dialect essay conclusion

So much is at stake in writing a conclusion. This is, after all, your last chance to persuade your readers to your point of view, to impress yourself upon them as a writer and thinker. And the impression you create in your conclusion will shape the impression that stays with your readers after they've finished the essay.

The end of an essay should therefore convey a sense of completeness and closure as well as a sense of the lingering possibilities of the topic, its larger meaning, its implications: the final paragraph should close the discussion without closing it off.

To establish a sense of closure, you might do one or more of the following:

• Conclude by linking the last paragraph to the first, perhaps by reiterating a word or phrase you used at the beginning.
• Conclude with a sentence composed mainly of one-syllable words. Simple language can help create an effect of understated drama.
• Conclude with a sentence that's compound or parallel in structure; such sentences can establish a sense of balance or order that may feel just right at the end of a complex discussion.

To close the discussion without closing it off, you might do one or more of the following:

• Conclude with a quotation from or reference to a primary or secondary source, one that amplifies your main point or puts it in a different perspective. A quotation from, say, the novel or poem you're writing about can add texture and specificity to your discussion; a critic or scholar can help confirm or complicate your final point. For example, you might conclude an essay on the idea of home in James Joyce's short story collection,  Dubliners , with information about Joyce's own complex feelings towards Dublin, his home. Or you might end with a biographer's statement about Joyce's attitude toward Dublin, which could illuminate his characters' responses to the city. Just be cautious, especially about using secondary material: make sure that you get the last word.
• Conclude by setting your discussion into a different, perhaps larger, context. For example, you might end an essay on nineteenth-century muckraking journalism by linking it to a current news magazine program like  60 Minutes .
• Conclude by redefining one of the key terms of your argument. For example, an essay on Marx's treatment of the conflict between wage labor and capital might begin with Marx's claim that the "capitalist economy is . . . a gigantic enterprise of dehumanization "; the essay might end by suggesting that Marxist analysis is itself dehumanizing because it construes everything in economic -- rather than moral or ethical-- terms.
• Conclude by considering the implications of your argument (or analysis or discussion). What does your argument imply, or involve, or suggest? For example, an essay on the novel  Ambiguous Adventure , by the Senegalese writer Cheikh Hamidou Kane, might open with the idea that the protagonist's development suggests Kane's belief in the need to integrate Western materialism and Sufi spirituality in modern Senegal. The conclusion might make the new but related point that the novel on the whole suggests that such an integration is (or isn't) possible.

Finally, some advice on how not to end an essay:

• Don't simply summarize your essay. A brief summary of your argument may be useful, especially if your essay is long--more than ten pages or so. But shorter essays tend not to require a restatement of your main ideas.
• Avoid phrases like "in conclusion," "to conclude," "in summary," and "to sum up." These phrases can be useful--even welcome--in oral presentations. But readers can see, by the tell-tale compression of the pages, when an essay is about to end. You'll irritate your audience if you belabor the obvious.
• Resist the urge to apologize. If you've immersed yourself in your subject, you now know a good deal more about it than you can possibly include in a five- or ten- or 20-page essay. As a result, by the time you've finished writing, you may be having some doubts about what you've produced. (And if you haven't immersed yourself in your subject, you may be feeling even more doubtful about your essay as you approach the conclusion.) Repress those doubts. Don't undercut your authority by saying things like, "this is just one approach to the subject; there may be other, better approaches. . ."

Copyright 1998, Pat Bellanca, for the Writing Center at Harvard University

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The power of language: How words shape people, culture

Speaking, writing and reading are integral to everyday life, where language is the primary tool for expression and communication. Studying how people use language – what words and phrases they unconsciously choose and combine – can help us better understand ourselves and why we behave the way we do.

Linguistics scholars seek to determine what is unique and universal about the language we use, how it is acquired and the ways it changes over time. They consider language as a cultural, social and psychological phenomenon.

“Understanding why and how languages differ tells about the range of what is human,” said Dan Jurafsky , the Jackson Eli Reynolds Professor in Humanities and chair of the Department of Linguistics in the School of Humanities and Sciences at Stanford . “Discovering what’s universal about languages can help us understand the core of our humanity.”

The stories below represent some of the ways linguists have investigated many aspects of language, including its semantics and syntax, phonetics and phonology, and its social, psychological and computational aspects.

Understanding stereotypes

Stanford linguists and psychologists study how language is interpreted by people. Even the slightest differences in language use can correspond with biased beliefs of the speakers, according to research.

One study showed that a relatively harmless sentence, such as “girls are as good as boys at math,” can subtly perpetuate sexist stereotypes. Because of the statement’s grammatical structure, it implies that being good at math is more common or natural for boys than girls, the researchers said.

Language can play a big role in how we and others perceive the world, and linguists work to discover what words and phrases can influence us, unknowingly.

How well-meaning statements can spread stereotypes unintentionally

New Stanford research shows that sentences that frame one gender as the standard for the other can unintentionally perpetuate biases.

Algorithms reveal changes in stereotypes

New Stanford research shows that, over the past century, linguistic changes in gender and ethnic stereotypes correlated with major social movements and demographic changes in the U.S. Census data.

Exploring what an interruption is in conversation

Stanford doctoral candidate Katherine Hilton found that people perceive interruptions in conversation differently, and those perceptions differ depending on the listener’s own conversational style as well as gender.

Cops speak less respectfully to black community members

Professors Jennifer Eberhardt and Dan Jurafsky, along with other Stanford researchers, detected racial disparities in police officers’ speech after analyzing more than 100 hours of body camera footage from Oakland Police.

How other languages inform our own

People speak roughly 7,000 languages worldwide. Although there is a lot in common among languages, each one is unique, both in its structure and in the way it reflects the culture of the people who speak it.

Jurafsky said it’s important to study languages other than our own and how they develop over time because it can help scholars understand what lies at the foundation of humans’ unique way of communicating with one another.

“All this research can help us discover what it means to be human,” Jurafsky said.

Stanford PhD student documents indigenous language of Papua New Guinea

Fifth-year PhD student Kate Lindsey recently returned to the United States after a year of documenting an obscure language indigenous to the South Pacific nation.

Students explore Esperanto across Europe

In a research project spanning eight countries, two Stanford students search for Esperanto, a constructed language, against the backdrop of European populism.

Chris Manning: How computers are learning to understand language​

A computer scientist discusses the evolution of computational linguistics and where it’s headed next.

Stanford research explores novel perspectives on the evolution of Spanish

Using digital tools and literature to explore the evolution of the Spanish language, Stanford researcher Cuauhtémoc García-García reveals a new historical perspective on linguistic changes in Latin America and Spain.

Language as a lens into behavior

Linguists analyze how certain speech patterns correspond to particular behaviors, including how language can impact people’s buying decisions or influence their social media use.

For example, in one research paper, a group of Stanford researchers examined the differences in how Republicans and Democrats express themselves online to better understand how a polarization of beliefs can occur on social media.

“We live in a very polarized time,” Jurafsky said. “Understanding what different groups of people say and why is the first step in determining how we can help bring people together.”

Analyzing the tweets of Republicans and Democrats

New research by Dora Demszky and colleagues examined how Republicans and Democrats express themselves online in an attempt to understand how polarization of beliefs occurs on social media.

Examining bilingual behavior of children at Texas preschool

A Stanford senior studied a group of bilingual children at a Spanish immersion preschool in Texas to understand how they distinguished between their two languages.

Predicting sales of online products from advertising language

Stanford linguist Dan Jurafsky and colleagues have found that products in Japan sell better if their advertising includes polite language and words that invoke cultural traditions or authority.

Language can help the elderly cope with the challenges of aging, says Stanford professor

By examining conversations of elderly Japanese women, linguist Yoshiko Matsumoto uncovers language techniques that help people move past traumatic events and regain a sense of normalcy.

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How to Write an Exclusive Dialectic Essay: Assignment and Sample

Last updated: July 2019

Oh no, not again!

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Essay types are numerous, and students have to know them all, as well as understand the difference between them. What to do if a professor assigns a dialectic essay to you?

The assignment : write a dialectic essay on the topic of your choice, it should be about 2 double-spaced typed pages (600 words maximum). Follow the structure and clearly label each section of your essay.

Here goes the definition of a dialectic essay for you again:

Dialectic essay is a sort of argumentative dialogue or debate, where a writer should make a thesis and use different arguments and counterarguments to prove this thesis’ verity.

Unlike critical précis , a dialectic essay is not about taking a single stand on the issue. Here you should represent all arguments, even if you don’t agree with some of them. A professor might ask to share your opinion in conclusion, but this essay type is more about a rational discussion of all sides.

It is like a conversation among several people:

• One introduces and proves an argument.
• Another one objects it, providing a counterargument and, therefore, starting a debate.
• Finally, a third one responds to the objection with arguments, different from those in the first paragraph.

Why do they ask you to write a dialectic essay?

Nope, that’s not because your professors hate you.

By assigning dialectic essays, they want to check your ability to clarify thoughts on a particular subject. This essay type is perfect for presenting the subject from different points of view, considering its both positive and negative aspects, and making a conclusion accordingly.

Writing a dialectic essay, you learn to see all values and vices of the thesis, as well as explore the subject in depth.

What is the structure of a dialectic essay?

It reminds a standard 5-paragraph essay, which consists of an introduction, where you present your argumentative thesis , a body of three parts, and a conclusion.

How to organize a dialectic essay?

Introduction (a thesis itself)

First of all, the introduction of your dialectic essay should represent a thesis . To introduce a debate in the paper, make sure to choose a topic and thesis that have at least two interpretations.

Make your thesis controversial to have an opportunity of representing opposite views in your essay. And yet, don’t make the introduction too long. This part of your dialectic paper consists of one paragraph.

Paragraph 1 of a dialectic essay presents one argument with facts to support and prove it to the audience. It (argument) supports your thesis.

The second paragraph of a dialectic essay responds to the argument of Paragraph 1, providing the objection to it.

NB! This paragraph objects the argument, not the thesis. Give reasons why it’s not the ultimate truth, and support your objecting with proofs. In this way, you make an essay a kind of a debate between two people with opposite views.

Paragraph 3 of a dialectic essay is your response to the objecting. However, don’t refer to the same arguments you used in Paragraph 1. This part of your essay responds to the objection from Paragraph 2.

There is no need to provide new arguments for the thesis because your task here is to criticize Paragraph 2.

As a rule, the only right argument of your debate is that from Paragraph 1. The rest two serve to demonstrate your professor that you understand the thesis in depth and see its all interpretations.

The aim of a final paragraph is to support the initial thesis of your dialectic essay or represent a new one, which would combine both arguments and counterarguments.

NB! Don’t change the thesis! It may be a kind of modification supported by more proofs but not a complete reversal.

This sample of a dialectic essay will help to understand the sense of such a writing assignment better.

Three Opposing Viewpoints on Abortion by Amy Geiger

From: tc.umn.edu

Dialectic Essay Topics

Dialectic essay tips.

First, you must recognize that dialectic writing is one of the rarest types of papers that do not occur too often. Because of this, learning how to write them well can be a big challenge because there will be little practice. This type of writing generally involves a reasoned dialog between the writer and the arguments for and against.

Here are some essential writing guidelines:

• First, you should read all the teacher’s requirements, because they can differ. In the future, this will help you to make a minimum number of mistakes.
• After that, try to choose a topic you already have experience with. Thanks to this, you can develop a writing plan and not make mistakes in facts.
• Be sure to research the topic to find out all sides and positions of the participants. You need to prove and disprove your arguments at the same time.
• Write an outline of your essay and specify everything down to the smallest detail. This will help you not to get confused in your argumentation.
• After writing, read your essay to your friends and acquaintances. This will help you find weaknesses and correct them.

In general, you need to pay the most attention to your sources of information. Ensure that all the cited studies are written correctly and do not contradict each other.

So, now what?

Once your professor assigns a dialectic essay, follow this checklist to make sure you don’t miss anything:

• Choose a debatable topic (except as noted).
• Come up with a thesis and represent it in the introduction of your dialectic essay.
• Think about all the possible pros and cons of the thesis.
• Organize all ideas to determine both arguments and counterarguments.
• Write three paragraphs of your essay, with each objecting and responding to a previous one.
• Make sure that your counterarguments don’t object the thesis but arguments from previous paragraphs of a dialectic essay.
• Finish your dialectic essay with a conclusion that would support the thesis and initial argument.
• Proofread and edit your essay .

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How to Write a Dialectic Essay With Explanations and Examples

11 December 2023

last updated

Dialectic essays enable students to participate in meaningful discourse on controversial topics in their respective disciplines. Basically, this manual discusses the procedure for creating an excellent dialectic essay. Moreover, the guide commences with an exhaustive definition of a dialectic essay and highlights its distinct characteristics. After the detailed introduction into dialectic essay writing, the manual provides sample topics and explains their distinguishable traits. Next, the guide of how to write a dialectic expounds on its structure. In turn, the manual concludes with a sample outline and a sample dialectic essay.

Definition of a Dialectic Essay

A dialectic essay is a type of essay that requires authors to test a thesis statement exhaustively and reach an objective conclusion. Basically, the process of testing a thesis statement has three main stages: identifying the core argument supporting a thesis statement, provision of a viable counterargument, and an evaluation of a counterargument. As a result, authors conduct a comprehensive exploration of the topic of interest to yield a conclusion that they validate. The testing process does not necessarily provide a correct position on the debatable topic. Instead, it identifies the most reasonable view within the context of the evidence and arguments that are present in the body of the essay. In most cases, the conclusion of the discourse supports the essay’s thesis statement.

