance, J. Stiglitz (2006), Making globalization work (New York: W. W. Norton).

36. D. Held and A. McGrew (Eds.) (2000), The global transformation reader: An introduction to the globalization debate (Cambridge, U.K.: Polity).

37. Rizvi and Lingard, Globalizing.

38. Rizvi and Lingard, Globalizing , 24.

39. T. Reagan (2000), Non-Western educational traditions: Alternative approaches to educational thought (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum). Of course, scholars such as Michael P. Smith would reject describing these processes as belonging to globalization, as people, nations, and communities played significant roles.

40. P. Freire (1972), Pedagogy of the oppressed (Victoria: Penguin).

41. B. Ashcroft , G. Griffiths , and H. Tiffin (Eds.) (1995), The post-colonial studies reader (London: Routledge).

42. R. E. Wanner (2015), UNESCO’s origins, achievements, problems and promise: An inside/outside perspective from the US (Hong Kong: Comparative Education Research Centre/University of Hong Kong).

43. M. Manzon (2011), Comparative education: The construction of a field (Hong Kong: Comparative Education Research Centre/University of Hong Kong).

44. S. Walby (2009), Globalization and inequalities (London: SAGE).

45. See for instance J. Stier (2004), Taking a critical stance toward internationalization ideologies in higher education: idealism, instrumentalism and educationalism, Globalisation, Societies and Education, 2 , 1–28.

46. Rizvi and Lingard, Globalizing .

47. Rizvi and Lingard, Globalizing .

48. Rizvi and Lingard, Globalizing .

49. Rizvi and Lingard, Globalizing .

50. See for instance M. S. Tucker and L. Darling-Hammond (2011), Surpassing Shanghai: An agenda for American education built on the world’s leading systems (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press).

51. See for instance P. Sahlberg (2014), Finnish lessons 2.0: What can the world learn from educational change in Finland? (New York: Teachers College Press).

52. A. Darder (2015), Paulo Freire and the continuing struggle to decolonize education, in M. A Peters and T. Besley (Eds.), Paulo Freire: The global legacy (pp. 55–78) (New York: Peter Lang).

53. S. J. Shin (2009), Bilingualism in schools and society (London: Routledge) ; H. Norberg-Hodge (2009), Ancient futures: Lessons from Ladakh for a globalizing world (San Francisco: Sierra Club).

54. L. Jackson (2015), Challenges to the global concept of student-centered learning with special reference to the United Arab Emirates: “Never Fail a Nahayan,” Educational Philosophy and Theory, 47 , 760–773.

55. T. Besley (2012), Narratives of intercultural and international education: Aspirational values and economic imperatives, in T. Besley and M. A. Peters (Eds.), Interculturalism: Education and dialogue (pp. 87–112) (New York: Peter Lang).

56. W. J. Jacob and D. B. Holsinger (2008), Inequality in education: A critical analysis, in D. B. Holsinger and W. J. Jacob (Eds.), Inequality in education: Comparative and international perspectives (pp. 1–33) (Hong Kong: Comparative Education Research Centre/University of Hong Kong).

57. D. Hill , N. M. Greaves , and A. Maisuria (2008), Does capitalism inevitably increase inequality? in D. B. Holsinger and W. J. Jacob (Eds.), Inequality in education: Comparative and international perspectives (pp. 59–85) (Hong Kong: Comparative Education Research Centre/University of Hong Kong).

58. D. M. West (2013), Digital schools : How technology can transform education (Washington, DC: Brookings Institute Press) ; N. Burbules and T. Callister (2000), Watch IT: The risks and promises of technologies for education (Boulder, CO: Westview).

59. Burbules and Callister, Watch IT.

60. Stier, Critical Stance.

61. See for example, S. K. Gallwey and G. Wilgus (2014), Equitable partnerships for mutual learning or perpetuator of North-South power imbalances? Ireland–South Africa school links, Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 44 , 522–544.

62. M. C. Nussbaum (2001), Upheavals of thought: The intelligence of emotions (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press).

63. K. Hytten (2009), Education for critical democracy and compassionate globalization, in R. Glass (Ed.), Philosophy of Education 2008 (pp. 330–332) (Urbana, IL: Philosophy of Education Society).

64. See for example, Report to the UNESCO of the International Commission on Education for the Twenty-First Century (1996), Learning: The treasure within (Paris: UNESCO) ; Asia Society (2015), A Rosetta Stone for noncognitive skills: Understanding, assessing, and enhancing noncognitive skills in primary and secondary education (New York: Asia Society).

65. See S. Y. Kang (2006), Identity-centered multicultural care theory: White, Black, and Korean caring, Educational Foundations, 20 (3–4), 35–49 ; L. Jackson (2016), Altruism, non-relational caring, and global citizenship education, in M. Moses (Ed.), Philosophy of Education 2014 (Urbana, IL: Philosophy of Education).

66. Jackson, Altruism.

67. L. Jackson (2016), Education for sustainable development: From environmental education to broader view, in E. Railean , G. Walker , A. Elçi , and L. Jackson (Eds.), Handbook of research on applied learning theory and design in modern education (pp. 41–64) (Hershey, PA: IGI Press).

68. Jackson, Education for Sustainable Development.

69. Jackson, Education for Sustainable Development.

70. P. Vare and W. Scott (2007), Learning for change: Exploring the relationship between education and sustainable development, Journal of Education for Sustainable Development, 1 , 191–198.

71. P. Kennedy (2011), Local lives and global transformations: Towards a world society (London: Palgrave).

72. M. Manzon (2015), Comparing places, in M. Bray , B. Adamson , and M. Mason (Eds.), Comparative education research: Approaches and methods (pp. 85–121) (Hong Kong: Comparative Education Research Centre/University of Hong Kong).

73. F. Rizvi (2009), Global mobility and the challenges of educational policy and research, in T. S. Popkewitz and F. Rizvi (Eds.), Globalization and the study of education (pp. 268–289) (Oxford: Blackwell).

74. Manzon, Comparing places.

75. G. P. Fairbrother , Qualitative and quantitative approaches to comparative education, in Bray , Adamson , and Mason (Eds.), Comparative education research (pp. 39–62).

