what are the results and findings of the research

• Affiliate Program

• UNITED STATES
• 台灣 (TAIWAN)
• TÜRKIYE (TURKEY)
• Academic Editing Services
• - Research Paper
• - Journal Manuscript
• - Dissertation
• - College & University Assignments
• Admissions Editing Services
• - Application Essay
• - Personal Statement
• - Recommendation Letter
• - Cover Letter
• - CV/Resume
• Business Editing Services
• - Business Documents
• - Report & Brochure
• - Website & Blog
• Writer Editing Services
• - Script & Screenplay
• Our Editors
• Client Reviews
• Editing & Proofreading Prices
• Wordvice Points
• Partner Discount
• Plagiarism Checker
• APA Citation Generator
• MLA Citation Generator
• Chicago Citation Generator
• Vancouver Citation Generator
• - APA Style
• - MLA Style
• - Chicago Style
• - Vancouver Style
• Writing & Editing Guide
• Academic Resources
• Admissions Resources

How to Write the Results/Findings Section in Research

What is the research paper Results section and what does it do?

The Results section of a scientific research paper represents the core findings of a study derived from the methods applied to gather and analyze information. It presents these findings in a logical sequence without bias or interpretation from the author, setting up the reader for later interpretation and evaluation in the Discussion section. A major purpose of the Results section is to break down the data into sentences that show its significance to the research question(s).

The Results section appears third in the section sequence in most scientific papers. It follows the presentation of the Methods and Materials and is presented before the Discussion section —although the Results and Discussion are presented together in many journals. This section answers the basic question “What did you find in your research?”

What is included in the Results section?

The Results section should include the findings of your study and ONLY the findings of your study. The findings include:

• Data presented in tables, charts, graphs, and other figures (may be placed into the text or on separate pages at the end of the manuscript)
• A contextual analysis of this data explaining its meaning in sentence form
• All data that corresponds to the central research question(s)
• All secondary findings (secondary outcomes, subgroup analyses, etc.)

If the scope of the study is broad, or if you studied a variety of variables, or if the methodology used yields a wide range of different results, the author should present only those results that are most relevant to the research question stated in the Introduction section .

As a general rule, any information that does not present the direct findings or outcome of the study should be left out of this section. Unless the journal requests that authors combine the Results and Discussion sections, explanations and interpretations should be omitted from the Results.

How are the results organized?

The best way to organize your Results section is “logically.” One logical and clear method of organizing research results is to provide them alongside the research questions—within each research question, present the type of data that addresses that research question.

Let’s look at an example. Your research question is based on a survey among patients who were treated at a hospital and received postoperative care. Let’s say your first research question is:

“What do hospital patients over age 55 think about postoperative care?”

This can actually be represented as a heading within your Results section, though it might be presented as a statement rather than a question:

Attitudes towards postoperative care in patients over the age of 55

Now present the results that address this specific research question first. In this case, perhaps a table illustrating data from a survey. Likert items can be included in this example. Tables can also present standard deviations, probabilities, correlation matrices, etc.

Following this, present a content analysis, in words, of one end of the spectrum of the survey or data table. In our example case, start with the POSITIVE survey responses regarding postoperative care, using descriptive phrases. For example:

“Sixty-five percent of patients over 55 responded positively to the question “ Are you satisfied with your hospital’s postoperative care ?” (Fig. 2)

Include other results such as subcategory analyses. The amount of textual description used will depend on how much interpretation of tables and figures is necessary and how many examples the reader needs in order to understand the significance of your research findings.

Next, present a content analysis of another part of the spectrum of the same research question, perhaps the NEGATIVE or NEUTRAL responses to the survey. For instance:

  “As Figure 1 shows, 15 out of 60 patients in Group A responded negatively to Question 2.”

After you have assessed the data in one figure and explained it sufficiently, move on to your next research question. For example:

  “How does patient satisfaction correspond to in-hospital improvements made to postoperative care?”

This kind of data may be presented through a figure or set of figures (for instance, a paired T-test table).

Explain the data you present, here in a table, with a concise content analysis:

“The p-value for the comparison between the before and after groups of patients was .03% (Fig. 2), indicating that the greater the dissatisfaction among patients, the more frequent the improvements that were made to postoperative care.”

Let’s examine another example of a Results section from a study on plant tolerance to heavy metal stress . In the Introduction section, the aims of the study are presented as “determining the physiological and morphological responses of Allium cepa L. towards increased cadmium toxicity” and “evaluating its potential to accumulate the metal and its associated environmental consequences.” The Results section presents data showing how these aims are achieved in tables alongside a content analysis, beginning with an overview of the findings:

“Cadmium caused inhibition of root and leave elongation, with increasing effects at higher exposure doses (Fig. 1a-c).”

The figure containing this data is cited in parentheses. Note that this author has combined three graphs into one single figure. Separating the data into separate graphs focusing on specific aspects makes it easier for the reader to assess the findings, and consolidating this information into one figure saves space and makes it easy to locate the most relevant results.

Following this overall summary, the relevant data in the tables is broken down into greater detail in text form in the Results section.

• “Results on the bio-accumulation of cadmium were found to be the highest (17.5 mg kgG1) in the bulb, when the concentration of cadmium in the solution was 1×10G2 M and lowest (0.11 mg kgG1) in the leaves when the concentration was 1×10G3 M.”

Captioning and Referencing Tables and Figures

Tables and figures are central components of your Results section and you need to carefully think about the most effective way to use graphs and tables to present your findings . Therefore, it is crucial to know how to write strong figure captions and to refer to them within the text of the Results section.

The most important advice one can give here as well as throughout the paper is to check the requirements and standards of the journal to which you are submitting your work. Every journal has its own design and layout standards, which you can find in the author instructions on the target journal’s website. Perusing a journal’s published articles will also give you an idea of the proper number, size, and complexity of your figures.