Uniqueness of a Dialectic Essay

The critique of both the main argument and counterarguments is a distinct characteristic of a dialectic essay. In particular, a standard essay simply presents minor arguments in body paragraphs that support the central claim that writers provide in a thesis statement. However, a dialectic essay goes beyond the presentation of minor arguments. Firstly, a dialectic essay discusses counterarguments to minor arguments to establish the main opposing views. Then, such a paper evaluates the validity and relative weight of a counterargument in a discussion.

Sample Topics for a Dialectic Essay

1. sample topics in various disciplines:.

Engineering and technology:

• The impact of social media on relationship formation.
• Quality of education in the technological age.

Medicine and health:

• The cause of the painkiller ‘pandemic.’
• Modern-day suicide: Do not resuscitate order.

Political science:

• The effects of stringent immigration law.
• The dominant political ideology in America.
• Welcoming transgenderism into society.
• Children’s experience in dual-career families.

Psychology:

• Parental pressure and body image in teens.
• Trading drug addictions and non-drug addictions.

2. Identifying a Dialectic Essay Topic

Students can readily recognize a dialectic essay topic because of its controversial nature. At first sight, learners may categorize a topic as a dialectic essay topic if they realize that there are no less than two reasonable perspectives, which authors can use to create a convincing argument. Upon close examination of the existing body of knowledge on a topic, a student can ascertain that a theme is a dialectic essay topic if he or she finds viable rebuttals to counterarguments, which offer more clarity on contested issues and lead to a logical conclusion.

Structure of a Dialectic Essay

I. Introduction

The introductory paragraph consists of a hook, adequate background information, and a thesis statement. Basically, the role of a hook in the opening paragraph is to capture the attention of a reader and trigger interest to read the entire essay. Then, the background information lays the groundwork for authors to announce the central claim of a dialectic essay. In turn, a strong thesis statement for a dialectic essay should be debatable. Notably, the length of the introduction varies with the essay’s word count because a good introduction does not take up more than 10% of a dialectic essay.

II. Body Paragraphs

Organization. The complexity of a dialectic essay requires students to use a point-by-point organization structure. Basically, this organizational style necessitates the clustering of paragraphs that contain the minor argument, counterargument, and critique of a counterargument under a shared heading to ensure that readers distinguish between independent instances of dialectics. Specifically, this arrangement prevents the audience from losing track of the logical link that exists between three paragraphs that form a dialectic instance. In turn, the arrangement of clusters has an impact on the efficacy of a dialectic essay.

Paragraph structure. All body paragraphs adhere to the ‘sandwich’ rule. Basically, this rule defines a fixed arrangement of components of a paragraph. For example, a topic sentence is the first element of a body paragraph, and it contains the minor argument that writers discuss within a paragraph. After a topic sentence, students introduce a specific piece of evidence, which supports the minor argument. Then, learners provide an interpretation of the evidence and point out the significance of the evidence to the minor argument. Lastly, authors write a concluding sentence that links the minor argument, evidence, interpretation, cluster theme, and thesis statement.

III. Conclusion

The opening sentence of the conclusion should be an iteration of the central claim, but students must use different words and sentence structures. Next, learners must write a concise summary of the argument that supports the thesis statement, counterargument, and argument that criticizes this counterargument. Finally, authors reveal the ‘true’ position on a controversial topic by providing a justification that reflects on the argument, counterargument, and critique in an objective fashion.

Sample Outline Template for a Dialectic Essay

A. Hook. B. Background information. C. A debatable thesis statement.

A. First paragraph

• The minor argument that supports a thesis statement.
• Evidence supporting this paragraph’s claim.
• Interpretation and analysis of the evidence.
• A concluding statement that shows the relationship between the first paragraph’s claim and thesis statement.

B. Second body paragraph

• A counterargument to the minor argument of the first paragraph.
• A concluding statement that shows the relationship between the second paragraph’s counterargument and thesis statement.

C. Third body paragraph

• An idea that provides a critique of a counterargument.
• A concluding statement that shows the relationship between the third paragraph’s claim and the counterargument of the second paragraph.

A. Restatement of the thesis statement. B. Summary of the main supporting argument, counterargument, and critique of this counterargument. C. Closing remarks emphasizing the dominance of the central claim over the counterargument.

Sample Dialectic Essay

Topic: Divorce and Its Effects on the Family

I. Introduction Sample of a Dialectic Essay

Marriages in the 21 st century are disintegrating at an early stage. Basically, children are bystanders in divorce, but the breaking of the family affects them to a large extent. In turn, divorce improves the quality of parenting and sustains a healthy home environment.

II. Examples of Body Paragraphs in a Dialectic Essay

A. the main argument.

There is no significant difference in the children’s level of happiness. According to the American Family Organization (2020), the disparity in the happiness index of children from a nuclear family and children of divorced parents is decreasing steadily, with an all-time low of 0.001 in the 2019 national family survey. Moreover, the children of divorced families feel loved and safe despite living in a home with only one parent at a time. Hence, divorce is not a determining factor in creating an ideal home environment.

B. Counterargument

Divorce affects the ability of parents to play their roles in childrearing effectively. For example, Jones (2020) found that the probability of divorced parents to fulfill traditional parenting roles is 0.65. Based on this finding, it is apparent that divorced parents cannot engage in effective parenting at all times when compared to the parents in a traditional nuclear family setup. Accordingly, divorce places additional strain on parenting and the home environment.

C. Critique of a Counterargument

The maintenance of a broken marriage shows no inherent value to parenting. For instance, Potter’s (2020) study provides evidence that resentment build-up in unhappy marriages and the transference of these feelings to children impairs parenting. Moreover, resentment hurts both parents and children. In turn, the opportunity cost associated with the protection of the nuclear family structure is too high.

III. Conclusion Sample of a Dialectic Essay

The nuclear family structure cannot survive the stress caused by unhappy partners. Moreover, there is no need for parents to force a marriage if the marriage is unsalvageable. Thus, divorce is the right choice because it offers the most protection for the children’s interests.

Final Provisions on How to Write a Good Dialectic Essay

• Students should select a topic that is debatable to create a persuasive dialectic essay.
• Authors must locate evidence from reliable sources and offer appropriate documentation.
• Proper organization of a dialectic essay is critical to the clarity of such a paper.

To Learn More, Read Relevant Articles

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How to Write a Conclusion for an Essay

By the time you get to the final paragraph of your paper, you have already done so much work on your essay, so all you want to do is to wrap it up as quickly as possible. You’ve already made a stunning introduction, proven your argument, and structured the whole piece as supposed – who cares about making a good conclusion paragraph?

The only thing you need to remember is that the conclusion of an essay is not just the last paragraph of an academic paper where you restate your thesis and key arguments. A concluding paragraph is also your opportunity to have a final impact on your audience. 

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How to write a conclusion paragraph that leaves a lasting impression – In this guide, the team at EssayPro is going to walk you through the process of writing a perfect conclusion step by step. Additionally, we will share valuable tips and tricks to help students of all ages impress their readers at the last moment.

Instead of Intro: What Is a Conclusion?

Before we can move on, let’s take a moment here to define the conclusion itself. According to the standard conclusion definition, it is pretty much the last part of something, its result, or end. However, this term is rather broad and superficial.

When it comes to writing academic papers, a concluding statement refers to an opinion, judgment, suggestion, or position arrived at by logical reasoning (through the arguments provided in the body of the text). Therefore, if you are wondering “what is a good closing sentence like?” – keep on reading.

What Does a Good Conclusion Mean?

Writing a good conclusion for a paper isn’t easy. However, we are going to walk you through this process step by step. Although there are generally no strict rules on how to formulate one, there are some basic principles that everyone should keep in mind. In this section, we will share some core ideas for writing a good conclusion, and, later in the article, we will also provide you with more practical advice and examples.

Here are the core goals a good conclusion should complete:

• “Wrap up” the entire paper;
• Demonstrate to readers that the author accomplished what he/she set out to do;
• Show how you the author has proved their thesis statement;
• Give a sense of completeness and closure on the topic;
• Leave something extra for your reader to think about;
• Leave a powerful final impact on a reader.

Another key thing to remember is that you should not introduce any new ideas or arguments to your paper's conclusion. It should only sum up what you have already written, revisit your thesis statement, and end with a powerful final impression.

When considering how to write a conclusion that works, here are the key points to keep in mind:

• A concluding sentence should only revisit the thesis statement, not restate it;
• It should summarize the main ideas from the body of the paper;
• It should demonstrate the significance and relevance of your work;
• An essay’s conclusion should include a call for action and leave space for further study or development of the topic (if necessary).

How Long Should a Conclusion Be? 

Although there are no strict universal rules regarding the length of an essay’s final clause, both teachers and experienced writers recommend keeping it clear, concise, and straight to the point. There is an unspoken rule that the introduction and conclusion of an academic paper should both be about 10% of the overall paper’s volume. For example, if you were assigned a 1500 word essay, both the introductory and final clauses should be approximately 150 words long (300 together).

Why You Need to Know How to End an Essay:

A conclusion is what drives a paper to its logical end. It also drives the main points of your piece one last time. It is your last opportunity to impact and impress your audience. And, most importantly, it is your chance to demonstrate to readers why your work matters. Simply put, the final paragraph of your essay should answer the last important question a reader will have – “So what?”

If you do a concluding paragraph right, it can give your readers a sense of logical completeness. On the other hand, if you do not make it powerful enough, it can leave them hanging, and diminish the effect of the entire piece.

Strategies to Crafting a Proper Conclusion

Although there are no strict rules for what style to use to write your conclusion, there are several strategies that have been proven to be effective. In the list below, you can find some of the most effective strategies with some good conclusion paragraph examples to help you grasp the idea.

One effective way to emphasize the significance of your essay and give the audience some thought to ponder about is by taking a look into the future. The “When and If” technique is quite powerful when it comes to supporting your points in the essay’s conclusion.

Prediction essay conclusion example: “Taking care of a pet is quite hard, which is the reason why most parents refuse their children’s requests to get a pet. However, the refusal should be the last choice of parents. If we want to inculcate a deep sense of responsibility and organization in our kids, and, at the same time, sprout compassion in them, we must let our children take care of pets.”

Another effective strategy is to link your conclusion to your introductory paragraph. This will create a full-circle narration for your readers, create a better understanding of your topic, and emphasize your key point.

Echo conclusion paragraph example: Introduction: “I believe that all children should grow up with a pet. I still remember the exact day my parents brought my first puppy to our house. This was one of the happiest moments in my life and, at the same time, one of the most life-changing ones. Growing up with a pet taught me a lot, and most importantly, it taught me to be responsible.” Conclusion:. “I remember when I picked up my first puppy and how happy I was at that time. Growing up with a pet, I learned what it means to take care of someone, make sure that he always has water and food, teach him, and constantly keep an eye on my little companion. Having a child grow up with a pet teaches them responsibility and helps them acquire a variety of other life skills like leadership, love, compassion, and empathy. This is why I believe that every kid should grow up with a pet!”

Finally, one more trick that will help you create a flawless conclusion is to amplify your main idea or to present it in another perspective of a larger context. This technique will help your readers to look at the problem discussed from a different angle.

Step-up argumentative essay conclusion example: “Despite the obvious advantages of owning a pet in childhood, I feel that we cannot generalize whether all children should have a pet. Whereas some kids may benefit from such experiences, namely, by becoming more compassionate, organized, and responsible, it really depends on the situation, motivation, and enthusiasm of a particular child for owning a pet.”

What is a clincher in an essay? – The final part of an essay’s conclusion is often referred to as a clincher sentence. According to the clincher definition, it is a final sentence that reinforces the main idea or leaves the audience with an intriguing thought to ponder upon. In a nutshell, the clincher is very similar to the hook you would use in an introductory paragraph. Its core mission is to seize the audience’s attention until the end of the paper. At the same time, this statement is what creates a sense of completeness and helps the author leave a lasting impression on the reader.

Now, since you now know what a clincher is, you are probably wondering how to use one in your own paper. First of all, keep in mind that a good clincher should be intriguing, memorable, smooth, and straightforward.

Generally, there are several different tricks you can use for your clincher statement; it can be:

• A short, but memorable and attention-grabbing conclusion;
• A relevant and memorable quote (only if it brings actual value);
• A call to action;
• A rhetorical question;
• An illustrative story or provocative example;
• A warning against a possibility or suggestion about the consequences of a discussed problem;
• A joke (however, be careful with this as it may not always be deemed appropriate).

Regardless of the technique you choose, make sure that your clincher is memorable and aligns with your introduction and thesis.

Clincher examples: - While New York may not be the only place with the breathtaking views, it is definitely among my personal to 3… and that’s what definitely makes it worth visiting. - “Thence we came forth to rebehold the stars”, Divine Comedy - Don’t you think all these advantages sound like almost life-saving benefits of owning a pet? “So we beat on, boats against the current, borne back ceaselessly into the past.”, The Great Gatsby

Conclusion Writing Don'ts 

Now, when you know what tricks and techniques you should use to create a perfect conclusion, let’s look at some of the things you should not do with our online paper writing service :

• Starting with some cliché concluding sentence starters. Many students find common phrases like “In conclusion,” “Therefore,” “In summary,” or similar statements to be pretty good conclusion starters. However, though such conclusion sentence starters may work in certain cases – for example, in speeches – they are overused, so it is recommended not to use them in writing to introduce your conclusion.
• Putting the first mention of your thesis statement in the conclusion – it has to be presented in your introduction first.
• Providing new arguments, subtopics, or ideas in the conclusion paragraph.
• Including a slightly changed or unchanged thesis statement.
• Providing arguments and evidence that belong in the body of the work.
• Writing too long, hard to read, or confusing sentences.