76. L. Jackson (2015), Comparing race, class, and gender, in Bray , Adamson , and Mason (Eds.), Comparative education research (pp. 195–220).

77. M. Bray , B. Adamson , and M. Mason (2015), Different models, different emphases, different insights, in Bray , Adamson , and Mason (Eds.), Comparative education research , 421.

78. See, for instance, H. Tange and S. Miller (2015), Opening the mind? Geographies of knowledge and curricular practices, Higher Education , 1–15.

Biographical Approaches in Education
Decolonial Philosophy and Education
Postcolonialism and Education
The World Bank and Educational Assistance
Teacher Unions
European Studies and Research in Adult Learning and Education
Critical Perspectives on the Political Economy of Higher Education in India and Globally
Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) in Asia
Commercialization in Education
Globalization of Educational Knowledge and Research
Indigenous School Education in Brazil
Educational Policy and Development
Critical English for Academic Purposes
Cosmopolitanism and Education
Homeschooling in the United States
Constructions of Justice, Marginalization, and Belonging in Education
Neoliberalism and Education
Educational Attainment and Integration of Foreign Students in Spain

Printed from Oxford Research Encyclopedias, Education. Under the terms of the licence agreement, an individual user may print out a single article for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy and Legal Notice).

date: 16 September 2024

Cookie Policy
Privacy Policy
Legal Notice
Accessibility
[109.248.223.228]
109.248.223.228

Character limit 500 /500

Globalization: What Globalization Is and Its Impact Essay

To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
As a template for you assignment

Primary Source Data

Secondary source data, comparative analysis.

Bibliography

Globalization is a complex phenomenon that has a big influence on various fields of human life, including economics, society, and culture. Even though trade between countries has existed since time immemorial, in the 21st-century, globalization has become an integral part of the world’s development. While businesses try to expand on a global scale, and countries’ economies are intertwined in the international network, several outcomes occur out of this process. The purpose of this paper is to analyze and evaluate the impact of globalization on the world economy, whether it is good or bad. To achieve this goal, a comprehensive review of the relevant literature will be conducted. The information will be extracted from both primary and secondary sources. The primary sources will include an interview and a chart, while the secondary sources will consist of scholarly articles and books published from the year 2015 forward. The main argument of this research is that even though globalization offers endless business opportunities, it has a number of effects that negatively influence the resources and the economy.

First of all, in order to understand this phenomenon, it is important to define the term “globalization.” Several researchers have conducted a thorough study of this subject. For example, Martell describes globalization as “the intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away” 1 . It is a complex and multidimensional mechanism that allows a local business subdivision to integrate into the global economic system. The biggest companies of the 21st century are no longer limited to one country; they have become more multinational: businesses from several countries exchange resources, money, data, and employees. Nowadays, international relations are becoming more intense not only in politics but in the economy as well. Moreover, globalization has a significant influence on the distribution of not only skilled and unskilled labor but of capital and labor as well, both locally and globally. The tendencies of this process were analyzed by experts, for example, in the research by Chandy and Seidel, where they presented globalization trends in the form of a chart (Figure 1).

The chart above demonstrates how the GDP of the U.S. was changing while the global population was also growing. The diagram includes the analysis of foreign capital stock, merchandise exports, and migrant stock. According to it, it becomes evident that even though the world GDP was high during the 1910s, the global economy is more integrated in the 21st century. However, the researchers also point out that the economy of the U.S. is a relatively closed economy, which is surprising. Nevertheless, the study states that “it accounts for only 11 percent of global trade volumes, which is far below its 24 percent share of global GDP” 2 . In addition, despite the attempts to find evidence of the recession of globalization, Chandy and Seidel did not manage to present any. It means that the trend keeps developing as money, goods, and people continue to move around the world.

It is evident that one cannot talk about globalization without mentioning international companies. Global corporations are defined by the fact that they execute business in at least two countries 3 . They conduct various types of economic activities, for example, foreign investment, managing plants in different countries to avoid transaction costs. An example of an international firm that obtains cost advantages through foreign investments in international plants is Apple Inc.

To understand how companies conduct business internationally, several types of multinational corporations must be indicated: economists usually divide them into four categories. The first type of firm is determined by the fact that it has a strong presence in its home country. Another category is characterized by acquiring cost advantage through the means of buying cheaper resources in other countries, despite being controlled by one central office. The third type is a company that is based on the Research and Development of the parent corporation. The fourth and final category is a transnational business, which includes all features that are peculiar to the corporations that were mentioned above 3 . Since global companies generally combine different approaches to business, sometimes it can be hard to distinguish between these four categories. Nestle S.A. may serve as an example of a big transnational corporation that conducts its financial operations in many countries outside of the headquarters.

Since globalization is a complicated phenomenon, many analysts and businessmen have different views on its impact. For instance, the former Director-General of the World Trade Organization, Pascal Lamy, expressed his point of view in the interview, “Can Europe Civilize Globalization?”. Despite the fact that the concerns about European civilization may recede due to this process, he states that he does not see globalization as a threat. Instead, he sees it as a reality that has to be dealt with in a professional way. Lamy explains his opinion by pointing out the fact that some European countries have managed to gain more benefits than others by means of global trade 4 . As examples, he presents Sweden and Germany, which, during the last decades of the 20th century, conducted structural reforms that allowed them to get profit from international trade.

Moreover, Lamy notes that globalization presents new challenges for businesses. They include promoting “more actively global norms in the environmental and job protection, health protection, than the reduction of trade barriers that have been now largely operated worldwide”4. In other words, the ex-director of WTO believes that this process can have a positive impact on Europe’s economy as it provides opportunities for countries to develop and grow their benefits.

As for other researchers, Burlacu, Gutu, and Matei overview both sides of globalization, pointing out positive and negative impacts. For example, the advantages include reducing the economic isolation of poor countries as they are given the opportunity to sell their goods on the global market and participate in the trade 5 . Moreover, as the economy expands, the information does it as well. It means that access to education becomes more easy and available, which increases the number of professionals who are capable of expanding and developing the business even further. In addition, according to the study, globalization “enhances the speed of commercial, financial, and technological operations”5. It can be seen even nowadays as new products and devices continue to appear on the market every year. Furthermore, globalization ensures the efficiency of the entire economic activity on a global scale.