Regardless of which format you use, the figures should be placed in the order they are referenced in the Results section and be as clear and easy to understand as possible. If there are multiple variables being considered (within one or more research questions), it can be a good idea to split these up into separate figures. Subsequently, these can be referenced and analyzed under separate headings and paragraphs in the text.

To create a caption, consider the research question being asked and change it into a phrase. For instance, if one question is “Which color did participants choose?”, the caption might be “Color choice by participant group.” Or in our last research paper example, where the question was “What is the concentration of cadmium in different parts of the onion after 14 days?” the caption reads:

 “Fig. 1(a-c): Mean concentration of Cd determined in (a) bulbs, (b) leaves, and (c) roots of onions after a 14-day period.”

Steps for Composing the Results Section

Because each study is unique, there is no one-size-fits-all approach when it comes to designing a strategy for structuring and writing the section of a research paper where findings are presented. The content and layout of this section will be determined by the specific area of research, the design of the study and its particular methodologies, and the guidelines of the target journal and its editors. However, the following steps can be used to compose the results of most scientific research studies and are essential for researchers who are new to preparing a manuscript for publication or who need a reminder of how to construct the Results section.

Step 1 : Consult the guidelines or instructions that the target journal or publisher provides authors and read research papers it has published, especially those with similar topics, methods, or results to your study.

• The guidelines will generally outline specific requirements for the results or findings section, and the published articles will provide sound examples of successful approaches.
• Note length limitations on restrictions on content. For instance, while many journals require the Results and Discussion sections to be separate, others do not—qualitative research papers often include results and interpretations in the same section (“Results and Discussion”).
• Reading the aims and scope in the journal’s “ guide for authors ” section and understanding the interests of its readers will be invaluable in preparing to write the Results section.

Step 2 : Consider your research results in relation to the journal’s requirements and catalogue your results.

• Focus on experimental results and other findings that are especially relevant to your research questions and objectives and include them even if they are unexpected or do not support your ideas and hypotheses.
• Catalogue your findings—use subheadings to streamline and clarify your report. This will help you avoid excessive and peripheral details as you write and also help your reader understand and remember your findings. Create appendices that might interest specialists but prove too long or distracting for other readers.
• Decide how you will structure of your results. You might match the order of the research questions and hypotheses to your results, or you could arrange them according to the order presented in the Methods section. A chronological order or even a hierarchy of importance or meaningful grouping of main themes or categories might prove effective. Consider your audience, evidence, and most importantly, the objectives of your research when choosing a structure for presenting your findings.

Step 3 : Design figures and tables to present and illustrate your data.

• Tables and figures should be numbered according to the order in which they are mentioned in the main text of the paper.
• Information in figures should be relatively self-explanatory (with the aid of captions), and their design should include all definitions and other information necessary for readers to understand the findings without reading all of the text.
• Use tables and figures as a focal point to tell a clear and informative story about your research and avoid repeating information. But remember that while figures clarify and enhance the text, they cannot replace it.

Step 4 : Draft your Results section using the findings and figures you have organized.

• The goal is to communicate this complex information as clearly and precisely as possible; precise and compact phrases and sentences are most effective.
• In the opening paragraph of this section, restate your research questions or aims to focus the reader’s attention to what the results are trying to show. It is also a good idea to summarize key findings at the end of this section to create a logical transition to the interpretation and discussion that follows.
• Try to write in the past tense and the active voice to relay the findings since the research has already been done and the agent is usually clear. This will ensure that your explanations are also clear and logical.
• Make sure that any specialized terminology or abbreviation you have used here has been defined and clarified in the  Introduction section .

Step 5 : Review your draft; edit and revise until it reports results exactly as you would like to have them reported to your readers.

• Double-check the accuracy and consistency of all the data, as well as all of the visual elements included.
• Read your draft aloud to catch language errors (grammar, spelling, and mechanics), awkward phrases, and missing transitions.
• Ensure that your results are presented in the best order to focus on objectives and prepare readers for interpretations, valuations, and recommendations in the Discussion section . Look back over the paper’s Introduction and background while anticipating the Discussion and Conclusion sections to ensure that the presentation of your results is consistent and effective.
• Consider seeking additional guidance on your paper. Find additional readers to look over your Results section and see if it can be improved in any way. Peers, professors, or qualified experts can provide valuable insights.

One excellent option is to use a professional English proofreading and editing service  such as Wordvice, including our paper editing service . With hundreds of qualified editors from dozens of scientific fields, Wordvice has helped thousands of authors revise their manuscripts and get accepted into their target journals. Read more about the  proofreading and editing process  before proceeding with getting academic editing services and manuscript editing services for your manuscript.

As the representation of your study’s data output, the Results section presents the core information in your research paper. By writing with clarity and conciseness and by highlighting and explaining the crucial findings of their study, authors increase the impact and effectiveness of their research manuscripts.

For more articles and videos on writing your research manuscript, visit Wordvice’s Resources page.

Wordvice Resources

• How to Write a Research Paper Introduction 
• Which Verb Tenses to Use in a Research Paper
• How to Write an Abstract for a Research Paper
• How to Write a Research Paper Title
• Useful Phrases for Academic Writing
• Common Transition Terms in Academic Papers
• Active and Passive Voice in Research Papers
• 100+ Verbs That Will Make Your Research Writing Amazing
• Tips for Paraphrasing in Research Papers

• USC Libraries
• Research Guides

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• 7. The Results
• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Applying Critical Thinking
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Research Process Video Series
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Insiderness
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Generative AI and Writing
• USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
• Bibliography

The results section is where you report the findings of your study based upon the methodology [or methodologies] you applied to gather information. The results section should state the findings of the research arranged in a logical sequence without bias or interpretation. A section describing results should be particularly detailed if your paper includes data generated from your own research.

Annesley, Thomas M. "Show Your Cards: The Results Section and the Poker Game." Clinical Chemistry 56 (July 2010): 1066-1070.

Importance of a Good Results Section

When formulating the results section, it's important to remember that the results of a study do not prove anything . Findings can only confirm or reject the hypothesis underpinning your study. However, the act of articulating the results helps you to understand the problem from within, to break it into pieces, and to view the research problem from various perspectives.