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Conclusion Paragraph Outline

The total number of sentences in your final paragraph may vary depending on the number of points you discussed in your essay, as well as on the overall word count of your paper. However, the overall conclusion paragraph outline will remain the same and consists of the following elements:

• A conclusion starter:

The first part of your paragraph should drive readers back to your thesis statement. Thus, if you were wondering how to start a conclusion, the best way to do it is by rephrasing your thesis statement.

• Summary of the body paragraphs:

Right after revisiting your thesis, you should include several sentences that wrap up the key highlights and points from your body paragraphs. This part of your conclusion can consist of 2-3 sentences—depending on the number of arguments you’ve made. If necessary, you can also explain to the readers how your main points fit together.

• A concluding sentence:

Finally, you should end your paragraph with a last, powerful sentence that leaves a lasting impression, gives a sense of logical completeness, and connects readers back to the introduction of the paper.

These three key elements make up a perfect essay conclusion. Now, to give you an even better idea of how to create a perfect conclusion, let us give you a sample conclusion paragraph outline with examples from an argumentative essay on the topic of “Every Child Should Own a Pet:

• Sentence 1: Starter
• ~ Thesis: "Though taking care of a pet may be a bit challenging for small children. Parents should not restrict their kids from having a pet as it helps them grow into more responsible and compassionate people."
• ~ Restated thesis for a conclusion: "I can say that taking care of a pet is good for every child."
• Sentences 2-4: Summary
• ~ "Studies have shown that pet owners generally have fewer health problems."
• ~ "Owning a pet teaches a child to be more responsible."
• ~ "Spending time with a pet reduces stress, feelings of loneliness, and anxiety."
• Sentence 5: A concluding sentence
• ~ "Pets can really change a child life for the better, so don't hesitate to endorse your kid's desire to own a pet."

This is a clear example of how you can shape your conclusion paragraph.

How to Conclude Various Types of Essays

Depending on the type of academic essay you are working on, your concluding paragraph's style, tone, and length may vary. In this part of our guide, we will tell you how to end different types of essays and other works.

How to End an Argumentative Essay

Persuasive or argumentative essays always have the single goal of convincing readers of something (an idea, stance, or viewpoint) by appealing to arguments, facts, logic, and even emotions. The conclusion for such an essay has to be persuasive as well. A good trick you can use is to illustrate a real-life scenario that proves your stance or encourages readers to take action. More about persuasive essay outline you can read in our article.

Here are a few more tips for making a perfect conclusion for an argumentative essay:

• Carefully read the whole essay before you begin;
• Re-emphasize your ideas;
• Discuss possible implications;
• Don’t be afraid to appeal to the reader’s emotions.

How to End a Compare and Contrast Essay

The purpose of a compare and contrast essay is to emphasize the differences or similarities between two or more objects, people, phenomena, etc. Therefore, a logical conclusion should highlight how the reviewed objects are different or similar. Basically, in such a paper, your conclusion should recall all of the key common and distinctive features discussed in the body of your essay and also give readers some food for thought after they finish reading it.

How to Conclude a Descriptive Essay

The key idea of a descriptive essay is to showcase your creativity and writing skills by painting a vivid picture with the help of words. This is one of the most creative types of essays as it requires you to show a story, not tell it. This kind of essay implies using a lot of vivid details. Respectively, the conclusion of such a paper should also use descriptive imagery and, at the same time, sum up the main ideas. A good strategy for ending a descriptive essay would be to begin with a short explanation of why you wrote the essay. Then, you should reflect on how your topic affects you. In the middle of the conclusion, you should cover the most critical moments of the story to smoothly lead the reader into a logical closing statement. The “clincher”, in this case, should be a thought-provoking final sentence that leaves a good and lasting impression on the audience. Do not lead the reader into the essay and then leave them with dwindling memories of it.

How to Conclude an Essay About Yourself

If you find yourself writing an essay about yourself, you need to tell a personal story. As a rule, such essays talk about the author’s experiences, which is why a conclusion should create a feeling of narrative closure. A good strategy is to end your story with a logical finale and the lessons you have learned, while, at the same time, linking it to the introductory paragraph and recalling key moments from the story.

How to End an Informative Essay

Unlike other types of papers, informative or expository essays load readers with a lot of information and facts. In this case, “Synthesize, don’t summarize” is the best technique you can use to end your paper. Simply put, instead of recalling all of the major facts, you should approach your conclusion from the “So what?” position by highlighting the significance of the information provided.

How to Conclude a Narrative Essay

In a nutshell, a narrative essay is based on simple storytelling. The purpose of this paper is to share a particular story in detail. Therefore, the conclusion for such a paper should wrap up the story and avoid finishing on an abrupt cliffhanger. It is vital to include the key takeaways and the lessons learned from the story.

How to Write a Conclusion for a Lab Report

Unlike an essay, a lab report is based on an experiment. This type of paper describes the flow of a particular experiment conducted by a student and its conclusion should reflect on the outcomes of this experiment.

In thinking of how to write a conclusion for a lab, here are the key things you should do to get it right:

• Restate the goals of your experiment
• Describe the methods you used
• Include the results of the experiment and analyze the final data
• End your conclusion with a clear statement on whether or not the experiment was successful (Did you reach the expected results?)

How to Write a Conclusion for a Research Paper

Writing a paper is probably the hardest task of all, even for experienced dissertation writer . Unlike an essay or even a lab report, a research paper is a much longer piece of work that requires a deeper investigation of the problem. Therefore, a conclusion for such a paper should be even more sophisticated and powerful. If you're feeling difficulty writing an essay, you can buy essay on our service.

However, given that a research paper is the second most popular kind of academic paper (after an essay), it is important to know how to conclude a research paper. Even if you have not yet been assigned to do this task, be sure that you will face it soon. So, here are the steps you should follow to create a great conclusion for a research paper:

• Restate the Topic

Start your final paragraph with a quick reminder of what the topic of the piece is about. Keep it one sentence long.

• Revisit the Thesis

Next, you should remind your readers what your thesis statement was. However, do not just copy and paste it from the introductory clause: paraphrase your thesis so that you deliver the same idea but with different words. Keep your paraphrased thesis narrow, specific, and topic-oriented.

• Summarise Your Key Ideas

Just like the case of a regular essay’s conclusion, a research paper’s final paragraph should also include a short summary of all of the key points stated in the body sections. We recommend reading the entire body part a few times to define all of your main arguments and ideas.

• Showcase the Significance of Your Work

In the research paper conclusion, it is vital to highlight the significance of your research problem and state how your solution could be helpful.

• Make Suggestions for Future Studies

Finally, at the end of your conclusion, you should define how your findings will contribute to the development of its particular field of science. Outline the perspectives of further research and, if necessary, explain what is yet to be discovered on the topic.

Then, end your conclusion with a powerful concluding sentence – it can be a rhetorical question, call to action, or another hook that will help you have a strong impact on the audience.

• Answer the Right Questions

To create a top-notch research paper conclusion, be sure to answer the following questions:

• What is the goal of a research paper?
• What are the possible solutions to the research question(s)?
• How can your results be implemented in real life? (Is your research paper helpful to the community?)
• Why is this study important and relevant?

Additionally, here are a few more handy tips to follow:

• Provide clear examples from real life to help readers better understand the further implementation of the stated solutions;
• Keep your conclusion fresh, original, and creative.

Address to our term paper writers if you need to proofread or rewrite essay.

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So, What Is a Good Closing Sentence? See The Difference

One of the best ways to learn how to write a good conclusion is to look at several professional essay conclusion examples. In this section of our guide, we are going to look at two different final paragraphs shaped on the basis of the same template, but even so, they are very different – where one is weak and the other is strong. Below, we are going to compare them to help you understand the difference between a good and a bad conclusion.

Here is the template we used: College degrees are in decline. The price of receiving an education does not correlate with the quality of the education received. As a result, graduated students face underemployment, and the worth of college degrees appears to be in serious doubt. However, the potential social and economic benefits of educated students balance out the equation.

Strong Conclusion ‍

People either see college as an opportunity or an inconvenience; therefore, a degree can only hold as much value as its owner’s skillset. The underemployment of graduate students puts the worth of college degrees in serious doubt. Yet, with the multitude of benefits that educated students bring to society and the economy, the equation remains in balance. Perhaps the ordinary person should consider college as a wise financial investment, but only if they stay determined to study and do the hard work.

Why is this example good? There are several key points that prove its effectiveness:

• There is a bold opening statement that encompasses the two contrasting types of students we can see today.
• There are two sentences that recall the thesis statement and cover the key arguments from the body of the essay.
• Finally, the last sentence sums up the key message of the essay and leaves readers with something to think about.

Weak Conclusion

In conclusion, with the poor preparation of students in college and the subsequent underemployment after graduation from college, the worth associated with the college degree appears to be in serious doubt. However, these issues alone may not reasonably conclude beyond a doubt that investing in a college degree is a rewarding venture. When the full benefits that come with education are carefully put into consideration and evaluated, college education for children in any country still has good advantages, and society should continue to advocate for a college education. The ordinary person should consider this a wise financial decision that holds rewards in the end. Apart from the monetary gains associated with a college education, society will greatly benefit from students when they finish college. Their minds are going to be expanded, and their reasoning and decision making will be enhanced.

What makes this example bad? Here are a few points to consider:

• Unlike the first example, this paragraph is long and not specific enough. The author provides plenty of generalized phrases that are not backed up by actual arguments.
• This piece is hard to read and understand and sentences have a confusing structure. Also, there are lots of repetitions and too many uses of the word “college”.
• There is no summary of the key benefits.
• The last two sentences that highlight the value of education contradict with the initial statement.
• Finally, the last sentence doesn’t offer a strong conclusion and gives no thought to ponder upon.
• In the body of your essay, you have hopefully already provided your reader(s) with plenty of information. Therefore, it is not wise to present new arguments or ideas in your conclusion.
• To end your final paragraph right, find a clear and straightforward message that will have the most powerful impact on your audience.
• Don’t use more than one quote in the final clause of your paper – the information from external sources (including quotes) belongs in the body of a paper.
• Be authoritative when writing a conclusion. You should sound confident and convincing to leave a good impression. Sentences like “I’m not an expert, but…” will most likely make you seem less knowledgeable and/or credible.

Good Conclusion Examples

Now that we've learned what a conclusion is and how to write one let's take a look at some essay conclusion examples to strengthen our knowledge.

The ending ironically reveals that all was for nothing. (A short explanation of the thematic effect of the book’s end) Tom says that Miss Watson freed Jim in her final will.Jim told Huck that the dead man on the Island was pap. The entire adventure seemingly evaporated into nothingness. (How this effect was manifested into the minds of thereaders).

All in all, international schools hold the key to building a full future that students can achieve. (Thesis statement simplified) They help students develop their own character by learning from their mistakes, without having to face a dreadful penalty for failure. (Thesis statement elaborated)Although some say that kids emerged “spoiled” with this mentality, the results prove the contrary. (Possible counter-arguments are noted)

In conclusion, public workers should be allowed to strike since it will give them a chance to air their grievances. (Thesis statement) Public workers should be allowed to strike when their rights, safety, and regulations are compromised. The workers will get motivated when they strike, and their demands are met.

In summary, studies reveal some similarities in the nutrient contents between the organic and non-organic food substances. (Starts with similarities) However, others have revealed many considerable differences in the amounts of antioxidants as well as other minerals present in organic and non-organic foods. Generally, organic foods have higher levels of antioxidants than non-organic foods and therefore are more important in the prevention of chronic illnesses.

As time went by, my obsession grew into something bigger than art; (‘As time went by’ signals maturation) it grew into a dream of developing myself for the world. (Showing student’s interest of developing himself for the community) It is a dream of not only seeing the world from a different perspective but also changing the perspective of people who see my work. (Showing student’s determination to create moving pieces of art)

In conclusion, it is evident that technology is an integral part of our lives and without it, we become “lost” since we have increasingly become dependent on its use. (Thesis with main point)

You might also be interested in reading nursing essay examples from our service.

Related Articles

17 Essay Conclusion Examples (Copy and Paste)

Essay conclusions are not just extra filler. They are important because they tie together your arguments, then give you the chance to forcefully drive your point home.

I created the 5 Cs conclusion method to help you write essay conclusions:

I’ve previously produced the video below on how to write a conclusion that goes over the above image.

The video follows the 5 C’s method ( you can read about it in this post ), which doesn’t perfectly match each of the below copy-and-paste conclusion examples, but the principles are similar, and can help you to write your own strong conclusion:

💡 New! Try this AI Prompt to Generate a Sample 5Cs Conclusion This is my essay: [INSERT ESSAY WITHOUT THE CONCLUSION]. I want you to write a conclusion for this essay. In the first sentence of the conclusion, return to a statement I made in the introduction. In the second sentence, reiterate the thesis statement I have used. In the third sentence, clarify how my final position is relevant to the Essay Question, which is [ESSAY QUESTION]. In the fourth sentence, explain who should be interested in my findings. In the fifth sentence, end by noting in one final, engaging sentence why this topic is of such importance.

Remember: The prompt can help you generate samples but you can’t submit AI text for assessment. Make sure you write your conclusion in your own words.

Essay Conclusion Examples

Below is a range of copy-and-paste essay conclusions with gaps for you to fill-in your topic and key arguments. Browse through for one you like (there are 17 for argumentative, expository, compare and contrast, and critical essays). Once you’ve found one you like, copy it and add-in the key points to make it your own.

1. Argumentative Essay Conclusions

The arguments presented in this essay demonstrate the significant importance of _____________. While there are some strong counterarguments, such as ____________, it remains clear that the benefits/merits of _____________ far outweigh the potential downsides. The evidence presented throughout the essay strongly support _____________. In the coming years, _____________ will be increasingly important. Therefore, continual advocacy for the position presented in this essay will be necessary, especially due to its significant implications for _____________.