Other researchers have also pointed out several positive aspects of this process. For example, Parente et al. talk about the sharing economy, which is a new phenomenon. Their study indicated that due to internet globalization, some companies managed to perform business online, which helped them to expand around the world and raise funds 6 . Therefore, globalization allowed firms to achieve worldwide success at an unprecedented pace. Furthermore, Martell et al. elaborated on reasons for how exactly the internalization changed economic activities. The reasons included “the speeding up of global interactions and processes as a result of the development of transport and communications”1. In other words, the spread of resources, ideas, capital, and products accelerated, which allowed businesses to develop quicker.

However, aside from positive results that can come from globalization, researchers also indicate some negative aspects to it. For instance, Burlacu et al. Note that harmful effects include an international security deficit and an increased amount of illegal migrations5. Globalization opened borders for a large number of people to move to other countries illegally. Moreover, it allowed corrupt businessmen to employ these migrants and make them work for a lesser wage, which is a violation of human rights. Moreover, economists believe that nowadays, the export of human resources has risen, which means that some countries have lost intellectual potential5. The other downsides include the deterioration of the environment, which is caused by the rapid growth of the economy.

While rethinking the effects of globalization, Broner and Ventura elaborated on the negative consequences that it can bring to domestic markets. The researchers gathered data from other scholars and concluded that “financial globalization, in addition to providing a new, cheaper source of funding for emerging markets, can have indirect effects by affecting the workings of domestic financial markets” 7 . For example, according to them, with the rise of globalization, the incidence of domestic financial crises also grows. In addition, Mamedov et al. discusses the impact on traditional economies, which, according to the study, will reach a new level of their development 8 . It is difficult to say whether such changes are positive or not since some people may be reluctant to abandon the old economic structures.

As it can be observed, primary sources and secondary sources seem to express various opinions about globalization. First and foremost, most of them seem to agree that this phenomenon is relatively new and only recently began to spread. However, then the standpoints start to differ among experts. While the interview with Lamy demonstrates that the former leader of the World Trade Organization seems optimistic about it, such secondary sources as scholarly articles and books differentiate in positions.

Some researchers identify the internalization of the economy as a beneficial process that can create new opportunities for countries to develop and expand their businesses. However, other studies make a link between globalization and several other problems, such as environmental deterioration, security issues, and the increasing number of domestic crises. The last factor is especially interesting since it contradicts the general assumption that increased international trade opportunities can improve the country’s welfare.

Moreover, the recent events that were caused by the outbreak of coronavirus exposed vulnerabilities in the current globalized economy. Since traveling is restricted, the transportation of resources has become difficult. While big international corporations managed to stay afloat, some local firms were forced to shut down, and the suspension of one company factory can lead to a closing of another. Experts argue that such an intertwined international economic relationship is what caused changes in a global supply chain, and overall, stock declines 9 . The current situation provided proof that globalization may not be that good for the world economy.

While the system offers opportunities for businesses to grow, it also has some loopholes and weak points that seriously damage the economy of not only one country but of the whole world. Moreover, the situation with the pandemic supports the argument made by Broner and Ventura. The outbreak caused domestic market crises in Asian countries, and then in Europe and America, which significantly affected the global economy. Even the help of Widespread Disease Emergency Financing Facility 10 would not be enough to restore all financial damage. As the recession of the international market became apparent, businesses in other countries have also suffered.

In addition, the environmental aspect of globalization is also important since it affects the increasing deficiency of natural resources. While companies are trying to expand their business everywhere, new factories and new plants are built around the world. While new products and new technology continue to appear on the market and the demand grows, more damage is inflicted upon the environment by the constant production.

Moreover, the higher need for transportation means that more fossil fuels are used, causing harm to the climate. There is no doubt that such issues can be resolved with the creation of new technology. However, the process of development is complicated and expensive, which can lead to additional expenditures. It can cause more federal budget deficits and increased government debt; therefore, the economy is also negatively affected by environmental issues of globalization.

For this reason, it can be said that despite all the positive aspects of globalization, it definitely has several downsides. Internationalization brought not only different cultures but the economies of various countries together, allowing businesses to grow and reach financial benefits. Furthermore, it opened opportunities for people to find jobs and expand their profit. Nevertheless, the current system is vulnerable during difficult situations, and if there is a crisis in one country, it tends to spread to others like dominoes, because the economies are deeply connected. Moreover, globalization also causes harm to other fields of human life, which are can also negatively influence not only the financial state of a particular country but the economy of the world as well.

It is evident that more research needs to be conducted as the process of globalization is complex and ongoing. There are several topics that can be further explored while studying the impact of globalization on the world’s economy. For example, one can investigate the methods that can be implemented to minimize the negative consequences of globalization that were described earlier in this paper. In order to obtain the information, one can look through the suggestions of other researchers, analyze them, and select the ones that seem the most effective.

Moreover, as the current situation with the outbreak has a major impact on the international economy, it would be interesting to study the experts’ opinions on how it will affect globalization. A huge amount of relevant information can be gathered from recent interviews, news, and scholarly articles. In conclusion, it would appear that the topic of globalization and its influence is broad and can provide a good starting point for further discussion and analysis.

Chandy, Laurence, and Brina Seidel. “Donald Trump and the future of globalization.” The Brookings Institution , 2016. Web.

Broner, Fernando, and Jaume Ventura. “Rethinking the Effects of Financial Globalization.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 131, no. 3 (2016): 1497-1542.

Burlacu, Sorin, Corneliu Gutu, and Florin Octavian Matei. “Globalization – Pros and Cons.” Calitatea 19, no. S1 (2018): 122-125.

Lamy, Pascal. “Interview. Can Europe Civilize Globalization?”, The Federalist Debate 28, no. 1 (2015): 60-63.

Mamedov, Oktay, Irina Movchan, Oksana Ishchenko-Padukova, and Monika Grabowska. “Traditional Economy: Innovations, Efficiency and Globalization.” Economics & Sociology 9, no. 2 (2016): 61.