The page length of this section is set by the amount and types of data to be reported . Be concise. Use non-textual elements appropriately, such as figures and tables, to present findings more effectively. In deciding what data to describe in your results section, you must clearly distinguish information that would normally be included in a research paper from any raw data or other content that could be included as an appendix. In general, raw data that has not been summarized should not be included in the main text of your paper unless requested to do so by your professor.

Avoid providing data that is not critical to answering the research question . The background information you described in the introduction section should provide the reader with any additional context or explanation needed to understand the results. A good strategy is to always re-read the background section of your paper after you have written up your results to ensure that the reader has enough context to understand the results [and, later, how you interpreted the results in the discussion section of your paper that follows].

Bavdekar, Sandeep B. and Sneha Chandak. "Results: Unraveling the Findings." Journal of the Association of Physicians of India 63 (September 2015): 44-46; Brett, Paul. "A Genre Analysis of the Results Section of Sociology Articles." English for Specific Speakers 13 (1994): 47-59; Go to English for Specific Purposes on ScienceDirect;Burton, Neil et al. Doing Your Education Research Project . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2008; Results. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Kretchmer, Paul. Twelve Steps to Writing an Effective Results Section. San Francisco Edit; "Reporting Findings." In Making Sense of Social Research Malcolm Williams, editor. (London;: SAGE Publications, 2003) pp. 188-207.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  Organization and Approach

For most research papers in the social and behavioral sciences, there are two possible ways of organizing the results . Both approaches are appropriate in how you report your findings, but use only one approach.

• Present a synopsis of the results followed by an explanation of key findings . This approach can be used to highlight important findings. For example, you may have noticed an unusual correlation between two variables during the analysis of your findings. It is appropriate to highlight this finding in the results section. However, speculating as to why this correlation exists and offering a hypothesis about what may be happening belongs in the discussion section of your paper.
• Present a result and then explain it, before presenting the next result then explaining it, and so on, then end with an overall synopsis . This is the preferred approach if you have multiple results of equal significance. It is more common in longer papers because it helps the reader to better understand each finding. In this model, it is helpful to provide a brief conclusion that ties each of the findings together and provides a narrative bridge to the discussion section of the your paper.

NOTE:   Just as the literature review should be arranged under conceptual categories rather than systematically describing each source, you should also organize your findings under key themes related to addressing the research problem. This can be done under either format noted above [i.e., a thorough explanation of the key results or a sequential, thematic description and explanation of each finding].

II.  Content

In general, the content of your results section should include the following:

• Introductory context for understanding the results by restating the research problem underpinning your study . This is useful in re-orientating the reader's focus back to the research problem after having read a review of the literature and your explanation of the methods used for gathering and analyzing information.
• Inclusion of non-textual elements, such as, figures, charts, photos, maps, tables, etc. to further illustrate key findings, if appropriate . Rather than relying entirely on descriptive text, consider how your findings can be presented visually. This is a helpful way of condensing a lot of data into one place that can then be referred to in the text. Consider referring to appendices if there is a lot of non-textual elements.
• A systematic description of your results, highlighting for the reader observations that are most relevant to the topic under investigation . Not all results that emerge from the methodology used to gather information may be related to answering the " So What? " question. Do not confuse observations with interpretations; observations in this context refers to highlighting important findings you discovered through a process of reviewing prior literature and gathering data.
• The page length of your results section is guided by the amount and types of data to be reported . However, focus on findings that are important and related to addressing the research problem. It is not uncommon to have unanticipated results that are not relevant to answering the research question. This is not to say that you don't acknowledge tangential findings and, in fact, can be referred to as areas for further research in the conclusion of your paper. However, spending time in the results section describing tangential findings clutters your overall results section and distracts the reader.
• A short paragraph that concludes the results section by synthesizing the key findings of the study . Highlight the most important findings you want readers to remember as they transition into the discussion section. This is particularly important if, for example, there are many results to report, the findings are complicated or unanticipated, or they are impactful or actionable in some way [i.e., able to be pursued in a feasible way applied to practice].

NOTE:   Always use the past tense when referring to your study's findings. Reference to findings should always be described as having already happened because the method used to gather the information has been completed.

III.  Problems to Avoid

When writing the results section, avoid doing the following :

• Discussing or interpreting your results . Save this for the discussion section of your paper, although where appropriate, you should compare or contrast specific results to those found in other studies [e.g., "Similar to the work of Smith [1990], one of the findings of this study is the strong correlation between motivation and academic achievement...."].
• Reporting background information or attempting to explain your findings. This should have been done in your introduction section, but don't panic! Often the results of a study point to the need for additional background information or to explain the topic further, so don't think you did something wrong. Writing up research is rarely a linear process. Always revise your introduction as needed.
• Ignoring negative results . A negative result generally refers to a finding that does not support the underlying assumptions of your study. Do not ignore them. Document these findings and then state in your discussion section why you believe a negative result emerged from your study. Note that negative results, and how you handle them, can give you an opportunity to write a more engaging discussion section, therefore, don't be hesitant to highlight them.
• Including raw data or intermediate calculations . Ask your professor if you need to include any raw data generated by your study, such as transcripts from interviews or data files. If raw data is to be included, place it in an appendix or set of appendices that are referred to in the text.
• Be as factual and concise as possible in reporting your findings . Do not use phrases that are vague or non-specific, such as, "appeared to be greater than other variables..." or "demonstrates promising trends that...." Subjective modifiers should be explained in the discussion section of the paper [i.e., why did one variable appear greater? Or, how does the finding demonstrate a promising trend?].
• Presenting the same data or repeating the same information more than once . If you want to highlight a particular finding, it is appropriate to do so in the results section. However, you should emphasize its significance in relation to addressing the research problem in the discussion section. Do not repeat it in your results section because you can do that in the conclusion of your paper.
• Confusing figures with tables . Be sure to properly label any non-textual elements in your paper. Don't call a chart an illustration or a figure a table. If you are not sure, go here .