Version 1 Filled-In

The arguments presented in this essay demonstrate the significant importance of fighting climate change. While there are some strong counterarguments, such as the claim that it is too late to stop catastrophic change, it remains clear that the merits of taking drastic action far outweigh the potential downsides. The evidence presented throughout the essay strongly support the claim that we can at least mitigate the worst effects. In the coming years, intergovernmental worldwide agreements will be increasingly important. Therefore, continual advocacy for the position presented in this essay will be necessary, especially due to its significant implications for humankind.

As this essay has shown, it is clear that the debate surrounding _____________ is multifaceted and highly complex. While there are strong arguments opposing the position that _____________, there remains overwhelming evidence to support the claim that _____________. A careful analysis of the empirical evidence suggests that _____________ not only leads to ____________, but it may also be a necessity for _____________. Moving forward, _____________ should be a priority for all stakeholders involved, as it promises a better future for _____________. The focus should now shift towards how best to integrate _____________ more effectively into society.

Version 2 Filled-In

As this essay has shown, it is clear that the debate surrounding climate change is multifaceted and highly complex. While there are strong arguments opposing the position that we should fight climate change, there remains overwhelming evidence to support the claim that action can mitigate the worst effects. A careful analysis of the empirical evidence suggests that strong action not only leads to better economic outcomes in the long term, but it may also be a necessity for preventing climate-related deaths. Moving forward, carbon emission mitigation should be a priority for all stakeholders involved, as it promises a better future for all. The focus should now shift towards how best to integrate smart climate policies more effectively into society.

Based upon the preponderance of evidence, it is evident that _____________ holds the potential to significantly alter/improve _____________. The counterarguments, while noteworthy, fail to diminish the compelling case for _____________. Following an examination of both sides of the argument, it has become clear that _____________ presents the most effective solution/approach to _____________. Consequently, it is imperative that society acknowledge the value of _____________ for developing a better  _____________. Failing to address this topic could lead to negative outcomes, including _____________.

Version 3 Filled-In

Based upon the preponderance of evidence, it is evident that addressing climate change holds the potential to significantly improve the future of society. The counterarguments, while noteworthy, fail to diminish the compelling case for immediate climate action. Following an examination of both sides of the argument, it has become clear that widespread and urgent social action presents the most effective solution to this pressing problem. Consequently, it is imperative that society acknowledge the value of taking immediate action for developing a better environment for future generations. Failing to address this topic could lead to negative outcomes, including more extreme climate events and greater economic externalities.

See Also: Examples of Counterarguments

On the balance of evidence, there is an overwhelming case for _____________. While the counterarguments offer valid points that are worth examining, they do not outweigh or overcome the argument that _____________. An evaluation of both perspectives on this topic concludes that _____________ is the most sufficient option for  _____________. The implications of embracing _____________ do not only have immediate benefits, but they also pave the way for a more _____________. Therefore, the solution of _____________ should be actively pursued by _____________.

Version 4 Filled-In

On the balance of evidence, there is an overwhelming case for immediate tax-based action to mitigate the effects of climate change. While the counterarguments offer valid points that are worth examining, they do not outweigh or overcome the argument that action is urgently necessary. An evaluation of both perspectives on this topic concludes that taking societal-wide action is the most sufficient option for  achieving the best results. The implications of embracing a society-wide approach like a carbon tax do not only have immediate benefits, but they also pave the way for a more healthy future. Therefore, the solution of a carbon tax or equivalent policy should be actively pursued by governments.

2. Expository Essay Conclusions

Overall, it is evident that _____________ plays a crucial role in _____________. The analysis presented in this essay demonstrates the clear impact of _____________ on _____________. By understanding the key facts about _____________, practitioners/society are better equipped to navigate _____________. Moving forward, further exploration of _____________ will yield additional insights and information about _____________. As such, _____________ should remain a focal point for further discussions and studies on _____________.

Overall, it is evident that social media plays a crucial role in harming teenagers’ mental health. The analysis presented in this essay demonstrates the clear impact of social media on young people. By understanding the key facts about the ways social media cause young people to experience body dysmorphia, teachers and parents are better equipped to help young people navigate online spaces. Moving forward, further exploration of the ways social media cause harm will yield additional insights and information about how it can be more sufficiently regulated. As such, the effects of social media on youth should remain a focal point for further discussions and studies on youth mental health.

To conclude, this essay has explored the multi-faceted aspects of _____________. Through a careful examination of _____________, this essay has illuminated its significant influence on _____________. This understanding allows society to appreciate the idea that _____________. As research continues to emerge, the importance of _____________ will only continue to grow. Therefore, an understanding of _____________ is not merely desirable, but imperative for _____________.

To conclude, this essay has explored the multi-faceted aspects of globalization. Through a careful examination of globalization, this essay has illuminated its significant influence on the economy, cultures, and society. This understanding allows society to appreciate the idea that globalization has both positive and negative effects. As research continues to emerge, the importance of studying globalization will only continue to grow. Therefore, an understanding of globalization’s effects is not merely desirable, but imperative for judging whether it is good or bad.

Reflecting on the discussion, it is clear that _____________ serves a pivotal role in _____________. By delving into the intricacies of _____________, we have gained valuable insights into its impact and significance. This knowledge will undoubtedly serve as a guiding principle in _____________. Moving forward, it is paramount to remain open to further explorations and studies on _____________. In this way, our understanding and appreciation of _____________ can only deepen and expand.

Reflecting on the discussion, it is clear that mass media serves a pivotal role in shaping public opinion. By delving into the intricacies of mass media, we have gained valuable insights into its impact and significance. This knowledge will undoubtedly serve as a guiding principle in shaping the media landscape. Moving forward, it is paramount to remain open to further explorations and studies on how mass media impacts society. In this way, our understanding and appreciation of mass media’s impacts can only deepen and expand.

In conclusion, this essay has shed light on the importance of _____________ in the context of _____________. The evidence and analysis provided underscore the profound effect _____________ has on _____________. The knowledge gained from exploring _____________ will undoubtedly contribute to more informed and effective decisions in _____________. As we continue to progress, the significance of understanding _____________ will remain paramount. Hence, we should strive to deepen our knowledge of _____________ to better navigate and influence _____________.

In conclusion, this essay has shed light on the importance of bedside manner in the context of nursing. The evidence and analysis provided underscore the profound effect compassionate bedside manner has on patient outcome. The knowledge gained from exploring nurses’ bedside manner will undoubtedly contribute to more informed and effective decisions in nursing practice. As we continue to progress, the significance of understanding nurses’ bedside manner will remain paramount. Hence, we should strive to deepen our knowledge of this topic to better navigate and influence patient outcomes.

See More: How to Write an Expository Essay

3. Compare and Contrast Essay Conclusion

While both _____________ and _____________ have similarities such as _____________, they also have some very important differences in areas like _____________. Through this comparative analysis, a broader understanding of _____________ and _____________ has been attained. The choice between the two will largely depend on _____________. For example, as highlighted in the essay, ____________. Despite their differences, both _____________ and _____________ have value in different situations.

While both macrosociology and microsociology have similarities such as their foci on how society is structured, they also have some very important differences in areas like their differing approaches to research methodologies. Through this comparative analysis, a broader understanding of macrosociology and microsociology has been attained. The choice between the two will largely depend on the researcher’s perspective on how society works. For example, as highlighted in the essay, microsociology is much more concerned with individuals’ experiences while macrosociology is more concerned with social structures. Despite their differences, both macrosociology and microsociology have value in different situations.

It is clear that _____________ and _____________, while seeming to be different, have shared characteristics in _____________. On the other hand, their contrasts in _____________ shed light on their unique features. The analysis provides a more nuanced comprehension of these subjects. In choosing between the two, consideration should be given to _____________. Despite their disparities, it’s crucial to acknowledge the importance of both when it comes to _____________.

It is clear that behaviorism and consructivism, while seeming to be different, have shared characteristics in their foci on knowledge acquisition over time. On the other hand, their contrasts in ideas about the role of experience in learning shed light on their unique features. The analysis provides a more nuanced comprehension of these subjects. In choosing between the two, consideration should be given to which approach works best in which situation. Despite their disparities, it’s crucial to acknowledge the importance of both when it comes to student education.

Reflecting on the points discussed, it’s evident that _____________ and _____________ share similarities such as _____________, while also demonstrating unique differences, particularly in _____________. The preference for one over the other would typically depend on factors such as _____________. Yet, regardless of their distinctions, both _____________ and _____________ play integral roles in their respective areas, significantly contributing to _____________.

Reflecting on the points discussed, it’s evident that red and orange share similarities such as the fact they are both ‘hot colors’, while also demonstrating unique differences, particularly in their social meaning (red meaning danger and orange warmth). The preference for one over the other would typically depend on factors such as personal taste. Yet, regardless of their distinctions, both red and orange play integral roles in their respective areas, significantly contributing to color theory.

Ultimately, the comparison and contrast of _____________ and _____________ have revealed intriguing similarities and notable differences. Differences such as _____________ give deeper insights into their unique and shared qualities. When it comes to choosing between them, _____________ will likely be a deciding factor. Despite these differences, it is important to remember that both _____________ and _____________ hold significant value within the context of _____________, and each contributes to _____________ in its own unique way.

Ultimately, the comparison and contrast of driving and flying have revealed intriguing similarities and notable differences. Differences such as their differing speed to destination give deeper insights into their unique and shared qualities. When it comes to choosing between them, urgency to arrive at the destination will likely be a deciding factor. Despite these differences, it is important to remember that both driving and flying hold significant value within the context of air transit, and each contributes to facilitating movement in its own unique way.

See Here for More Compare and Contrast Essay Examples

4. Critical Essay Conclusion

In conclusion, the analysis of _____________ has unveiled critical aspects related to _____________. While there are strengths in _____________, its limitations are equally telling. This critique provides a more informed perspective on _____________, revealing that there is much more beneath the surface. Moving forward, the understanding of _____________ should evolve, considering both its merits and flaws.

In conclusion, the analysis of flow theory has unveiled critical aspects related to motivation and focus. While there are strengths in achieving a flow state, its limitations are equally telling. This critique provides a more informed perspective on how humans achieve motivation, revealing that there is much more beneath the surface. Moving forward, the understanding of flow theory of motivation should evolve, considering both its merits and flaws.

To conclude, this critical examination of _____________ sheds light on its multi-dimensional nature. While _____________ presents notable advantages, it is not without its drawbacks. This in-depth critique offers a comprehensive understanding of _____________. Therefore, future engagements with _____________ should involve a balanced consideration of its strengths and weaknesses.

To conclude, this critical examination of postmodern art sheds light on its multi-dimensional nature. While postmodernism presents notable advantages, it is not without its drawbacks. This in-depth critique offers a comprehensive understanding of how it has contributed to the arts over the past 50 years. Therefore, future engagements with postmodern art should involve a balanced consideration of its strengths and weaknesses.

Upon reflection, the critique of _____________ uncovers profound insights into its underlying intricacies. Despite its positive aspects such as ________, it’s impossible to overlook its shortcomings. This analysis provides a nuanced understanding of _____________, highlighting the necessity for a balanced approach in future interactions. Indeed, both the strengths and weaknesses of _____________ should be taken into account when considering ____________.

Upon reflection, the critique of marxism uncovers profound insights into its underlying intricacies. Despite its positive aspects such as its ability to critique exploitation of labor, it’s impossible to overlook its shortcomings. This analysis provides a nuanced understanding of marxism’s harmful effects when used as an economic theory, highlighting the necessity for a balanced approach in future interactions. Indeed, both the strengths and weaknesses of marxism should be taken into account when considering the use of its ideas in real life.

Ultimately, this critique of _____________ offers a detailed look into its advantages and disadvantages. The strengths of _____________ such as __________ are significant, yet its limitations such as _________ are not insignificant. This balanced analysis not only offers a deeper understanding of _____________ but also underscores the importance of critical evaluation. Hence, it’s crucial that future discussions around _____________ continue to embrace this balanced approach.

Ultimately, this critique of artificial intelligence offers a detailed look into its advantages and disadvantages. The strengths of artificial intelligence, such as its ability to improve productivity are significant, yet its limitations such as the possibility of mass job losses are not insignificant. This balanced analysis not only offers a deeper understanding of artificial intelligence but also underscores the importance of critical evaluation. Hence, it’s crucial that future discussions around the regulation of artificial intelligence continue to embrace this balanced approach.

This article promised 17 essay conclusions, and this one you are reading now is the twenty-first. This last conclusion demonstrates that the very best essay conclusions are written uniquely, from scratch, in order to perfectly cater the conclusion to the topic. A good conclusion will tie together all the key points you made in your essay and forcefully drive home the importance or relevance of your argument, thesis statement, or simply your topic so the reader is left with one strong final point to ponder.

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 5 Top Tips for Succeeding at University
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 50 Durable Goods Examples
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 100 Consumer Goods Examples
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 30 Globalization Pros and Cons

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Essays About Language: Top 5 Examples and 7 Prompts

Language is the key to expressive communication; let our essay examples and writing prompts inspire you if you are writing essays about language.

When we communicate with one another, we use a system called language. It mainly consists of words, which, when combined, form phrases and sentences we use to talk to one another. However, some forms of language do not require written or verbal communication, such as sign language. 

Language can also refer to how we write or say things. For example, we can speak to friends using colloquial expressions and slang, while academic writing demands precise, formal language. Language is a complex concept with many meanings; discover the secrets of language in our informative guide.

5 Top Essay Examples

1. a global language: english language by dallas ryan , 2. language and its importance to society by shelly shah, 3. language: the essence of culture by kelsey holmes.