Martell, Luke. The Sociology of Globalization . John Wiley & Sons, 2016.

Parente, Ronaldo C., José-Mauricio G. Geleilate, and Ke Rong. “The Sharing Economy Globalization Phenomenon: A Research Agenda.” Journal of International Management 24, no. 1 (2018): 52-64.

Sułkowski, Łukasz. “Covid-19 Pandemic; Recession, Virtual Revolution Leading to De-globalization?”, Journal of Intercultural Management 12, no. 1 (2020): 1-11.
Luke Martell. The Sociology of Globalization (John Wiley & Sons, 2016), 10.
Laurence Chandy and Brina Seidel. “Donald Trump and the future of globalization.” The Brookings Institution , 2016.
Lecture on Multinational Corporation (MNC)
Pascal Lamy. “Interview. Can Europe Civilize Globalization?”, The Federalist Debate 28, no. 1 (2015): 60.
Burlacu, Sorin, Corneliu Gutu, and Florin Octavian Matei. “Globalization – Pros and Cons.” Calitatea 19, no. S1 (2018): 124.
Parente, Ronaldo C., José-Mauricio G. Geleilate, and Ke Rong. “The Sharing Economy Globalization Phenomenon: A Research Agenda.” Journal of International Management 24, no. 1 (2018): 53.
Broner, Fernando, and Jaume Ventura. “Rethinking the Effects of Financial Globalization.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 131, no. 3 (2016): 1533.
Mamedov, Oktay, Irina Movchan, Oksana Ishchenko-Padukova, and Monika Grabowska. “Traditional Economy: Innovations, Efficiency, and Globalization.” Economics & Sociology 9, no. 2 (2016): 61.
Lecture on the World Bank
COVID-19 and Global Economic Connections
Changing Global Business Environment
Is Globalization the Main Culprit for the 2008 Global Financial Crisis?
Globalization Phenomenon: Development and Social Change
Globalization Arguments and Impacts
Guanxi in Chinese Business and Global Economy
Cross-Cultural Negotiation Analysis
Intercultural Competencies: Environmental Scan and Analysis
Uncertainty and Risks Regarding Multinational Corporations’ Functioning
Multicultural Problems in Organizations
Chicago (A-D)
Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2022, February 16). Globalization: What Globalization Is and Its Impact. https://ivypanda.com/essays/globalization-what-globalization-is-and-its-impact/

"Globalization: What Globalization Is and Its Impact." IvyPanda , 16 Feb. 2022, ivypanda.com/essays/globalization-what-globalization-is-and-its-impact/.

IvyPanda . (2022) 'Globalization: What Globalization Is and Its Impact'. 16 February.

IvyPanda . 2022. "Globalization: What Globalization Is and Its Impact." February 16, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/globalization-what-globalization-is-and-its-impact/.

1. IvyPanda . "Globalization: What Globalization Is and Its Impact." February 16, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/globalization-what-globalization-is-and-its-impact/.

IvyPanda . "Globalization: What Globalization Is and Its Impact." February 16, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/globalization-what-globalization-is-and-its-impact/.

IvyPanda uses cookies and similar technologies to enhance your experience, enabling functionalities such as:

Basic site functions
Ensuring secure, safe transactions
Secure account login
Remembering account, browser, and regional preferences
Remembering privacy and security settings
Analyzing site traffic and usage
Personalized search, content, and recommendations
Displaying relevant, targeted ads on and off IvyPanda

Please refer to IvyPanda's Cookies Policy and Privacy Policy for detailed information.

Certain technologies we use are essential for critical functions such as security and site integrity, account authentication, security and privacy preferences, internal site usage and maintenance data, and ensuring the site operates correctly for browsing and transactions.

Cookies and similar technologies are used to enhance your experience by:

Remembering general and regional preferences
Personalizing content, search, recommendations, and offers

Some functions, such as personalized recommendations, account preferences, or localization, may not work correctly without these technologies. For more details, please refer to IvyPanda's Cookies Policy .

To enable personalized advertising (such as interest-based ads), we may share your data with our marketing and advertising partners using cookies and other technologies. These partners may have their own information collected about you. Turning off the personalized advertising setting won't stop you from seeing IvyPanda ads, but it may make the ads you see less relevant or more repetitive.

Personalized advertising may be considered a "sale" or "sharing" of the information under California and other state privacy laws, and you may have the right to opt out. Turning off personalized advertising allows you to exercise your right to opt out. Learn more in IvyPanda's Cookies Policy and Privacy Policy .

Lifestyles & Social Issues
Philosophy & Religion
Politics, Law & Government
World History
Health & Medicine
Browse Biographies
Birds, Reptiles & Other Vertebrates
Bugs, Mollusks & Other Invertebrates
Environment
Fossils & Geologic Time
Geography & Travel
Entertainment & Pop Culture
Sports & Recreation
Visual Arts

globalization

globalization , integration of the world’s economies, politics, and cultures. German-born American economist Theodore Levitt has been credited with having coined the term globalization in a 1983 article titled “The Globalization of Markets.” The phenomenon is widely considered to have begun in the 19th century following the advent of the Industrial Revolution , but some scholars date it more specifically to about 1870, when exports became a much more significant share of some countries’ gross domestic product (GDP). Its continued escalation is largely attributable to the development of new technologies—particularly in the fields of communication and transportation—and to the adoption of liberal trade policies by countries around the world.

Social scientists have identified the central aspects of globalization as interconnection, intensification, time-space distanciation (conditions that allow time and space to be organized in a manner that connects presence and absence), supraterritoriality, time-space compression, action at a distance, and accelerating interdependence. Modern analysts also conceive of globalization as a long-term process of deterritorialization—that is, of social activities (economic, political, and cultural) occurring without regard for geographic location. Thus, globalization can be defined as the stretching of economic, political, and social relationships in space and time. A manufacturer assembling a product for a distant market , a country submitting to international law , and a language adopting a foreign loanword are all examples of globalization.