Annesley, Thomas M. "Show Your Cards: The Results Section and the Poker Game." Clinical Chemistry 56 (July 2010): 1066-1070; Bavdekar, Sandeep B. and Sneha Chandak. "Results: Unraveling the Findings." Journal of the Association of Physicians of India 63 (September 2015): 44-46; Burton, Neil et al. Doing Your Education Research Project . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2008;  Caprette, David R. Writing Research Papers. Experimental Biosciences Resources. Rice University; Hancock, Dawson R. and Bob Algozzine. Doing Case Study Research: A Practical Guide for Beginning Researchers . 2nd ed. New York: Teachers College Press, 2011; Introduction to Nursing Research: Reporting Research Findings. Nursing Research: Open Access Nursing Research and Review Articles. (January 4, 2012); Kretchmer, Paul. Twelve Steps to Writing an Effective Results Section. San Francisco Edit ; Ng, K. H. and W. C. Peh. "Writing the Results." Singapore Medical Journal 49 (2008): 967-968; Reporting Research Findings. Wilder Research, in partnership with the Minnesota Department of Human Services. (February 2009); Results. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Schafer, Mickey S. Writing the Results. Thesis Writing in the Sciences. Course Syllabus. University of Florida.

Writing Tip

Why Don't I Just Combine the Results Section with the Discussion Section?

It's not unusual to find articles in scholarly social science journals where the author(s) have combined a description of the findings with a discussion about their significance and implications. You could do this. However, if you are inexperienced writing research papers, consider creating two distinct sections for each section in your paper as a way to better organize your thoughts and, by extension, your paper. Think of the results section as the place where you report what your study found; think of the discussion section as the place where you interpret the information and answer the "So What?" question. As you become more skilled writing research papers, you can consider melding the results of your study with a discussion of its implications.

Driscoll, Dana Lynn and Aleksandra Kasztalska. Writing the Experimental Report: Methods, Results, and Discussion. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University.

• << Previous: Insiderness
• Next: Using Non-Textual Elements >>
• Last Updated: Jun 18, 2024 10:45 AM
• URL: https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide

• Privacy Policy

Home » Research Findings – Types Examples and Writing Guide

Research Findings – Types Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Findings

Definition:

Research findings refer to the results obtained from a study or investigation conducted through a systematic and scientific approach. These findings are the outcomes of the data analysis, interpretation, and evaluation carried out during the research process.

Types of Research Findings

There are two main types of research findings:

Qualitative Findings

Qualitative research is an exploratory research method used to understand the complexities of human behavior and experiences. Qualitative findings are non-numerical and descriptive data that describe the meaning and interpretation of the data collected. Examples of qualitative findings include quotes from participants, themes that emerge from the data, and descriptions of experiences and phenomena.

Quantitative Findings

Quantitative research is a research method that uses numerical data and statistical analysis to measure and quantify a phenomenon or behavior. Quantitative findings include numerical data such as mean, median, and mode, as well as statistical analyses such as t-tests, ANOVA, and regression analysis. These findings are often presented in tables, graphs, or charts.

Both qualitative and quantitative findings are important in research and can provide different insights into a research question or problem. Combining both types of findings can provide a more comprehensive understanding of a phenomenon and improve the validity and reliability of research results.

Parts of Research Findings

Research findings typically consist of several parts, including:

• Introduction: This section provides an overview of the research topic and the purpose of the study.
• Literature Review: This section summarizes previous research studies and findings that are relevant to the current study.
• Methodology : This section describes the research design, methods, and procedures used in the study, including details on the sample, data collection, and data analysis.
• Results : This section presents the findings of the study, including statistical analyses and data visualizations.
• Discussion : This section interprets the results and explains what they mean in relation to the research question(s) and hypotheses. It may also compare and contrast the current findings with previous research studies and explore any implications or limitations of the study.
• Conclusion : This section provides a summary of the key findings and the main conclusions of the study.
• Recommendations: This section suggests areas for further research and potential applications or implications of the study’s findings.

How to Write Research Findings

Writing research findings requires careful planning and attention to detail. Here are some general steps to follow when writing research findings:

• Organize your findings: Before you begin writing, it’s essential to organize your findings logically. Consider creating an outline or a flowchart that outlines the main points you want to make and how they relate to one another.
• Use clear and concise language : When presenting your findings, be sure to use clear and concise language that is easy to understand. Avoid using jargon or technical terms unless they are necessary to convey your meaning.
• Use visual aids : Visual aids such as tables, charts, and graphs can be helpful in presenting your findings. Be sure to label and title your visual aids clearly, and make sure they are easy to read.
• Use headings and subheadings: Using headings and subheadings can help organize your findings and make them easier to read. Make sure your headings and subheadings are clear and descriptive.
• Interpret your findings : When presenting your findings, it’s important to provide some interpretation of what the results mean. This can include discussing how your findings relate to the existing literature, identifying any limitations of your study, and suggesting areas for future research.
• Be precise and accurate : When presenting your findings, be sure to use precise and accurate language. Avoid making generalizations or overstatements and be careful not to misrepresent your data.
• Edit and revise: Once you have written your research findings, be sure to edit and revise them carefully. Check for grammar and spelling errors, make sure your formatting is consistent, and ensure that your writing is clear and concise.

Research Findings Example

Following is a Research Findings Example sample for students:

Title: The Effects of Exercise on Mental Health

Sample : 500 participants, both men and women, between the ages of 18-45.

Methodology : Participants were divided into two groups. The first group engaged in 30 minutes of moderate intensity exercise five times a week for eight weeks. The second group did not exercise during the study period. Participants in both groups completed a questionnaire that assessed their mental health before and after the study period.

Findings : The group that engaged in regular exercise reported a significant improvement in mental health compared to the control group. Specifically, they reported lower levels of anxiety and depression, improved mood, and increased self-esteem.