• 4.  Foreign Language Speech by Sophie Carson
• 5. ​​Attitudes to Language by Kurt Medina

1. My Native Language

2. the advantages of bilingualism, 3. language and technology, 4. why language matters, 5. slang and communication, 6. english is the official language of the u.s..

“Furthermore, using English, people can have more friends, widen peer relationships with foreigners and can not get lost. Overall, English becomes a global language; people may have more chances in communication. Another crucial advantage is improving business. If English was spoken widespread and everyone could use it, they would likely have more opportunities in business. Foreign investments from rich countries might be supported to the poorer countries.”

In this essay, Ryan enumerates both the advantages and disadvantages of using English; it seems that Ryan proposes uniting the world under the English language. English, a well-known and commonly-spoken language can help people to communicate better, which can foster better connections with one another. However, people would lose their native language and promote a specific culture rather than diversity. Ultimately, Ryan believes that English is a “global language,” and the advantages outweigh the disadvantages

“Language is a constituent element of civilization. It raised man from a savage state to the plane which he was capable of reaching. Man could not become man except by language. An essential point in which man differs from animals is that man alone is the sole possessor of language. No doubt animals also exhibit certain degree of power of communication but that is not only inferior in degree to human language, but also radically diverse in kind from it.”

Shah writes about the meaning of language, its role in society, and its place as an institution serving the purposes of the people using it. Most importantly, she writes about why it is necessary; the way we communicate through language separates us as humans from all other living things. It also carries individual culture and allows one to convey their thoughts. You might find our list of TOEFL writing topics helpful.

“Cultural identity is heavily dependent on a number of factors including ethnicity, gender, geographic location, religion, language, and so much more.  Culture is defined as a “historically transmitted system of symbols, meanings, and norms.”  Knowing a language automatically enables someone to identify with others who speak the same language.  This connection is such an important part of cultural exchange”

In this short essay, Homes discusses how language reflects a person’s cultural identity and the importance of communication in a civilized society. Different communities and cultures use specific sounds and understand their meanings to communicate. From this, writing was developed. Knowing a language makes connecting with others of the same culture easier. 

4.   Foreign Language Speech by Sophie Carson

“Ultimately, learning a foreign language will improve a child’s overall thinking and learning skills in general, making them smarter in many different unrelated areas. Their creativity is highly improved as they are more trained to look at problems from different angles and think outside of the box. This flexible thinking makes them better problem solvers since they can see problems from different perspectives. The better thinking skills developed from learning a foreign language have also been seen through testing scores.”

Carson writes about some of the benefits of learning a foreign language, especially during childhood. During childhood, the brain is more flexible, and it is easier for one to learn a new language in their younger years. Among many other benefits, bilingualism has been shown to improve memory and open up more parts of a child’s brain, helping them hone their critical thinking skills. Teaching children a foreign language makes them more aware of the world around them and can open up opportunities in the future.

5. ​​ Attitudes to Language by Kurt Medina

“Increasingly, educators are becoming aware that a person’s native language is an integral part of who that person is and marginalizing the language can have severe damaging effects on that person’s psyche. Many linguists consistently make a case for teaching native languages alongside the target languages so that children can clearly differentiate among the codes”

As its title suggests, Medina’s essay revolves around different attitudes towards types of language, whether it be vernacular language or dialects. He discusses this in the context of Caribbean cultures, where different dialects and languages are widespread, and people switch between languages quickly. Medina mentions how we tend to modify the language we use in different situations, depending on how formal or informal we need to be. 

6 Prompts for Essays About Language

In your essay, you can write about your native language. For example, explain how it originated and some of its characteristics. Write about why you are proud of it or persuade others to try learning it. To add depth to your essay, include a section with common phrases or idioms from your native language and explain their meaning.

Bilingualism has been said to enhance a whole range of cognitive skills, from a longer attention span to better memory. Look into the different advantages of speaking two or more languages, and use these to promote bilingualism. Cite scientific research papers and reference their findings in your essay for a compelling piece of writing.

In the 21st century, the development of new technology has blurred the lines between communication and isolation; it has undoubtedly changed how we interact and use language. For example, many words have been replaced in day-to-day communication by texting lingo and slang. In addition, technology has made us communicate more virtually and non-verbally. Research and discuss how the 21st century has changed how we interact and “do language” worldwide, whether it has improved or worsened. 

We often change how we speak depending on the situation; we use different words and expressions. Why do we do this? Based on a combination of personal experience and research, reflect on why it is essential to use appropriate language in different scenarios.

Different cultures use different forms of slang. Slang is a type of language consisting of informal words and expressions. Some hold negative views towards slang, saying that it degrades the language system, while others believe it allows people to express their culture. Write about whether you believe slang should be acceptable or not: defend your position by giving evidence either that slang is detrimental to language or that it poses no threat.

English is the most spoken language in the United States and is used in government documents; it is all but the country’s official language. Do you believe the government should finally declare English the country’s official language? Research the viewpoints of both sides and form a conclusion; support your argument with sufficient details and research. 

Check out our guide packed full of transition words for essays .If you’re stuck picking your next essay topic, check out our guide on how to write an essay about diversity .

Martin is an avid writer specializing in editing and proofreading. He also enjoys literary analysis and writing about food and travel.

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In this free course, Understanding language and learning , you considered the role of language in learning and started out from the assumption that language, and more particularly, linguistic interaction with other people, is a key aspect of learning. You also began to develop more critical skills, asking questions about what we actually mean by language and whether it is possible and necessary to separate out one language from another. In relation to English in particular, you began to question the extent to which new forms of English or ‘Englishes’ must begin to be recognised alongside more established ones. The growing discomfort with established notions of language in general and English in particular has been prompted by well-documented and intensified global interconnectedness in recent years, leading to increased language contact and a growing number of English-language users. Such real-world phenomena bring into question what we mean by English and what we mean by language. For educational practitioners, it raises important practical questions about the norms according to which students should be taught.

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50 Dialect Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best dialect topic ideas & essay examples, 📌 simple & easy dialect essay titles, 👍 good essay topics on dialect.

• American English Dialect The main focus of the project is to analyse the phonological, structural and lexical features of the American dialect. In terms of the phonological distinctness of General American English, the group found out that the […]
• Dialect: Development and Significance The history of dialect is unique indeed and has close connection to numerous social, geographical, and cultural concepts; the relation to these factors makes dialect a considerably local term, a language variation with its own […] We will write a custom essay specifically for you by our professional experts 808 writers online Learn More
• Cantonese: A Distinct Chinese Dialect with Rich History and Unique Characteristics However, Mandarin is not the only variation of Chinese since it additionally involves the Yue family of the language, with one of the group members being Cantonese.
• Dialect as a Means of Preserving Culture The complexity of the metonym is introduced in the concept that one must also be aware of the various elements that are important characteristics of the tree at this particular time in its development and […]
• Cockney English Dialect and Its Pecularities The first one is the omission of sound [h] when there is a letter ‘h’ at the beginning of the word: ‘house’ is pronounced [‘aus], ‘horse’ sounds like [‘o:s].
• Baby Language: Development of the Dialect The analysis of this paper discusses Fahad’s grasp of Arabic dialect due to the influence of the Arabic language speakers around him. The boy continues to learn the Arabic language from his mother, who is […]
• Linguistics of the Gurbetcha Dialect The aim of this project is to identify the roots of the dialect Gurbetcha and compare it to the other Cypriot dialects and varieties and Cypriot Turkish dialects in particular.
• How a Dialect Coach in Los Angeles Can Help Your Business Grow
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• Dialect of English Spoken on the Hawaiian Islands
• Humanity Of The Primitive In Heart Of Darkness, Dialect Of Modernism And Totem And Taboo
• Dialect and Culture in American Literature
• Socialism and Fascism as Political Thought and Dialect and Their Contributions to Society
• Dialect Significance in Their Eyes Were Watching God by Zora Neale Hurston
• The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and Mark Twain’s Use of Dialect
• The Use of Dialect in the Jumping Frog of Calavares County
• Unexpected but Authentic Use of an Ethnically-Marked Dialect by Julie Sweetland
• The Concept of Dialect as a Division of Language According to the Linguistics
• The Use of Southern Language and Dialect in Their Eyes Were Watching God
• Dialect and Dramatic Monologue of Curtain of Green
• The Importance of Accepting Ebonics as a Dialect of the English Language in American Schools
• Hegelian Dialect and Historical Materialism
• Understanding Dialect, Philosophy and Theology Through Scholasticism
• Local Dialect in Pudd’nhead Wilson
• The Importance Of Dialect In Education
• Linguistic Features Of Canadian Dialect
• Pidgin a Dialect of English Spoken in Hawaiian Islands
• Varieties Of English Accents Cockney British English Dialect
• The Southern Dialect as Seen in the Works of William Faulkner
• Sociolinguistics: Dialect Continuum and Language
• Rhetorical Use of Literary Dialect in English Literature: From Chaucer to Shaw
• Differences Between The Terms Accent And Dialect
• How to Read Literature Like a Professor Dialect Journal
• Plato and Aristotle’s Life-Blood Philosophy of Dialect
• Dialect of the People in Communication
• Mark Twain’s Use of Dialect, Regionalism and Humor in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn
• Pidgin: Dialect of English Spoken on the Hawaiian Islands
• Usage Of Publication In English Teaching English Dialect
• Using Linguistics to Understand the Importance of Dialect and Its Connection to Language
• The Relationship between Dialect and Identity in the Documentary American Tongues
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

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• How to write an argumentative essay | Examples & tips

How to Write an Argumentative Essay | Examples & Tips

Published on July 24, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on July 23, 2023.

An argumentative essay expresses an extended argument for a particular thesis statement . The author takes a clearly defined stance on their subject and builds up an evidence-based case for it.

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Table of contents

When do you write an argumentative essay, approaches to argumentative essays, introducing your argument, the body: developing your argument, concluding your argument, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about argumentative essays.

You might be assigned an argumentative essay as a writing exercise in high school or in a composition class. The prompt will often ask you to argue for one of two positions, and may include terms like “argue” or “argument.” It will frequently take the form of a question.

The prompt may also be more open-ended in terms of the possible arguments you could make.

Argumentative writing at college level

At university, the vast majority of essays or papers you write will involve some form of argumentation. For example, both rhetorical analysis and literary analysis essays involve making arguments about texts.

In this context, you won’t necessarily be told to write an argumentative essay—but making an evidence-based argument is an essential goal of most academic writing, and this should be your default approach unless you’re told otherwise.

Examples of argumentative essay prompts

At a university level, all the prompts below imply an argumentative essay as the appropriate response.

Your research should lead you to develop a specific position on the topic. The essay then argues for that position and aims to convince the reader by presenting your evidence, evaluation and analysis.

• Don’t just list all the effects you can think of.
• Do develop a focused argument about the overall effect and why it matters, backed up by evidence from sources.
• Don’t just provide a selection of data on the measures’ effectiveness.
• Do build up your own argument about which kinds of measures have been most or least effective, and why.
• Don’t just analyze a random selection of doppelgänger characters.
• Do form an argument about specific texts, comparing and contrasting how they express their thematic concerns through doppelgänger characters.

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An argumentative essay should be objective in its approach; your arguments should rely on logic and evidence, not on exaggeration or appeals to emotion.

There are many possible approaches to argumentative essays, but there are two common models that can help you start outlining your arguments: The Toulmin model and the Rogerian model.

Toulmin arguments

The Toulmin model consists of four steps, which may be repeated as many times as necessary for the argument:

• Make a claim
• Provide the grounds (evidence) for the claim
• Explain the warrant (how the grounds support the claim)
• Discuss possible rebuttals to the claim, identifying the limits of the argument and showing that you have considered alternative perspectives

The Toulmin model is a common approach in academic essays. You don’t have to use these specific terms (grounds, warrants, rebuttals), but establishing a clear connection between your claims and the evidence supporting them is crucial in an argumentative essay.

Say you’re making an argument about the effectiveness of workplace anti-discrimination measures. You might:

• Claim that unconscious bias training does not have the desired results, and resources would be better spent on other approaches
• Cite data to support your claim
• Explain how the data indicates that the method is ineffective
• Anticipate objections to your claim based on other data, indicating whether these objections are valid, and if not, why not.

Rogerian arguments

The Rogerian model also consists of four steps you might repeat throughout your essay:

• Discuss what the opposing position gets right and why people might hold this position
• Highlight the problems with this position
• Present your own position , showing how it addresses these problems
• Suggest a possible compromise —what elements of your position would proponents of the opposing position benefit from adopting?

This model builds up a clear picture of both sides of an argument and seeks a compromise. It is particularly useful when people tend to disagree strongly on the issue discussed, allowing you to approach opposing arguments in good faith.

Say you want to argue that the internet has had a positive impact on education. You might:

• Acknowledge that students rely too much on websites like Wikipedia
• Argue that teachers view Wikipedia as more unreliable than it really is
• Suggest that Wikipedia’s system of citations can actually teach students about referencing
• Suggest critical engagement with Wikipedia as a possible assignment for teachers who are skeptical of its usefulness.

You don’t necessarily have to pick one of these models—you may even use elements of both in different parts of your essay—but it’s worth considering them if you struggle to structure your arguments.

Regardless of which approach you take, your essay should always be structured using an introduction , a body , and a conclusion .

Like other academic essays, an argumentative essay begins with an introduction . The introduction serves to capture the reader’s interest, provide background information, present your thesis statement , and (in longer essays) to summarize the structure of the body.

Hover over different parts of the example below to see how a typical introduction works.