Of course history is filled with such occurrences: Chinese artisans once wove silk bound for the Roman Empire ( see Silk Road ); kingdoms in western Europe honoured dictates of the Roman Catholic Church ; and English adopted many Norman French words in the centuries after the Battle of Hastings . These interactions and others laid the groundwork for globalization and are now recognized by historians and economists as important predecessors of the modern phenomenon. Analysts have labeled the 15th to 18th century as a period of “proto-globalization,” when European explorers established maritime trade routes across the Atlantic and Pacific oceans and encountered new lands. Integration prior to this time has been characterized as “archaic globalization.”

What distinguishes the process of modern globalization from those forms of global integration that preceded it are its pace and extent. According to some academics, three distinct eras of modern globalization can be identified, each of them marked by points of sudden acceleration in international interaction. Under this scheme, the “first globalization” era refers to the period between approximately 1870 and 1914, during which new transportation and communication technology decreased or eliminated many of the drawbacks to distance. The “second globalization” era is said to have lasted from roughly 1944 to 1971, a period in which an international monetary system based on the value of the U.S. dollar facilitated a new level of trade between capitalist countries. And the “third globalization” era is thought to have begun with the revolutions of 1989–90, which opened the communist Eastern bloc to the flow of capital and coincided with the creation of the World Wide Web . Some scholars argue that a new period of globalization, the “fourth globalization,” is underway, but there is little consensus on when this era began or whether it is truly distinct enough to merit its own designation.

New levels of interconnectedness fostered by globalization are credited for numerous benefits to humanity. The spread of industrial technology and the resulting increase in productivity have contributed to a reduction in the percentage of the world’s population living in poverty. The sharing of medical knowledge has dramatically decreased the incidence of once-feared diseases and even eliminated smallpox. And economic interdependence among countries discourages war between them.

However, the implementation of globalization has been much criticized, leading to the development of the anti-globalization movement. Opponents of globalization—or at least, globalization in its present form ( see neoliberal globalization )—represent a variety of interests on both the political left and right. Labour unions disdain multinational companies’ ability to move their operations to countries with cheaper labour; Indigenous peoples rue the difficulty of maintaining their traditions; and leftists object to the neoliberal character of the new world economy, arguing that the capitalist logic on which they contend globalization is based leads to asymmetrical power relations (both internationally and domestically) and transforms every aspect of life into a commodity. Right-wing critics of globalization believe that it threatens both national economies and national identity. They advocate national control of a country’s economy and rigidly restricted immigration.

Globalization has also produced effects that are more universally worrisome. Expanded transportation networks facilitate not only increased trade but also the spread of diseases. Undesirable trade, such as human trafficking and poaching, has flourished alongside legitimate commerce. Moreover, the pollution generated by the world’s modernization has resulted in global warming and climate change , threatening Earth’s very habitability.

Whether globalization will adapt to these problems remains to be seen, but it is already changing again. For example, globalization began in the 19th century with an explosion in exports, but, even before the COVID-19 pandemic that swept through the world in 2020 resulted in global lockdowns, trade as a share of many countries’ GDP had fallen. It can be argued that the global supply chains today rely more on knowledge than on labour . And services now constitute a larger share of the global economy than goods. A “fourth globalization” might indeed be here—or at least on the way.

IELTS Essay: Globalization

by Dave | Real Past Tests | 13 Comments

This is an IELTS writing task 2 sample answer essay on the topic of globalization from the real IELTS exam.

Please consider supporting me on Patreon.com/howtodoielts to receive my exclusive IELTS Ebooks – you can even sign up for private live lessons with me!

Globalization is positive for economies but its negative sides should not be ignored.

To what extent do you agree or disagree?

Many feel that the positives of globalization justify ignoring the downsides. In my opinion, modest benefits should not overshadow legitimate threats.

The most commonly cited advantages of globalization are economic. The argument here is that by allowing companies to operate across national borders, this is a boon to both consumers and national economies. For example, in the last several decades, many Asian countries such as Vietnam and China have allowed for foreign investment, thereby stimulating their economic growth. Individuals can enjoy a variety of products from around the world and the companies themselves contribute in the form of taxes and employment opportunities. However, many would caution that multinational companies are exploitive and have driven local businesses to bankruptcy. The overall impact for the average person is therefore uncertain.

Globalization also creates apparent cultural advantages. Individuals from all around the world can experience the latest Hollywood movies and listen to their favorite artists on applications like Spotify. This undoubtedly influences and encourages other entertainers to work hard and produce quality content. Nonetheless, it can foster a harmful homogeneity. The film industry is a prime example of this. The standard American structure for films and television shows is now copied globally and funded by powerful entertainment studios such as Netflix. These companies are almost exclusively interested in specific genres, most commonly crime and action. Over time, entertainment may become less unique and no longer showcase true diversity.

In conclusion, the cultural and economic advantages of globalization have concomitant tradeoffs. It is therefore important for each nation to carefully manage and balance their relationship to global society.

1. Many feel that the positives of globalization justify ignoring the downsides. 2. In my opinion, modest benefits should not overshadow legitimate threats.

Paraphrase the overall essay topic.
Write a clear opinion. Read more about introductions here .

1. The most commonly cited advantages of globalization are economic. 2. The argument here is that by allowing companies to operate across national borders, this is a boon to both consumers and national economies. 3. For example, in the last several decades, many Asian countries such as Vietnam and China have allowed for foreign investment, thereby stimulating their economic growth. 4. Individuals can enjoy a variety of products from around the world and the companies themselves contribute in the form of taxes and employment opportunities. 5. However, many would caution that multinational companies are exploitive and have driven local businesses to bankruptcy. 6. The overall impact for the average person is therefore uncertain.

Write a topic sentence with a clear main idea at the end.
Explain your main idea.
Develop it with specific or hypothetical examples.
Keep developing it fully.
Switch to talk about the disadvantages.
Develop that side too.