Conclusion : Regular exercise can have a positive impact on mental health and may be an effective intervention for individuals experiencing symptoms of anxiety or depression.

Applications of Research Findings

Research findings can be applied in various fields to improve processes, products, services, and outcomes. Here are some examples:

• Healthcare : Research findings in medicine and healthcare can be applied to improve patient outcomes, reduce morbidity and mortality rates, and develop new treatments for various diseases.
• Education : Research findings in education can be used to develop effective teaching methods, improve learning outcomes, and design new educational programs.
• Technology : Research findings in technology can be applied to develop new products, improve existing products, and enhance user experiences.
• Business : Research findings in business can be applied to develop new strategies, improve operations, and increase profitability.
• Public Policy: Research findings can be used to inform public policy decisions on issues such as environmental protection, social welfare, and economic development.
• Social Sciences: Research findings in social sciences can be used to improve understanding of human behavior and social phenomena, inform public policy decisions, and develop interventions to address social issues.
• Agriculture: Research findings in agriculture can be applied to improve crop yields, develop new farming techniques, and enhance food security.
• Sports : Research findings in sports can be applied to improve athlete performance, reduce injuries, and develop new training programs.

When to use Research Findings

Research findings can be used in a variety of situations, depending on the context and the purpose. Here are some examples of when research findings may be useful:

• Decision-making : Research findings can be used to inform decisions in various fields, such as business, education, healthcare, and public policy. For example, a business may use market research findings to make decisions about new product development or marketing strategies.
• Problem-solving : Research findings can be used to solve problems or challenges in various fields, such as healthcare, engineering, and social sciences. For example, medical researchers may use findings from clinical trials to develop new treatments for diseases.
• Policy development : Research findings can be used to inform the development of policies in various fields, such as environmental protection, social welfare, and economic development. For example, policymakers may use research findings to develop policies aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
• Program evaluation: Research findings can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of programs or interventions in various fields, such as education, healthcare, and social services. For example, educational researchers may use findings from evaluations of educational programs to improve teaching and learning outcomes.
• Innovation: Research findings can be used to inspire or guide innovation in various fields, such as technology and engineering. For example, engineers may use research findings on materials science to develop new and innovative products.

Purpose of Research Findings

The purpose of research findings is to contribute to the knowledge and understanding of a particular topic or issue. Research findings are the result of a systematic and rigorous investigation of a research question or hypothesis, using appropriate research methods and techniques.

The main purposes of research findings are:

• To generate new knowledge : Research findings contribute to the body of knowledge on a particular topic, by adding new information, insights, and understanding to the existing knowledge base.
• To test hypotheses or theories : Research findings can be used to test hypotheses or theories that have been proposed in a particular field or discipline. This helps to determine the validity and reliability of the hypotheses or theories, and to refine or develop new ones.
• To inform practice: Research findings can be used to inform practice in various fields, such as healthcare, education, and business. By identifying best practices and evidence-based interventions, research findings can help practitioners to make informed decisions and improve outcomes.
• To identify gaps in knowledge: Research findings can help to identify gaps in knowledge and understanding of a particular topic, which can then be addressed by further research.
• To contribute to policy development: Research findings can be used to inform policy development in various fields, such as environmental protection, social welfare, and economic development. By providing evidence-based recommendations, research findings can help policymakers to develop effective policies that address societal challenges.

Characteristics of Research Findings

Research findings have several key characteristics that distinguish them from other types of information or knowledge. Here are some of the main characteristics of research findings:

• Objective : Research findings are based on a systematic and rigorous investigation of a research question or hypothesis, using appropriate research methods and techniques. As such, they are generally considered to be more objective and reliable than other types of information.
• Empirical : Research findings are based on empirical evidence, which means that they are derived from observations or measurements of the real world. This gives them a high degree of credibility and validity.
• Generalizable : Research findings are often intended to be generalizable to a larger population or context beyond the specific study. This means that the findings can be applied to other situations or populations with similar characteristics.
• Transparent : Research findings are typically reported in a transparent manner, with a clear description of the research methods and data analysis techniques used. This allows others to assess the credibility and reliability of the findings.
• Peer-reviewed: Research findings are often subject to a rigorous peer-review process, in which experts in the field review the research methods, data analysis, and conclusions of the study. This helps to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings.
• Reproducible : Research findings are often designed to be reproducible, meaning that other researchers can replicate the study using the same methods and obtain similar results. This helps to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings.

Advantages of Research Findings

Research findings have many advantages, which make them valuable sources of knowledge and information. Here are some of the main advantages of research findings:

• Evidence-based: Research findings are based on empirical evidence, which means that they are grounded in data and observations from the real world. This makes them a reliable and credible source of information.
• Inform decision-making: Research findings can be used to inform decision-making in various fields, such as healthcare, education, and business. By identifying best practices and evidence-based interventions, research findings can help practitioners and policymakers to make informed decisions and improve outcomes.
• Identify gaps in knowledge: Research findings can help to identify gaps in knowledge and understanding of a particular topic, which can then be addressed by further research. This contributes to the ongoing development of knowledge in various fields.
• Improve outcomes : Research findings can be used to develop and implement evidence-based practices and interventions, which have been shown to improve outcomes in various fields, such as healthcare, education, and social services.
• Foster innovation: Research findings can inspire or guide innovation in various fields, such as technology and engineering. By providing new information and understanding of a particular topic, research findings can stimulate new ideas and approaches to problem-solving.
• Enhance credibility: Research findings are generally considered to be more credible and reliable than other types of information, as they are based on rigorous research methods and are subject to peer-review processes.