The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on the world of education. The use of the internet in academic contexts is on the rise, and its role in learning is hotly debated. For many teachers who did not grow up with this technology, its effects seem alarming and potentially harmful. This concern, while understandable, is misguided. The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its critical benefits for students and educators—as a uniquely comprehensive and accessible information source; a means of exposure to and engagement with different perspectives; and a highly flexible learning environment.

The body of an argumentative essay is where you develop your arguments in detail. Here you’ll present evidence, analysis, and reasoning to convince the reader that your thesis statement is true.

In the standard five-paragraph format for short essays, the body takes up three of your five paragraphs. In longer essays, it will be more paragraphs, and might be divided into sections with headings.

Each paragraph covers its own topic, introduced with a topic sentence . Each of these topics must contribute to your overall argument; don’t include irrelevant information.

This example paragraph takes a Rogerian approach: It first acknowledges the merits of the opposing position and then highlights problems with that position.

Hover over different parts of the example to see how a body paragraph is constructed.

A common frustration for teachers is students’ use of Wikipedia as a source in their writing. Its prevalence among students is not exaggerated; a survey found that the vast majority of the students surveyed used Wikipedia (Head & Eisenberg, 2010). An article in The Guardian stresses a common objection to its use: “a reliance on Wikipedia can discourage students from engaging with genuine academic writing” (Coomer, 2013). Teachers are clearly not mistaken in viewing Wikipedia usage as ubiquitous among their students; but the claim that it discourages engagement with academic sources requires further investigation. This point is treated as self-evident by many teachers, but Wikipedia itself explicitly encourages students to look into other sources. Its articles often provide references to academic publications and include warning notes where citations are missing; the site’s own guidelines for research make clear that it should be used as a starting point, emphasizing that users should always “read the references and check whether they really do support what the article says” (“Wikipedia:Researching with Wikipedia,” 2020). Indeed, for many students, Wikipedia is their first encounter with the concepts of citation and referencing. The use of Wikipedia therefore has a positive side that merits deeper consideration than it often receives.

An argumentative essay ends with a conclusion that summarizes and reflects on the arguments made in the body.

No new arguments or evidence appear here, but in longer essays you may discuss the strengths and weaknesses of your argument and suggest topics for future research. In all conclusions, you should stress the relevance and importance of your argument.

Hover over the following example to see the typical elements of a conclusion.

The internet has had a major positive impact on the world of education; occasional pitfalls aside, its value is evident in numerous applications. The future of teaching lies in the possibilities the internet opens up for communication, research, and interactivity. As the popularity of distance learning shows, students value the flexibility and accessibility offered by digital education, and educators should fully embrace these advantages. The internet’s dangers, real and imaginary, have been documented exhaustively by skeptics, but the internet is here to stay; it is time to focus seriously on its potential for good.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

• Ad hominem fallacy
• Post hoc fallacy
• Appeal to authority fallacy
• False cause fallacy
• Sunk cost fallacy

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An argumentative essay tends to be a longer essay involving independent research, and aims to make an original argument about a topic. Its thesis statement makes a contentious claim that must be supported in an objective, evidence-based way.

An expository essay also aims to be objective, but it doesn’t have to make an original argument. Rather, it aims to explain something (e.g., a process or idea) in a clear, concise way. Expository essays are often shorter assignments and rely less on research.

At college level, you must properly cite your sources in all essays , research papers , and other academic texts (except exams and in-class exercises).

Add a citation whenever you quote , paraphrase , or summarize information or ideas from a source. You should also give full source details in a bibliography or reference list at the end of your text.

The exact format of your citations depends on which citation style you are instructed to use. The most common styles are APA , MLA , and Chicago .

The majority of the essays written at university are some sort of argumentative essay . Unless otherwise specified, you can assume that the goal of any essay you’re asked to write is argumentative: To convince the reader of your position using evidence and reasoning.

In composition classes you might be given assignments that specifically test your ability to write an argumentative essay. Look out for prompts including instructions like “argue,” “assess,” or “discuss” to see if this is the goal.

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Can Large Language Models Automatically Score Proficiency of Written Essays?

Although several methods were proposed to address the problem of automated essay scoring (AES) in the last 50 years, there is still much to desire in terms of effectiveness. Large Language Models (LLMs) are transformer-based models that demonstrate extraordinary capabilities on various tasks. In this paper, we test the ability of LLMs, given their powerful linguistic knowledge, to analyze and effectively score written essays. We experimented with two popular LLMs, namely ChatGPT and Llama. We aim to check if these models can do this task and, if so, how their performance is positioned among the state-of-the-art (SOTA) models across two levels, holistically and per individual writing trait. We utilized prompt-engineering tactics in designing four different prompts to bring their maximum potential to this task. Our experiments conducted on the ASAP dataset revealed several interesting observations. First, choosing the right prompt depends highly on the model and nature of the task. Second, the two LLMs exhibited comparable average performance in AES, with a slight advantage for ChatGPT. Finally, despite the performance gap between the two LLMs and SOTA models in terms of predictions, they provide feedback to enhance the quality of the essays, which can potentially help both teachers and students. Keywords:  ChatGPT, Llama, Automated Essay Scoring, Natural Language Processing

Abstract content

1.   Introduction

Automated Essay Scoring (AES), one of the earliest research problems in natural language processing  (Page, 1966 ) , aims to develop automated tools for assessing the proficiency of written essays. It can save a huge amount of time spent by teachers assessing essays manually while providing free feedback to students. In addition to being more consistent over time, AES systems can deliver more impartial assessments than humans.

Over the past 50 years, a wide variety of approaches were proposed to address AES, including learning from hand-crafted features  (Phandi et al., 2015 ; Chen and He, 2013 ) , and neural approaches including pre-trained language models  (Dong et al., 2017 ; Wu et al., 2022 ) . Most of them focus on predicting an overall holistic score that closely matches human judgment. Other studies focus on providing feedback by estimating quality scores on multiple traits of the essay, e.g., coherence  (Higgins et al., 2004 ) , relevance  (Louis and Higgins, 2010 ) , and organization  (Persing et al., 2010 ) among others.

Recently, Large Language Models (LLMs) were introduced as cutting-edge transformer-based models demonstrating impressive capabilities on various tasks (Meoni et al., 2023 ; Kocmi and Federmann, 2023 ) . In this paper, we check if the language proficiency retained by LLMs (represented by ChatGPT 1 1 1 https://chat.openai.com/chat and Llama 2 2 2 2 https://ai.meta.com/llama/ in our study) is useful in scoring essays. We test the capabilities of LLMs in this task across two levels, holistically and per individual writing trait. We also compare its performance to current state-of-the-art (SOTA) models. Furthermore, we analyze its performance and check its consistency in scoring the same essays.

To this end, our aim in this work is to answer the following research questions:

RQ1: What is the effect of prompt engineering on the performance of LLMs for AES?

RQ2: Is the performance of LLMs for AES consistent across prompts?

RQ3: How far is the performance of ChatGPT and Llama from SOTA, holistically and per trait?

We carried out the experiments on the full Automated Student Assessment Prize (ASAP) dataset 3 3 3 https://www.kaggle.com/c/asap-aes comprising 8 tasks and 12978 essays. We designed four different prompts in an incremental fashion, where each adds more information to the prior one, and collected its responses for all essays. We also recorded the predicted scores and feedback for each essay and released them to the research community for further analysis.

Our developed prompts led to notable enhancements in the performance of LLMs, reaching a peak Quadratic Weighted Kappa  Cohen ( 1968 ) score of 0.606 and 0.562 by ChatGPT and Llama 2, respectively. Although those scores lag behind SOTA models with respect to scoring prediction, LLMs have an advantage in terms of generated feedback. For all the experimented essays, they provided feedback to enhance their quality.

Our contribution in this work is four-fold:

We evaluate the predictive performance of two LLMs, namely ChatGPT and Llama 2, for AES at the holistic and trait-based levels and compare it against the SOTA models.

We show the impact of prompt engineering on ChatGPT’s and Llama’s performance by designing four different prompts with incremental task elaboration.

We study the consistency of ChatGPT and Llama 2 in AES.

We make all responses of the LLMs (including their feedback) publicly available to enable future analysis and research. 4 4 4 https://github.com/Watheq9/AES-with-LLMs

The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 discusses the work related to AES and LLMs. The detailed description of our experiment and prompt designs are provided in Section 3 . Section 4 presents the experimental results, the analysis of prompt engineering, and performance consistency. Finally, we conclude in Section 6 .

2.   Related Work

Previous attempts to address the AES problem relied either on crafting features to represent essays, syntactically  Yannakoudakis et al. ( 2011 ) or lexicallay  Chen and He ( 2013 ); Phandi et al. ( 2015 ) , or adopting neural networks  Xie et al. ( 2022 ) . As a matter of fact, SOTA performance was achieved using a set of Multi-layer perceptrons that simultaneously conduct regression and ranking optimization Xie et al. ( 2022 ) .

Following the advancement of neural networks, LLMs were utilized in various applications. Consequently, a handful of researchers explored fine-tuning LLMs, e.g., BERT  Devlin et al. ( 2018 ) , for the AES task, which yielded a remarkable performance  Wang et al. ( 2022 ); Yang et al. ( 2020 ) .

ChatGPT and Llama 5 5 5 Hereafter we will refer to Llama 2 as Llama. were built using reinforcement learning from human feedback to capture contextual meanings in a much deeper way, leading to a better language generation. Those models can be utilized for multiple tasks, e.g., code generation and text paraphrasing. Although work utilizing LLMs for AES is limited, the field is quickly evolving. Existing work solely focus on proprietary models. For example, Mizumoto and Eguchi ( 2023 ) utilized OpenAI’s text-davinci-003 model for text completion to automatically score the essays of the TOEFL11 dataset and employed the generated scores as features for a Bayesian regression model. naismith-etal-2023-automated tested GPT-4  achiam2023gpt on assessing the discourse coherence of essays, yielding promising results. Similarly, yancey-etal-2023-rating focused on GPT-3.5 and GPT-4 with Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) short essays dataset. Both models fell short behind a simple XGBoost baseline.

Although prior research highlighted the underperformance of LLMs, some gaps persist. Firstly, existing studies focus solely on OpenAI’s paid models. Secondly, none of them have tested these models on the ASAP dataset, an essential benchmark in AES for comparing with SOTA models.

In this paper, we aim to assess the capability of using LLMs in AES over two levels, holistically and per trait. Moreover, different prompts are crafted to study the effect of prompt engineering on the performance of LLMs.

3.   Methodology of Study

This section presents the outline of the adopted models and dataset, the design of the experimented prompts, and the experimental design.

3.1.   Dataset and Models

We used the ASAP dataset, which is broadly used to evaluate AES systems (Ke and Ng, 2019 ) . ASAP was proposed in a competition on Kaggle in 2012. It contains 8 different tasks written in English by students ranging from grades 7 to 10. There are three types of tasks: persuasive, source-dependent response, and narrative. Table  1 describes the properties of each task.

We have chosen two LLM models for our experiments, namely, ChatGPT and Llama. ChatGPT has demonstrated remarkable capabilities on various tasks and gained significant attention across diverse domains. In our experiments, we utilized the ChatGPT API, namely gpt-3.5-turbo-0301 (a Snapshot from March 1st, 2023). 6 6 6 https://platform.openai.com/docs/models This model is optimized for dialogue, and its performance is on par with Instruct Davinci. Nevertheless, ChatGPT API is not open source, which imposes scalability limitations due to its associated cost. 7 7 7 The total cost of the experiments with ChatGPT in this work amounted to approximately $120. Alternatively, Llama is an open-source LLM developed by Meta. It outperforms other open-source language models (e.g., Falcon and MPT) on different benchmarks  Touvron et al. ( 2023 ) . In this work, we used Llama-2-13b-chat-hf. 8 8 8 https://huggingface.co/meta-llama/Llama-2-13b-chat-hf For both models, the temperature is set to 0 to guarantee reproducible results.

3.2.   Prompt Design

Four prompts are designed to assess the performance of ChatGPT and Llama. The prompts are structured in an incremental fashion, with each subsequent prompt building upon the preceding one by adding extra task elaboration. The key inputs in all the prompts are the task (i.e., the prompt the essay was written in response to) and the essay. Then, the scoring rubric 9 9 9 Scoring guidelines that specify each score criteria and one-shot example are added to the subsequent prompts.

Ensuring the clarity of the prompt given to the LLMs is vital. Therefore, we follow some prompt-engineering tactics advised by OpenAI 10 10 10 https://platform.openai.com/docs/guides/gpt-best-practices/strategy-write-clear-instructions to enhance the prompt comprehension. First, proper delimiters are used to distinguish the inputs (essay, rubrics, and one-shot examples) from the instruction text, preventing prompt injection issues. Second, the prompt is designed as a series of sequential instructions, pushing the models to complete the steps in order. Third, we instruct the models to preprocess the input text (as shown in Figure  1 ), as certain placeholders are present within the ASAP essays. Finally, we ask for a JSON output structure specifying the desired outputs. Overall, we designed four prompt variants that meet these guidelines as follows:

Prompt A (shown in Figures  2 and 3 ) is a simple prompt asking to evaluate the input essay without defining the rubrics . It anchors our expectations on the performance of ChatGPT and Llama without any extra information.

Prompt B adds the rubric guidelines to prompt A, allowing the models to understand the task more. We utilized the rubrics attached to each task in ASAP, which include definitions for each score point in the scale. The rubric assists in providing an objective framework to assess the quality and fulfillment of specific criteria.

Prompt C expands on Prompt B by adopting a one-shot example strategy . This prompt will demonstrate whether ChatGPT and Llama are able to learn from the provided example and enhance its performance.