1. Globalization also creates apparent cultural advantages. 2. Individuals from all around the world can experience the latest Hollywood movies and listen to their favorite artists on applications like Spotify. 3. This undoubtedly influences and encourages other entertainers to work hard and produce quality content. 4. Nonetheless, it can foster a harmful homogeneity. 5. The film industry is a prime example of this. 6. The standard American structure for films and television shows is now copied globally and funded by powerful entertainment studios such as Netflix. 7. These companies are almost exclusively interested in specific genres, most commonly crime and action. 8. Over time, entertainment may become less unique and no longer showcase true diversity.

Write a new topic sentence with a new main idea at the end.
Explain your new main idea.
Include specific details and examples.
Continue developing it…
as fully as possible!
Be sure to develop the other side fully.
Including specific examples.
As well as the furthest possible result.

1. In conclusion, the cultural and economic advantages of globalization have concomitant tradeoffs. 2. It is therefore important for each nation to carefully manage and balance their relationship to global society.

Summarise your main ideas.
Include a final thought. Read more about conclusions here .

What do the words in bold below mean? Make some notes on paper to aid memory and then check below.

Many feel that the positives of globalization justify ignoring the downsides . In my opinion, modest benefits should not overshadow legitimate threats .

The most commonly cited advantages of globalization are economic . The argument here is that by allowing companies to operate across national borders , this is a boon to both consumers and national economies . For example, in the last several decades , many Asian countries such as Vietnam and China have allowed for foreign investment , thereby stimulating their economic growth . Individuals can enjoy a variety of products from around the world and the companies themselves contribute in the form of taxes and employment opportunities . However, many would caution that multinational companies are exploitive and have driven local businesses to bankruptcy . The overall impact for the average person is therefore uncertain .

Globalization also creates apparent cultural advantages . Individuals from all around the world can experience the latest Hollywood movies and listen to their favorite artists on applications like Spotify . This undoubtedly influences and encourages other entertainers to work hard and produce quality content . Nonetheless , it can foster a harmful homogeneity . The film industry is a prime example of this. The standard American structure for films and television shows is now copied globally and funded by powerful entertainment studios such as Netflix . These companies are almost exclusively interested in specific genres , most commonly crime and action. Over time , entertainment may become less unique and no longer showcase true diversity .

In conclusion, the cultural and economic advantages of globalization have concomitant tradeoffs . It is therefore important for each nation to carefully manage and balance their relationship to global society .

For extra practice, write an antonym (opposite word) on a piece of paper to help you remember the new vocabulary:

positives benefits

globalization the world being the same

justify give good reason for

ignoring not paying attention to

downsides negatives

modest benefits small advantages

overshadow stronger than

legitimate threats real risks

most commonly cited advantages drawbacks talked about the most

economic related to the economy

argument debate

allowing companies permitting corporations

operate across national borders work in various countries

boon benefit

consumers customers

national economies money earned in a country

in the last several decades last 20-30 years

Asian from Asia

allowed permitted

foreign investment money from other countries

stimulating making grow

economic growth countries making more money, higher GDP

variety different kinds of

products things that are sold

contribute add ot

in the form of as/made up of

taxes money paid to the government

employment opportunities job chances

exploitive take advantage of

driven local businesses made small businesses

bankruptcy out of business

overall impact whole effect

average person normal citizen

uncertain not clear

apparent cultural advantages seeming benefits for art

all around the world globally

experience watching/viewing

latest Hollywood movies new films at the cinema

listen hear

artists people who make music, films

Spotify application for streaming music

undoubtedly influences definitely affects

encourages motivates

produce quality content make good stuff

nonetheless regardless

foster engender

harmful homogeneity everything the same in a bad way

prime example good instance

standard all the same

structure way it is put together

copied duplicated

funded by given money by

studios companies that make movies

Netflix streaming website

exclusively interested only care about

specific genres individual types of movies

commonly normally

over time for a long time

unique singular

showcase true diversity show off real difference

concomitant tradeoffs resulting drawbacks

carefully manage diligently take care of

balance keep equal

relationship interaction

global society the whole world

Pronunciation

Practice saying the vocabulary below and use this tip about Google voice search :

ˈpɒzətɪvz ˌgləʊb(ə)laɪˈzeɪʃ(ə)n ˈʤʌstɪfaɪ ɪgˈnɔːrɪŋ ˈdaʊnˌsaɪdz ˈmɒdɪst ˈbɛnɪfɪts ˌəʊvəˈʃædəʊ lɪˈʤɪtɪmɪt θrɛts məʊst ˈkɒmənli ˈsaɪtɪd ədˈvɑːntɪʤɪz ˌiːkəˈnɒmɪk ˈɑːgjʊmənt əˈlaʊɪŋ ˈkʌmpəniz ˈɒpəreɪt əˈkrɒs ˈnæʃənl ˈbɔːdəz buːn kənˈsjuːməz ˈnæʃənl i(ː)ˈkɒnəmiz ɪn ðə lɑːst ˈsɛvrəl ˈdɛkeɪdz ˈeɪʃ(ə)n əˈlaʊd ˈfɒrɪn ɪnˈvɛstmənt ˈstɪmjʊleɪtɪŋ ˌiːkəˈnɒmɪk grəʊθ vəˈraɪəti ˈprɒdʌkts kənˈtrɪbju(ː)t ɪn ðə fɔːm ɒv ˈtæksɪz ɪmˈplɔɪmənt ˌɒpəˈtjuːnɪtiz ˈɛksplɔɪtɪv ˈdrɪvn ˈləʊkəl ˈbɪznɪsɪz ˈbæŋkrəptsi ˈəʊvərɔːl ˈɪmpækt ˈævərɪʤ ˈpɜːsn ʌnˈsɜːtn əˈpærənt ˈkʌlʧərəl ədˈvɑːntɪʤɪz ɔːl əˈraʊnd ðə wɜːld ɪksˈpɪərɪəns ˈleɪtɪst ˈhɒlɪwʊd ˈmuːviz ˈlɪsn ˈɑːtɪsts spɒtifaɪ ʌnˈdaʊtɪdli ˈɪnflʊənsɪz ɪnˈkʌrɪʤɪz ˈprɒdjuːs ˈkwɒlɪti ˈkɒntɛnt ˌnʌnðəˈlɛs ˈfɒstə ˈhɑːmfʊl ˌhɒməʊʤɛˈniːɪti praɪm ɪgˈzɑːmpl ˈstændəd ˈstrʌkʧə ˈkɒpid ˈfʌndɪd baɪ ˈstjuːdɪəʊz nɛtflɪks ɪksˈkluːsɪvli ˈɪntrɪstɪd spɪˈsɪfɪk ˈ(d)ʒɑːŋrəz ˈkɒmənli ˈəʊvə taɪm juːˈniːk ˈʃəʊkeɪs truː daɪˈvɜːsɪti kənˈkɒmɪtənt treɪd ɒfs ˈkeəfli ˈmænɪʤ ˈbæləns rɪˈleɪʃənʃɪp ˈgləʊbəl səˈsaɪəti