Limitations of Research Findings

While research findings have many advantages, they also have some limitations. Here are some of the main limitations of research findings:

• Limited scope: Research findings are typically based on a particular study or set of studies, which may have a limited scope or focus. This means that they may not be applicable to other contexts or populations.
• Potential for bias : Research findings can be influenced by various sources of bias, such as researcher bias, selection bias, or measurement bias. This can affect the validity and reliability of the findings.
• Ethical considerations: Research findings can raise ethical considerations, particularly in studies involving human subjects. Researchers must ensure that their studies are conducted in an ethical and responsible manner, with appropriate measures to protect the welfare and privacy of participants.
• Time and resource constraints : Research studies can be time-consuming and require significant resources, which can limit the number and scope of studies that are conducted. This can lead to gaps in knowledge or a lack of research on certain topics.
• Complexity: Some research findings can be complex and difficult to interpret, particularly in fields such as science or medicine. This can make it challenging for practitioners and policymakers to apply the findings to their work.
• Lack of generalizability : While research findings are intended to be generalizable to larger populations or contexts, there may be factors that limit their generalizability. For example, cultural or environmental factors may influence how a particular intervention or treatment works in different populations or contexts.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

You may also like

Appendix in Research Paper – Examples and...

Data Analysis – Process, Methods and Types

Figures in Research Paper – Examples and Guide

Dissertation – Format, Example and Template

Informed Consent in Research – Types, Templates...

Research Methodology – Types, Examples and...

Generate accurate APA citations for free

• Knowledge Base
• APA Style 7th edition
• How to write an APA results section

Reporting Research Results in APA Style | Tips & Examples

Published on December 21, 2020 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on January 17, 2024.

The results section of a quantitative research paper is where you summarize your data and report the findings of any relevant statistical analyses.

The APA manual provides rigorous guidelines for what to report in quantitative research papers in the fields of psychology, education, and other social sciences.

Use these standards to answer your research questions and report your data analyses in a complete and transparent way.

Instantly correct all language mistakes in your text

Upload your document to correct all your mistakes in minutes

Table of contents

What goes in your results section, introduce your data, summarize your data, report statistical results, presenting numbers effectively, what doesn’t belong in your results section, frequently asked questions about results in apa.

In APA style, the results section includes preliminary information about the participants and data, descriptive and inferential statistics, and the results of any exploratory analyses.

Include these in your results section:

• Participant flow and recruitment period. Report the number of participants at every stage of the study, as well as the dates when recruitment took place.
• Missing data . Identify the proportion of data that wasn’t included in your final analysis and state the reasons.
• Any adverse events. Make sure to report any unexpected events or side effects (for clinical studies).
• Descriptive statistics . Summarize the primary and secondary outcomes of the study.
• Inferential statistics , including confidence intervals and effect sizes. Address the primary and secondary research questions by reporting the detailed results of your main analyses.
• Results of subgroup or exploratory analyses, if applicable. Place detailed results in supplementary materials.

Write up the results in the past tense because you’re describing the outcomes of a completed research study.

Are your APA in-text citations flawless?

The AI-powered APA Citation Checker points out every error, tells you exactly what’s wrong, and explains how to fix it. Say goodbye to losing marks on your assignment!

Get started!

Before diving into your research findings, first describe the flow of participants at every stage of your study and whether any data were excluded from the final analysis.

Participant flow and recruitment period

It’s necessary to report any attrition, which is the decline in participants at every sequential stage of a study. That’s because an uneven number of participants across groups sometimes threatens internal validity and makes it difficult to compare groups. Be sure to also state all reasons for attrition.

If your study has multiple stages (e.g., pre-test, intervention, and post-test) and groups (e.g., experimental and control groups), a flow chart is the best way to report the number of participants in each group per stage and reasons for attrition.

Also report the dates for when you recruited participants or performed follow-up sessions.

Missing data

Another key issue is the completeness of your dataset. It’s necessary to report both the amount and reasons for data that was missing or excluded.

Data can become unusable due to equipment malfunctions, improper storage, unexpected events, participant ineligibility, and so on. For each case, state the reason why the data were unusable.

Some data points may be removed from the final analysis because they are outliers—but you must be able to justify how you decided what to exclude.

If you applied any techniques for overcoming or compensating for lost data, report those as well.

Adverse events

For clinical studies, report all events with serious consequences or any side effects that occured.

Descriptive statistics summarize your data for the reader. Present descriptive statistics for each primary, secondary, and subgroup analysis.

Don’t provide formulas or citations for commonly used statistics (e.g., standard deviation) – but do provide them for new or rare equations.

Descriptive statistics

The exact descriptive statistics that you report depends on the types of data in your study. Categorical variables can be reported using proportions, while quantitative data can be reported using means and standard deviations . For a large set of numbers, a table is the most effective presentation format.

Include sample sizes (overall and for each group) as well as appropriate measures of central tendency and variability for the outcomes in your results section. For every point estimate , add a clearly labelled measure of variability as well.

Be sure to note how you combined data to come up with variables of interest. For every variable of interest, explain how you operationalized it.

According to APA journal standards, it’s necessary to report all relevant hypothesis tests performed, estimates of effect sizes, and confidence intervals.

When reporting statistical results, you should first address primary research questions before moving onto secondary research questions and any exploratory or subgroup analyses.

Present the results of tests in the order that you performed them—report the outcomes of main tests before post-hoc tests, for example. Don’t leave out any relevant results, even if they don’t support your hypothesis.

Inferential statistics

For each statistical test performed, first restate the hypothesis , then state whether your hypothesis was supported and provide the outcomes that led you to that conclusion.

Report the following for each hypothesis test:

• the test statistic value,
• the degrees of freedom ,
• the exact p- value (unless it is less than 0.001),
• the magnitude and direction of the effect.

When reporting complex data analyses, such as factor analysis or multivariate analysis, present the models estimated in detail, and state the statistical software used. Make sure to report any violations of statistical assumptions or problems with estimation.

Effect sizes and confidence intervals

For each hypothesis test performed, you should present confidence intervals and estimates of effect sizes .

Confidence intervals are useful for showing the variability around point estimates. They should be included whenever you report population parameter estimates.

Effect sizes indicate how impactful the outcomes of a study are. But since they are estimates, it’s recommended that you also provide confidence intervals of effect sizes.