Prompt D (shown in Figures  4 , 5 , and 6 ) formats prompt C as a chat between a system, an assistant, and a user , dividing the input and output into suitable roles. 11 11 11 Such roles are defined by the LLM. Thus, the expected input and output hopefully become much clearer to the LLM. Figure  7 presents an example of ChatGPT’s response to an essay from Task 7 using this prompt.

The prompts for ChatGPT and Llama contain the same instructions but in different formats. We tried multiple arrangements of the instructions inside the prompt to see the best instruction order for each LLM. After several trials with the order of the instructions inside the prompts, we noticed two main differences. First, ChatGPT benefits from adding a concise list of required steps, whereas Llama did not exhibit similar enhancements from these steps. Second, ChatGPT provided the required JSON format, which was one of the required steps, regardless of the position of this requirement inside the prompt. On the other hand, with Llama, the required format is only generated when explicitly specify it at the very end of the prompt. Another difference in the prompts between ChatGPT and Llama is that in Llama’s prompts, we did not ask for feedback. We did this to keep the responses concise because Llama often offers extra feedback even when it is not asked to provide one. Figures 2 and 3 show the structure of prompt A for ChatGPT and Llama. Prompts B and C have similar formats with the addition of the rubric and the one-shot example.

For Prompt D, ChatGPT has clear and well-defined roles for formatting the prompt as a chat. Figure 4 shows prompt D for ChatGPT. Similarly, Llama has the capability to provide system instruction but with a different format. Llama has an advantage that it can store the history of the messages. So we utilized this by adding the system instructions and the one-shot example as history, and the prompt contained only the input essay. However, we noticed Llama tends to forget the constraint of requiring the response to be in JSON format, so we repeated this instruction with each input. Figures 5 and 6 show the history and prompt D for Llama.

3.3.   Experiment Design

Considering ChatGPT’s paid API, testing 4 prompts on all tasks is quite costly. Given that ASAP tasks are divided into three categories, we performed the experiments in two phases for both ChatGPT and Llama. In the first phase , we experiment with one task from each category on all of our prompts to choose the best prompt for each category. In the second phase , we apply that prompt to the remaining tasks in that category. From each category, we opt for the task with the shortest overall length (rubric guidelines, essay resource, and task question). So, we selected task 1 (persuasive), task 5 (source-dependent), and task 7 (narrative) for the first phase.

4.   Experimental Results and Discussion

In this Section, we discuss the performance of ChatGPT and Llama for AES. Moreover, we provide a thorough examination of the differences between ChatGPT and Llama when it comes to judging essay proficiency and their consistency. Recall that in this work, we aim to answer the following research questions:

To evaluate the AES performance of ChatGPT and Llama, we use Quadratic Weighted Kappa (QWK) Cohen ( 1968 ) , which is a widely used measure for AES. It is worth noting that, for ASAP tasks 7 and 8, we computed the holistic scores out of the predicted trait scores per the formula mentioned in the corresponding task guidelines.

Our baselines are SOTA on both the holistic and trait levels. As such, we contrast our LLM models with  Xie et al. ( 2022 ) and Jiang et al. ( 2023 ) , which achieved SOTA performance for in-prompt AES and cross-prompt AES respectively, from the holistic perspective. We also compare our LLM models against  Mathias and Bhattacharyya ( 2020 ) over the traits level.

4.1.   Effect of Prompt Engineering (RQ1)

Table  2 presents the results of the first phase of our experiments, which reveal several observations.

Effect on ChatGPT

For ChatGPT, first, prompts B, C, and D exhibit better performance than prompt A (except for the source-dependant task, where prompt A outperforms prompts C and D). This is expected as they all provide more context that is apparently needed for ChatGPT to comprehend the task better. Second, the best prompt is different across different task categories. More specifically, prompts C, D, and B were the best for the persuasive, narrative, and source-dependent categories, respectively. This is a very interesting outcome that highlights the importance of prompt engineering for AES in general and AES different task categories in particular. Moreover, a closer look at the task definition of the source-dependent category explains why prompt B was the best; in such category, the source text is provided, and students were mandated to include evidence from it, making it a somewhat “self-contained” task and prompt B was just enough for that with no need for showing an example (as in prompts C and D). That also explains why the source-dependent category, represented by task 5, seems to be much easier (over all prompts) than the other categories. In contrast, the persuasive and narrative categories benefited from the one-shot setup of prompts C and D; however, both still exhibit low absolute performance.

Effect on Llama

On the other hand, Llama exhibits a totally different performance than ChatGPT. As for the persuasive task category, prompt A achieved the best performance. Recall that in the argumentative/persuasive task, essays typically present evidence and facts to support their stated argument. Since Llama’s pre-training data incorporates a more extensive corpus of factual information than others   Touvron et al. ( 2023 ) , it is possible that it grasps the task better with the basic instructions in prompt A, while the added context in the other prompts confuses the model and makes predictions more challenging. As for the remaining tasks, adding the rubrics in prompt B improved the context clarity and the scoring criteria over prompt A. Moreover, it seems that adding a one-shot example appeared to add noise to the prompt for the narrative task, although it was useful in the source-dependent task.

When observing both the performance of ChatGPT and Llama, we can notice a huge discrepancy. For example, Llama’s performance varies notably between different prompts for the same task, whereas this behavior is not observed with ChatGPT.

4.2.   Consistency (RQ2)

To show this discrepancy in more detail, we assessed the consistency of the scores generated by ChatGPT and Llama across the different prompts. As the prompts build upon one another, it is anticipated that the performance of the LLM will have a reasonable agreement between the various prompts because they all share the same core instructions . To perform this analysis, we calculate the QWK score between each pair of prompts for tasks 1, 5, and 7 to assess the level of agreement among each LLM response across the different prompts. Table 3 shows the results of this experiment for the 6 pairs of prompts. For ChatGPT, the adjacent pairs always have a higher QWK; for example, the A-B pairs have higher scores than A-C and A-D for the three tasks. This behavior is expected since the adjacent prompts have higher context similarity. The average QWK for ChatGPT for tasks 1, 5, and 7 are 0.62, 0.58, and 0.64. On the other hand, Llama showed a significant disagreement between the responses of the different prompts, with no observable increasing or decreasing trend. The average QWK is 0.4, 0.2, and 0.17 for tasks 1, 5, and 7, respectively.

From this analysis, Llama demonstrated inconsistent performance in AES, which suggests that it is highly sensitive to prompt selection. ChatGPT showed higher agreement across the different prompts and tasks, indicating that ChatGPT exhibits consistent performance in AES. It is worth noting that in the ASAP dataset, the average agreement score between the two human raters is 0.75  12 12 12 For rater1_domain1 and rater2_domain1 , which indicates the complexity of the AES task. These results show the critical role of prompt engineering in enhancing or diminishing the performance of LLMs on the AES task. Moreover, choosing the right prompt is highly dependent on both the LLM and the nature of the task.

This also highlights that, despite the astonishing ability of LLMs to generate coherent and good-quality text, they struggle to distinguish between good and bad essays. This issue persists even when providing more context about the scores and a sample of a scored essay.

4.3.   LLMs vs. SOTA (RQ3)

We next turn to measure the performance of the two LLMs in predicting the holistic score and trait scores of the essays over the entire set of ASAP tasks. With that, we aim to (1) comprehensively contrast the performance of the two LLMs against each other, and (2) position their performance within the best AES models in the literature.

Based on the first stage, for each LLM, we selected the prompt that achieved the highest QWK for each task category. Specifically, for ChatGPT, we selected prompts C, D, and B, for the persuasive, narrative, and source-dependent categories, respectively. Likewise, for Llama, we opted for prompts A, B, and C, for the persuasive, narrative, and source-dependent categories, respectively.

Table  4 compares the performance of ChatGPT and Llama per ASAP task with SOTA models (as reported in their respective studies) on the holistic level. First, we notice that the average performance of the two LLMs across tasks is quite comparable, with a slight advantage for ChatGPT. The results also show that ChatGPT does a reasonably good job in source-dependent tasks 4-6, where the performance is significantly better than in the other (source-independent) tasks, while Llama showed a better performance only in Task 2 (which is persuasive). Second, it is quite apparent that the exhibited performance of both LLMs is nowhere near the SOTA models, with average QWK of 0.817, 0.702, 0.313, and 0.297 for Xie et al. ( 2022 ) , Jiang et al. ( 2023 ) , ChatGPT, and Llama, respectively. While those SOTA models are task-specific and trained on the ASAP dataset directly, higher performance was expected from the LLMs, given the vast amount of data they were trained on and their ability to generate good-quality text. It is clear that although LLMs were able to understand the task and give a score, it was not able to capture the input essay as a whole and score it accordingly.

On the traits level, Table  5 draws a comparison with SOTA models per trait for tasks 7 and 8, the only tasks that have traits in ASAP. The results deliver the same message of the holistic level; ChatGPT and Llama are very far behind.

4.4.   Analysing the Provided Feedback

Despite the underwhelming performance of both LLMs in scoring essays, that does not mean that LLMs cannot help in sharpening the essay quality by providing feedback for the writer. Here, we show a sample of such feedback and discuss the difference between ChatGPT and Llama. Table  6 shows the feedback of both LLMs on two sample essays from Task 3 (source-dependent), one is of low quality and the other is of high quality.

Interestingly, for ChatGPT, the feedback provided for the low-score essay was short, and there was no elaboration or meaningful comments on how to improve the essay. On the contrary, Llama elaborated better on why that essay had a low score. For the high-score essay, both models were able to explain where the essay could be improved; however, again, Llama was able to better explain where the essay could be improved.

While this is a very small sample (only two essays), it shows promising potential for LLMs to provide meaningful feedback on the writing quality of the given essays, which indeed opens a potential research direction for future work on using LLMs in the AES task. We plan to evaluate a larger set of feedback responses in future experiments to further validate and extend these findings.

5.   Limitations

Our study has indeed several limitations.

First, in our experiments, we were keen on making the length of the prompt as short as possible to fit within the maximum-allowed limit of tokens (which is 4,096 tokens) and reduce the corresponding cost.

Second, we randomly chose one example for the one-shot prompts and did not experiment with different examples. It is also possible that adding few-shot examples might achieve better results.

A further limitation is that OpenAI does not keep track of the historical context of previous requests. So, we had to send the same evaluation instructions in each API request, which incurred additional costs.

Finally, we experimented with one closed- and another open-source LLMs. Experimenting with more LLMs might remove some of the above limitations and bring additional insights.

6.   Conclusion

In this study, we examined the ability of two LLMs, namely ChatGPT and Llama, to assess written essays holistically and per trait, analyzed their performance, and studied their consistency. We designed 4 prompts that showed different performance over different task categories. Our analysis shows that the performance of the LLMs is highly dependent on the prompt and the task type. Moreover, Llama, in particular, is very sensitive to small changes in the prompt, while ChatGPT is more robust and consistent. Although both LLMs fell short behind other SOTA models, it is inevitable to say that LLMs are high-quality text-generating machines. However, it is important to highlight their limitations when it comes to  evaluating text. Our study suggests a possibility of utilizing the vast linguistic knowledge those LLMs have to provide feedback for improving essays. However, according to our study, LLMs are not yet reliable for predicting the score a student would get on an essay.

In future work, we plan to analyze the generated feedback and its usefulness, besides examining the performance of other LLMs, such as Bard, on the task. Expanding our study to other datasets is another future direction. Fine-tuning the LLMs for the AES task might also improve the performance; therefore, that direction is also worth exploring.

7.   Acknowledgements

The work of Salam Albatarni was supported by GSRA grant# GSRA10-L-2-0521-23037 from the Qatar National Research Fund (a member of Qatar Foundation). The work by the rest of the authors was made possible by NPRP grant# NPRP14S-0402-210127 from the Qatar National Research Fund. The statements made herein are solely the responsibility of the authors.

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NPR in Turmoil After It Is Accused of Liberal Bias

An essay from an editor at the broadcaster has generated a firestorm of criticism about the network on social media, especially among conservatives.

By Benjamin Mullin and Katie Robertson

NPR is facing both internal tumult and a fusillade of attacks by prominent conservatives this week after a senior editor publicly claimed the broadcaster had allowed liberal bias to affect its coverage, risking its trust with audiences.

Uri Berliner, a senior business editor who has worked at NPR for 25 years, wrote in an essay published Tuesday by The Free Press, a popular Substack publication, that “people at every level of NPR have comfortably coalesced around the progressive worldview.”

Mr. Berliner, a Peabody Award-winning journalist, castigated NPR for what he said was a litany of journalistic missteps around coverage of several major news events, including the origins of Covid-19 and the war in Gaza. He also said the internal culture at NPR had placed race and identity as “paramount in nearly every aspect of the workplace.”

Mr. Berliner’s essay has ignited a firestorm of criticism of NPR on social media, especially among conservatives who have long accused the network of political bias in its reporting. Former President Donald J. Trump took to his social media platform, Truth Social, to argue that NPR’s government funding should be rescinded, an argument he has made in the past.

NPR has forcefully pushed back on Mr. Berliner’s accusations and the criticism.

“We’re proud to stand behind the exceptional work that our desks and shows do to cover a wide range of challenging stories,” Edith Chapin, the organization’s editor in chief, said in an email to staff on Tuesday. “We believe that inclusion — among our staff, with our sourcing, and in our overall coverage — is critical to telling the nuanced stories of this country and our world.” Some other NPR journalists also criticized the essay publicly, including Eric Deggans, its TV critic, who faulted Mr. Berliner for not giving NPR an opportunity to comment on the piece.

In an interview on Thursday, Mr. Berliner expressed no regrets about publishing the essay, saying he loved NPR and hoped to make it better by airing criticisms that have gone unheeded by leaders for years. He called NPR a “national trust” that people rely on for fair reporting and superb storytelling.