Vocabulary Practice

I recommend getting a pencil and piece of paper because that aids memory. Then write down the missing vocabulary from my sample answer in your notebook:

Many feel that the p____________s of g_________________n j__________y i__________g the d_____________s . In my opinion, m______________s should not o_______________________________________s .

The m___________________________s of globalization are e____________c . The a___________t here is that by a_______________________s to o_____________________________s , this is a b_______n to both c____________s and n______________________s . For example, i________________________s , many A______n countries such as Vietnam and China have a__________d for f______________________t , thereby s_______________g their e_________________h . Individuals can enjoy a v_________y of p_________s from around the world and the companies themselves c___________e i_______________f t____s and e____________________________s . However, many would caution that multinational companies are e_______________e and have d_________________________________s to b______________y . The o_______________t for the a________________n is therefore u__________n .

Globalization also creates a_______________________________s . Individuals from a_________________________d can e______________e the l________________________s and l_______n to their favorite a_________s on applications like S__________y . This u____________________s and e______________s other entertainers to work hard and p_______________________t . N_____________s , it can f_________r a h_______________________y . The film industry is a p________________e of this. The s___________d American s___________e for films and television shows is now c_______d globally and f___________y powerful entertainment s________s such as N_________x . These companies are almost e______________________d in s_________________s , most c___________y crime and action. O___________e , entertainment may become less u________e and no longer s____________________________y .

In conclusion, the cultural and economic advantages of globalization have c_________________________s . It is therefore important for each nation to c____________________e and b_____________e their r_______________p to g___________________y .

Listening Practice

Learn more about this topic by watching videos from The New York Times YouTube channel below and practice with these activities :

Reading Practice

Read more about this topic and use these ideas to practice :

Examining the impacts of Globalization: A Case study of Afghanistan

Speaking Practice

Practice with the following speaking questions from the real IELTS speaking exam :

International Events/Parties

What sort of international events does your country host?
Do you think these types of events divide people?
Why are these events celebrated?
What activities are common for these celebrations?
Are there many events that are celebrated across national borders?

Writing Practice

Practice with the related IELTS essay topic below:

The growth of multinational companies and the resulting rise of globalization creates positive effects for all.

IELTS Essay: Multinational Companies

Recommended For You

Latest IELTS Writing Task 1 2024 (Graphs, Charts, Maps, Processes)

by Dave | Sample Answers | 147 Comments

These are the most recent/latest IELTS Writing Task 1 Task topics and questions starting in 2019, 2020, 2021, 2022, 2023, and continuing into 2024. ...

Recent IELTS Writing Topics and Questions 2024

by Dave | Sample Answers | 342 Comments

Read here all the newest IELTS questions and topics from 2024 and previous years with sample answers/essays. Be sure to check out my ...

Find my Newest IELTS Post Here – Updated Daily!

by Dave | IELTS FAQ | 18 Comments

How to Brainstorm Ideas (10 Amazing Ways)

by Dave | Ideas and Body Paragraphs | 29 Comments

Brainstorming is such an important skill that can really help your Task 2 IELTS Writing and Part 3 IELTS Speaking. If you can brainstorm well, you'll ...

IELTS Cambridge 16 Essay: Advertising New Products

by Dave | Cambridge 16 | 9 Comments

This is an IELTS writing task 2 sample answer essay from the newly released Cambridge 16 on the topic of businesses nowadays emphasising that their products ...

Cambridge IELTS 16 – The Complete Guide!

by Dave | Cambridge 16 IELTS Cambridge 16 | 0 Comment

The latest Cambridge IELTS 16 book of past tests just came out and I have collected some tips and materials to help you get the most ...

Submit a Comment Cancel reply

You must be logged in to post a comment.

13 Comments

Thank you so much

You’re very welcome!

Thank u sooo much sir your method of explaining is too good

You’re welcome, Amanat!

Really helpful

Hello, in 1st sentence, I think there should be ‘do not’ between globalisation and justify! Like, positives of globalisation do not justify ignoring the downsides.(according to the main title or your topic of the essay)

It’s not needed here Sandra – the positives justify… is a simple subject + verb + object clause.

You can add in ‘do not’ but it is not needed.

Thanx for explanation!

No worries, Sandra!

Exclusive Ebooks, PDFs and more from me!

Don't miss out!

"The highest quality materials anywhere on the internet! Dave improved my writing and vocabulary so much. Really affordable options you don't want to miss out on!"

Minh, Vietnam

Hi, I’m Dave! Welcome to my IELTS exclusive resources! Before you commit I want to explain very clearly why there’s no one better to help you learn about IELTS and improve your English at the same time... Read more

Patreon Exclusive Ebooks Available Now!