Subgroup or exploratory analyses

Briefly report the results of any other planned or exploratory analyses you performed. These may include subgroup analyses as well.

Subgroup analyses come with a high chance of false positive results, because performing a large number of comparison or correlation tests increases the chances of finding significant results.

If you find significant results in these analyses, make sure to appropriately report them as exploratory (rather than confirmatory) results to avoid overstating their importance.

While these analyses can be reported in less detail in the main text, you can provide the full analyses in supplementary materials.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

To effectively present numbers, use a mix of text, tables , and figures where appropriate:

• To present three or fewer numbers, try a sentence ,
• To present between 4 and 20 numbers, try a table ,
• To present more than 20 numbers, try a figure .

Since these are general guidelines, use your own judgment and feedback from others for effective presentation of numbers.

Tables and figures should be numbered and have titles, along with relevant notes. Make sure to present data only once throughout the paper and refer to any tables and figures in the text.

Formatting statistics and numbers

It’s important to follow capitalization , italicization, and abbreviation rules when referring to statistics in your paper. There are specific format guidelines for reporting statistics in APA , as well as general rules about writing numbers .

If you are unsure of how to present specific symbols, look up the detailed APA guidelines or other papers in your field.

It’s important to provide a complete picture of your data analyses and outcomes in a concise way. For that reason, raw data and any interpretations of your results are not included in the results section.

It’s rarely appropriate to include raw data in your results section. Instead, you should always save the raw data securely and make them available and accessible to any other researchers who request them.

Making scientific research available to others is a key part of academic integrity and open science.

Interpretation or discussion of results

This belongs in your discussion section. Your results section is where you objectively report all relevant findings and leave them open for interpretation by readers.

While you should state whether the findings of statistical tests lend support to your hypotheses, refrain from forming conclusions to your research questions in the results section.

Explanation of how statistics tests work

For the sake of concise writing, you can safely assume that readers of your paper have professional knowledge of how statistical inferences work.

In an APA results section , you should generally report the following:

• Participant flow and recruitment period.
• Missing data and any adverse events.
• Descriptive statistics about your samples.
• Inferential statistics , including confidence intervals and effect sizes.
• Results of any subgroup or exploratory analyses, if applicable.

According to the APA guidelines, you should report enough detail on inferential statistics so that your readers understand your analyses.

• the test statistic value
• the degrees of freedom
• the exact p value (unless it is less than 0.001)
• the magnitude and direction of the effect

You should also present confidence intervals and estimates of effect sizes where relevant.

In APA style, statistics can be presented in the main text or as tables or figures . To decide how to present numbers, you can follow APA guidelines:

• To present three or fewer numbers, try a sentence,
• To present between 4 and 20 numbers, try a table,
• To present more than 20 numbers, try a figure.

Results are usually written in the past tense , because they are describing the outcome of completed actions.

The results chapter or section simply and objectively reports what you found, without speculating on why you found these results. The discussion interprets the meaning of the results, puts them in context, and explains why they matter.

In qualitative research , results and discussion are sometimes combined. But in quantitative research , it’s considered important to separate the objective results from your interpretation of them.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Bhandari, P. (2024, January 17). Reporting Research Results in APA Style | Tips & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved June 24, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/apa-style/results-section/

Is this article helpful?

Pritha Bhandari

Other students also liked, how to write an apa methods section, how to format tables and figures in apa style, reporting statistics in apa style | guidelines & examples, "i thought ai proofreading was useless but..".

I've been using Scribbr for years now and I know it's a service that won't disappoint. It does a good job spotting mistakes”

• Manuscript Preparation

How to write the results section of a research paper

• 3 minute read
• 70.2K views

Table of Contents

At its core, a research paper aims to fill a gap in the research on a given topic. As a result, the results section of the paper, which describes the key findings of the study, is often considered the core of the paper. This is the section that gets the most attention from reviewers, peers, students, and any news organization reporting on your findings. Writing a clear, concise, and logical results section is, therefore, one of the most important parts of preparing your manuscript.

Difference between results and discussion

Before delving into how to write the results section, it is important to first understand the difference between the results and discussion sections. The results section needs to detail the findings of the study. The aim of this section is not to draw connections between the different findings or to compare it to previous findings in literature—that is the purview of the discussion section. Unlike the discussion section, which can touch upon the hypothetical, the results section needs to focus on the purely factual. In some cases, it may even be preferable to club these two sections together into a single section. For example, while writing  a review article, it can be worthwhile to club these two sections together, as the main results in this case are the conclusions that can be drawn from the literature.

Structure of the results section

Although the main purpose of the results section in a research paper is to report the findings, it is necessary to present an introduction and repeat the research question. This establishes a connection to the previous section of the paper and creates a smooth flow of information.

Next, the results section needs to communicate the findings of your research in a systematic manner. The section needs to be organized such that the primary research question is addressed first, then the secondary research questions. If the research addresses multiple questions, the results section must individually connect with each of the questions. This ensures clarity and minimizes confusion while reading.

Consider representing your results visually. For example, graphs, tables, and other figures can help illustrate the findings of your paper, especially if there is a large amount of data in the results.

Remember, an appealing results section can help peer reviewers better understand the merits of your research, thereby increasing your chances of publication.

Practical guidance for writing an effective results section for a research paper

• Always use simple and clear language. Avoid the use of uncertain or out-of-focus expressions.
• The findings of the study must be expressed in an objective and unbiased manner. While it is acceptable to correlate certain findings in the discussion section, it is best to avoid overinterpreting the results.
• If the research addresses more than one hypothesis, use sub-sections to describe the results. This prevents confusion and promotes understanding.
• Ensure that negative results are included in this section, even if they do not support the research hypothesis.
• Wherever possible, use illustrations like tables, figures, charts, or other visual representations to showcase the results of your research paper. Mention these illustrations in the text, but do not repeat the information that they convey.
• For statistical data, it is adequate to highlight the tests and explain their results. The initial or raw data should not be mentioned in the results section of a research paper.