“I decided to go out and publish it in hopes that something would change, and that we get a broader conversation going about how the news is covered,” Mr. Berliner said.

He said he had not been disciplined by managers, though he said he had received a note from his supervisor reminding him that NPR requires employees to clear speaking appearances and media requests with standards and media relations. He said he didn’t run his remarks to The New York Times by network spokespeople.

When the hosts of NPR’s biggest shows, including “Morning Edition” and “All Things Considered,” convened on Wednesday afternoon for a long-scheduled meet-and-greet with the network’s new chief executive, Katherine Maher , conversation soon turned to Mr. Berliner’s essay, according to two people with knowledge of the meeting. During the lunch, Ms. Chapin told the hosts that she didn’t want Mr. Berliner to become a “martyr,” the people said.

Mr. Berliner’s essay also sent critical Slack messages whizzing through some of the same employee affinity groups focused on racial and sexual identity that he cited in his essay. In one group, several staff members disputed Mr. Berliner’s points about a lack of ideological diversity and said efforts to recruit more people of color would make NPR’s journalism better.

On Wednesday, staff members from “Morning Edition” convened to discuss the fallout from Mr. Berliner’s essay. During the meeting, an NPR producer took issue with Mr. Berliner’s argument for why NPR’s listenership has fallen off, describing a variety of factors that have contributed to the change.

Mr. Berliner’s remarks prompted vehement pushback from several news executives. Tony Cavin, NPR’s managing editor of standards and practices, said in an interview that he rejected all of Mr. Berliner’s claims of unfairness, adding that his remarks would probably make it harder for NPR journalists to do their jobs.

“The next time one of our people calls up a Republican congressman or something and tries to get an answer from them, they may well say, ‘Oh, I read these stories, you guys aren’t fair, so I’m not going to talk to you,’” Mr. Cavin said.

Some journalists have defended Mr. Berliner’s essay. Jeffrey A. Dvorkin, NPR’s former ombudsman, said Mr. Berliner was “not wrong” on social media. Chuck Holmes, a former managing editor at NPR, called Mr. Berliner’s essay “brave” on Facebook.

Mr. Berliner’s criticism was the latest salvo within NPR, which is no stranger to internal division. In October, Mr. Berliner took part in a lengthy debate over whether NPR should defer to language proposed by the Arab and Middle Eastern Journalists Association while covering the conflict in Gaza.

“We don’t need to rely on an advocacy group’s guidance,” Mr. Berliner wrote, according to a copy of the email exchange viewed by The Times. “Our job is to seek out the facts and report them.” The debate didn’t change NPR’s language guidance, which is made by editors who weren’t part of the discussion. And in a statement on Thursday, the Arab and Middle Eastern Journalists Association said it is a professional association for journalists, not a political advocacy group.

Mr. Berliner’s public criticism has highlighted broader concerns within NPR about the public broadcaster’s mission amid continued financial struggles. Last year, NPR cut 10 percent of its staff and canceled four podcasts, including the popular “Invisibilia,” as it tried to make up for a $30 million budget shortfall. Listeners have drifted away from traditional radio to podcasts, and the advertising market has been unsteady.

In his essay, Mr. Berliner laid some of the blame at the feet of NPR’s former chief executive, John Lansing, who said he was retiring at the end of last year after four years in the role. He was replaced by Ms. Maher, who started on March 25.

During a meeting with employees in her first week, Ms. Maher was asked what she thought about decisions to give a platform to political figures like Ronna McDaniel, the former Republican Party chair whose position as a political analyst at NBC News became untenable after an on-air revolt from hosts who criticized her efforts to undermine the 2020 election.

“I think that this conversation has been one that does not have an easy answer,” Ms. Maher responded.

Benjamin Mullin reports on the major companies behind news and entertainment. Contact Ben securely on Signal at +1 530-961-3223 or email at [email protected] . More about Benjamin Mullin

Katie Robertson covers the media industry for The Times. Email:  [email protected]   More about Katie Robertson

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NPR defends its journalism after senior editor says it has lost the public's trust

David Folkenflik

NPR is defending its journalism and integrity after a senior editor wrote an essay accusing it of losing the public's trust. Saul Loeb/AFP via Getty Images hide caption

NPR is defending its journalism and integrity after a senior editor wrote an essay accusing it of losing the public's trust.

NPR's top news executive defended its journalism and its commitment to reflecting a diverse array of views on Tuesday after a senior NPR editor wrote a broad critique of how the network has covered some of the most important stories of the age.

"An open-minded spirit no longer exists within NPR, and now, predictably, we don't have an audience that reflects America," writes Uri Berliner.

A strategic emphasis on diversity and inclusion on the basis of race, ethnicity and sexual orientation, promoted by NPR's former CEO, John Lansing, has fed "the absence of viewpoint diversity," Berliner writes.

NPR's chief news executive, Edith Chapin, wrote in a memo to staff Tuesday afternoon that she and the news leadership team strongly reject Berliner's assessment.

"We're proud to stand behind the exceptional work that our desks and shows do to cover a wide range of challenging stories," she wrote. "We believe that inclusion — among our staff, with our sourcing, and in our overall coverage — is critical to telling the nuanced stories of this country and our world."

NPR names tech executive Katherine Maher to lead in turbulent era

She added, "None of our work is above scrutiny or critique. We must have vigorous discussions in the newsroom about how we serve the public as a whole."

A spokesperson for NPR said Chapin, who also serves as the network's chief content officer, would have no further comment.

Praised by NPR's critics

Berliner is a senior editor on NPR's Business Desk. (Disclosure: I, too, am part of the Business Desk, and Berliner has edited many of my past stories. He did not see any version of this article or participate in its preparation before it was posted publicly.)

Berliner's essay , titled "I've Been at NPR for 25 years. Here's How We Lost America's Trust," was published by The Free Press, a website that has welcomed journalists who have concluded that mainstream news outlets have become reflexively liberal.

Berliner writes that as a Subaru-driving, Sarah Lawrence College graduate who "was raised by a lesbian peace activist mother ," he fits the mold of a loyal NPR fan.

Yet Berliner says NPR's news coverage has fallen short on some of the most controversial stories of recent years, from the question of whether former President Donald Trump colluded with Russia in the 2016 election, to the origins of the virus that causes COVID-19, to the significance and provenance of emails leaked from a laptop owned by Hunter Biden weeks before the 2020 election. In addition, he blasted NPR's coverage of the Israel-Hamas conflict.

On each of these stories, Berliner asserts, NPR has suffered from groupthink due to too little diversity of viewpoints in the newsroom.

The essay ricocheted Tuesday around conservative media , with some labeling Berliner a whistleblower . Others picked it up on social media, including Elon Musk, who has lambasted NPR for leaving his social media site, X. (Musk emailed another NPR reporter a link to Berliner's article with a gibe that the reporter was a "quisling" — a World War II reference to someone who collaborates with the enemy.)

When asked for further comment late Tuesday, Berliner declined, saying the essay spoke for itself.

The arguments he raises — and counters — have percolated across U.S. newsrooms in recent years. The #MeToo sexual harassment scandals of 2016 and 2017 forced newsrooms to listen to and heed more junior colleagues. The social justice movement prompted by the killing of George Floyd in 2020 inspired a reckoning in many places. Newsroom leaders often appeared to stand on shaky ground.

Leaders at many newsrooms, including top editors at The New York Times and the Los Angeles Times , lost their jobs. Legendary Washington Post Executive Editor Martin Baron wrote in his memoir that he feared his bonds with the staff were "frayed beyond repair," especially over the degree of self-expression his journalists expected to exert on social media, before he decided to step down in early 2021.

Since then, Baron and others — including leaders of some of these newsrooms — have suggested that the pendulum has swung too far.

Author Interviews

Legendary editor marty baron describes his 'collision of power' with trump and bezos.

New York Times publisher A.G. Sulzberger warned last year against journalists embracing a stance of what he calls "one-side-ism": "where journalists are demonstrating that they're on the side of the righteous."

"I really think that that can create blind spots and echo chambers," he said.

Internal arguments at The Times over the strength of its reporting on accusations that Hamas engaged in sexual assaults as part of a strategy for its Oct. 7 attack on Israel erupted publicly . The paper conducted an investigation to determine the source of a leak over a planned episode of the paper's podcast The Daily on the subject, which months later has not been released. The newsroom guild accused the paper of "targeted interrogation" of journalists of Middle Eastern descent.

Heated pushback in NPR's newsroom

Given Berliner's account of private conversations, several NPR journalists question whether they can now trust him with unguarded assessments about stories in real time. Others express frustration that he had not sought out comment in advance of publication. Berliner acknowledged to me that for this story, he did not seek NPR's approval to publish the piece, nor did he give the network advance notice.

Some of Berliner's NPR colleagues are responding heatedly. Fernando Alfonso, a senior supervising editor for digital news, wrote that he wholeheartedly rejected Berliner's critique of the coverage of the Israel-Hamas conflict, for which NPR's journalists, like their peers, periodically put themselves at risk.

Alfonso also took issue with Berliner's concern over the focus on diversity at NPR.

"As a person of color who has often worked in newsrooms with little to no people who look like me, the efforts NPR has made to diversify its workforce and its sources are unique and appropriate given the news industry's long-standing lack of diversity," Alfonso says. "These efforts should be celebrated and not denigrated as Uri has done."

After this story was first published, Berliner contested Alfonso's characterization, saying his criticism of NPR is about the lack of diversity of viewpoints, not its diversity itself.

"I never criticized NPR's priority of achieving a more diverse workforce in terms of race, ethnicity and sexual orientation. I have not 'denigrated' NPR's newsroom diversity goals," Berliner said. "That's wrong."

Questions of diversity

Under former CEO John Lansing, NPR made increasing diversity, both of its staff and its audience, its "North Star" mission. Berliner says in the essay that NPR failed to consider broader diversity of viewpoint, noting, "In D.C., where NPR is headquartered and many of us live, I found 87 registered Democrats working in editorial positions and zero Republicans."

Berliner cited audience estimates that suggested a concurrent falloff in listening by Republicans. (The number of people listening to NPR broadcasts and terrestrial radio broadly has declined since the start of the pandemic.)

Former NPR vice president for news and ombudsman Jeffrey Dvorkin tweeted , "I know Uri. He's not wrong."

Others questioned Berliner's logic. "This probably gets causality somewhat backward," tweeted Semafor Washington editor Jordan Weissmann . "I'd guess that a lot of NPR listeners who voted for [Mitt] Romney have changed how they identify politically."

Similarly, Nieman Lab founder Joshua Benton suggested the rise of Trump alienated many NPR-appreciating Republicans from the GOP.

In recent years, NPR has greatly enhanced the percentage of people of color in its workforce and its executive ranks. Four out of 10 staffers are people of color; nearly half of NPR's leadership team identifies as Black, Asian or Latino.

"The philosophy is: Do you want to serve all of America and make sure it sounds like all of America, or not?" Lansing, who stepped down last month, says in response to Berliner's piece. "I'd welcome the argument against that."

"On radio, we were really lagging in our representation of an audience that makes us look like what America looks like today," Lansing says. The U.S. looks and sounds a lot different than it did in 1971, when NPR's first show was broadcast, Lansing says.

A network spokesperson says new NPR CEO Katherine Maher supports Chapin and her response to Berliner's critique.

The spokesperson says that Maher "believes that it's a healthy thing for a public service newsroom to engage in rigorous consideration of the needs of our audiences, including where we serve our mission well and where we can serve it better."

Disclosure: This story was reported and written by NPR Media Correspondent David Folkenflik and edited by Deputy Business Editor Emily Kopp and Managing Editor Gerry Holmes. Under NPR's protocol for reporting on itself, no NPR corporate official or news executive reviewed this story before it was posted publicly.

Gig workers are writing essays for AI to learn from

• Companies are hiring highly educated gig workers to write training content for AI models .
• The shift toward more sophisticated trainers comes as tech giants scramble for new data sources.
• AI could run out of data to learn from by 2026, one research institute has warned. 

As artificial intelligence models run out of data to train themselves on, AI companies are increasingly turning to actual humans to write training content.

For years, companies have used gig workers to help train AI models on simple tasks like photo identification , data annotation, and labelling. But the rapidly advancing technology now requires more advanced people to train it.

Companies such as Scale AI and Surge AI are hiring part-timers with graduate degrees to write essays and creative prompts for the bots to gobble up, The New York Times reported . Scale AI, for example, posted a job last year looking for people with Master's degrees or PhDs, who are fluent in either English, Hindi, or Japanese and have professional writing experience in fields like poetry, journalism, and publishing.

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Their mission? To help AI bots "become better writers," Scale AI wrote in the posting.

And an army of workers are needed to do this kind of work. Scale AI has as many as tens of thousands of contractors working on its platform at a time, per the Times.

"What really makes the A.I. useful to its users is the human layer of data, and that really needs to be done by smart humans and skilled humans and humans with a particular degree of expertise and a creative bent," Willow Primack, the vice president of data operations at Scale AI, told the New York Times. "We have been focusing on contractors, particularly within North America, as a result."

The shift toward more sophisticated gig trainers comes as tech giants scramble to find new data to train their technology on. That's because the programs learn so incredibly fast that they're already running out of available resources to learn from. The vast trove of online information — everything from scientific papers to news articles to Wikipedia pages — is drying up.

Epoch, an AI research institute, has warned that AI could run out of data by 2026.

So, companies are finding more and more creative ways to make sure their systems never stop learning. Google has considered accessing its customers' data in Google Docs , Sheets, and Slides while Meta even thought about buying publishing house Simon & Schuster to harvest its book collection, Business Insider previously reported.

Watch: Nearly 50,000 tech workers have been laid off — but there's a hack to avoid layoffs

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