COMMENTS

High expectations in Uzbekistan
High expectations in Uzbekistan. Uzbekistan's economic transition from plan to market started three decades ago when it became an independent country. But for much of this time, economic ...
PDF Impact of Globalization on International Trade of Uzbekistan
independence. Uzbekistan is also a big producer of gold, with the largest open-pit gold mine in the world. The country has substantial deposits of Silver, strategic minerals, gas, and oil. III. Literature Review: The term globalization means merging of several national market and international networks belonging to a social and an economical ...
PDF United Nations Common Country Analysis: Uzbekistan
4 United Nations Common Country Analysis: Uzbekistan. This update to the Uzbekistan Common Country Analysis (CCA) takes into account the impact of the COVID-19 crisis in 2020 and its continuing effects in 2021, touching not only public health and the economy, but also many other sectors and multiple socio-economic groups. ...
Uzbekistan's international relations
In particular, its analysis of the often-invoked globalization, and its implications for Uzbekistan's bilateral relations, could have gone beyond the commercial perspective. While globalization, understood mainly in economic terms, played a significant role in shaping Uzbekistan's foreign policy, little is said about the regional level.
To Withstand Global Shocks, Uzbekistan Needs to Continue Reforms and
Thanks to continuous market reform efforts since 2017, Uzbekistan has become much more resilient to external shocks. With GDP projected to expand by 5.3 percent in 2022, Uzbekistan will be one of the fastest growing of the Europe and Central Asia region's 23 countries, along with Armenia, Croatia, Georgia, and Montenegro.
PDF The Impact of National Independence and Globalization on the Status of
The Impact of National Independence and Globalization on the Status of English Language Instruction within Uzbekistan Abstract Uzbekistan is a multinational country where the Uzbek language remains the only official language within the country. While historically the Russian language has served the function
How Uzbekistan is transforming into an open economy
Uzbekistan is in its second year of a wide-ranging market-oriented program of reforms. The government is making three fundamental shifts to the economy: from a command-and-control to a market ...
(PDF) Distinctive Features o f Economic Development o f Uzbekistan in
Related Papers. UZBEKISTAN ON THE WAY OF MODERNIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NATIONAL ECONOMY. 2016 • RS Global. ... Distinctive Features o f Economic Development o f Uzbekistan in Terms o f Globalization In distinction from many developing countries in the world, the process of Uzbekistan's adaptation as of a country with transitive economy ...
To Withstand Global Shocks, Uzbekistan Needs to Continue Reforms and
With GDP projected to expand by 5.3 percent in 2022, Uzbekistan will be one of the fastest growing of the Europe and Central Asia region's 23 countries, along with Armenia, Croatia, Georgia, and ...
New Uzbekistan
Second, Uzbekistan today constantly promotes the principle of multilateralism in the country's foreign policy. Uzbekistan stands for the development of creative processes of globalization, the establishment of mutually beneficial and equal international cooperation based on dialogue, mutual trust and respect for each other's interests.
Some Responses to Globalisation in Uzbekistan in: Anthropology of the
Uzbekistan offers a case study of a country that has blocked the liberalisation of its economy and that is being marginalised in the world market as well as in the international community. Even still, two typical expressions of globalisation processes can be identified: first, an attempt to reconstruct the legitimacy of the state through the reinvention of a 'national identity', and, second ...
The Impact Of Globalization On Business Development
The impact of globalization on business development of Uzbekistan. Globalization is the process of increasing the connectivity, the worldwide movement toward economic, financial, trade, communications integration and interdependence of the world's markets and businesses. Globalization implies lessening the significance of national barriers ...
Uzbekistan's Transition to a Green Economy: Challenges and
Uzbekistan has been making significant strides to incorporate sustainable practices into its overall economic planning. The country began transitioning from a planned economy to a market economy ...
Uzbekistan Overview: Development news, research, data
36.2. GDP, current $ billion. 90.9. GDP per capita, current $. 2,510.1. Life Expectancy at Birth, years. 70.9. Uzbekistan has undertaken extensive reforms in recent years, liberalizing certain economic sectors and enhancing the private sector's prospects. In 2023, the Government made several key moves, such as (i) establishing an independent ...
[PDF] Resistance to globalization: Language and Internet diffusion
How the Internet can facilitate cultural expression that resists the homogenizing effects of globalization is discussed, which examines how local cultures adapt their linguistic behavior and language choices to the Internet and express themselves in culturally meaningful ways without being subsumed by a global agenda. This paper discusses how the Internet can facilitate cultural expression ...
An economist explains the pros and cons of globalization
The advantages of globalization are actually much like the advantages of technological improvement. They have very similar effects: they raise output in countries, raise productivity, create more jobs, raise wages, and lower prices of products in the world economy. What might be the advantages of globalization that someone would feel in their ...
Uzbekistan: An Outpost Against Globalization
The advisory council will use the data from the papers to identify and prioritize the economic challenges likely to be faced by a post-Karimov reform government, and engage opposition leaders in a discussion of the socio-economic ramifications of alternative reform policies.[20] ... Uzbekistan: an outpost against globalization. By Dr K R Bolton ...
What Are the Implications of Globalization on Sustainability?—A
It is becoming more and more certain that globalization is not just purely an economical phenomenon; it is exhibiting itself on a worldwide level. Amid globalization's observable appearances, the most obvious are the larger international mobility of goods and services, flows of finance capital, data and information and most importantly people. On top of that, there are technological ...
Globalization and Education
However, many leading scholars of globalization have argued that the major causes or shapers of globalization, particularly the movement and mixing of elements beyond a local or national level, is at least many centuries old; others frame globalization as representing processes inherent to the human experience, within a 5,000-10,000-year time ...
Globalization: What Globalization Is and Its Impact Essay
Globalization is a complex phenomenon that has a big influence on various fields of human life, including economics, society, and culture. Even though trade between countries has existed since time immemorial, in the 21st-century, globalization has become an integral part of the world's development. While businesses try to expand on a global ...
Globalization
The "second globalization" era is said to have lasted from roughly 1944 to 1971, a period in which an international monetary system based on the value of the U.S. dollar facilitated a new level of trade between capitalist countries. And the "third globalization" era is thought to have begun with the revolutions of 1989-90, which ...
IELTS Essay: Globalization
Paraphrase the overall essay topic. Write a clear opinion. Read more about introductions here. 1. The most commonly cited advantages of globalization are economic. 2. The argument here is that by allowing companies to operate across national borders, this is a boon to both consumers and national economies. 3.
Exploring Globalization's Impact on Cultural Identity
The Influence of Globalization on Cultural Identity Globalization has profoundly impacted cultures worldwide, blending diverse traditions and practices into a complex global tapestry. This essay explores how globalization influences cultural identity, examining both the benefits and challenges it presents. Globalization fosters cultural exchange by facilitating the movement of people, ideas ...