The results section of a research paper is usually the most impactful section because it draws the greatest attention. Regardless of the subject of your research paper, a well-written results section is capable of generating interest in your research.

For detailed information and assistance on writing the results of a research paper, refer to Elsevier Author Services.

• Research Process

Writing a good review article

Why is data validation important in research?

You may also like.

Page-Turner Articles are More Than Just Good Arguments: Be Mindful of Tone and Structure!

A Must-see for Researchers! How to Ensure Inclusivity in Your Scientific Writing

Make Hook, Line, and Sinker: The Art of Crafting Engaging Introductions

Can Describing Study Limitations Improve the Quality of Your Paper?

A Guide to Crafting Shorter, Impactful Sentences in Academic Writing

6 Steps to Write an Excellent Discussion in Your Manuscript

How to Write Clear and Crisp Civil Engineering Papers? Here are 5 Key Tips to Consider

The Clear Path to An Impactful Paper: ②

Input your search keywords and press Enter.

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Int J Endocrinol Metab
• v.17(2); 2019 Apr

The Principles of Biomedical Scientific Writing: Results

Zahra bahadoran.

1 Nutrition and Endocrine Research Center, Research Institute for Endocrine Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Parvin Mirmiran

2 Department of Clinical Nutrition and Diet Therapy, Faculty of Nutrition Sciences and Food Technology, National Nutrition and Food Technology Research Institute, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Azita Zadeh-Vakili

3 Cellular and Molecular Endocrine Research Center, Research Institute for Endocrine Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Farhad Hosseinpanah

4 Obesity Research Center, Research Institute for Endocrine Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Asghar Ghasemi

5 Endocrine Physiology Research Center, Research Institute for Endocrine Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

The “results section” of a scientific paper provides the results related to all measurements and outcomes that have been posted earlier in the materials and methods section. This section consists of text, figures, and tables presenting detailed data and facts without interpretation and discussion. Results may be presented in chronological order, general to specific order, most to least important order, or may be organized according to the topic/study groups or experiment/measured parameters. The primary content of this section includes the most relevant results that correspond to the central question stated in the introduction section, whether they support the hypothesis or not. Findings related to secondary outcomes and subgroup analyses may be reported in this section. All results should be presented in a clear, concise, and sensible manner. In this review, we discuss the function, content, and organization of the “results section,” as well as the principles and the most common tips for the writing of this section.

The “results section” is the heart of the paper, around which the other sections are organized ( 1 ). Research is about results and the reader comes to the paper to discover the results ( 2 ). In this section, authors contribute to the development of scientific literature by providing novel, hitherto unknown knowledge ( 3 ). In addition to the results, this section contains data and statistical information for supporting or refuting the hypothesis proposed in the introduction ( 4 ).

“Results section” should provide an objective description of the main findings, clearly and concisely, without interpretation ( 5 , 6 ). The authors need to use an interesting combination of text, tables, and figures to answer the study questions and to tell the story without diversions ( 7 ). The systemic assessment of published articles highlights the fact that the literature frequently suffers from selective reporting of results only for certain assessed outcomes, selective reporting of statistical analyses, and confused, ambiguous, incomplete, or misleading presentation of data ( 8 , 9 ).

In this section of our series on the principles of biomedical scientific writing ( 10 , 11 ), we describe the function, content, and organization of the “results section” in a scientific paper (mostly for hypothesis-testing papers) and provide common recommendations that can help authors to write this section more effectively.

2. The Function of the Results Section

The function of the “results section” is to present the main results of experiments described in the materials and methods section ( 12 , 13 ) and to present the supporting data in the form of text, tables, and figures ( 13 ). This section should answer the basic question: “What did the authors find in research?” By providing the results, authors try to elucidate the research data, making it to the point and meaningful ( 13 ).

3. Content of the Results Section

The “results section” includes both results and data that are presented in text, tables, and figures. Results are presented in the text; data (the most important) are presented in figures and tables, with a limited amount presented in the text ( 13 ). Statistically relevant parameters including sample size, P values, and the type of statistics used are also presented in this section ( 13 ).

3.1. Difference Between Data and Results

Data and results are not the same ( 14 ); providing results but no data vs. data but no results should be avoided ( 14 , 15 ). Results are general statements in the main text that summarize or explain what the data (facts and numbers) show ( 13 , 14 ); in other words, results are text descriptions of what is important about data ( 16 ) and give meaning to the data ( 15 ). When reporting data or results, make sure that they are logical ( 2 ). See Box 1 for more differences between results and data.

a The text presented in square brackets is data and the remainder is a result.

3.2. The Appropriate Format for Presenting Data/Results

Depending on how the data best support the findings of the study, the “results section” is structured as text, tables, and figures ( 12 ) and should consist of a dynamic interplay between text and figures/tables; the most important data are usually presented in both formats ( 17 ). The reader should select the mode of presentation in a way that optimizes comprehension of the data; however, as a general rule, if you want to present three or fewer numbers, you should use a sentence; otherwise, you consider a table or a graph ( 18 ).

Selecting the best format for presenting results/data depends on the level of details (exact values or patterns) to present ( 19 ). Tables are useful to present specific information or exact values ( 19 ), and function as reference tools for readers ( 20 ) whereas figures are useful to show comparisons and patterns ( 19 ), functioning as analytic tools ( 20 ).

Tables are meant to summarize large amounts of data, to organize and display data more clearly than words, to compare groups of data, to simplify found information, and to facilitate calculations ( 19 ). A table typically has three or more interrelated columns and three or more interrelated rows; otherwise, presenting the information in the text may be more appropriate ( 19 ).

The functions of figures include: (1) showing the underlying patterns of data that are not presentable in text or tables, (2) displaying data more clearly than they can be done in text or tables, (3) more summarizing a large amount of data than they can be done in text or tables, and (4) improving the understanding and locating the specific information easily and rapidly ( 21 ).

3.3. Results

The primary content of this section includes the most relevant (but not all) results corresponding to the central question posed in the introduction section, whether they support the hypothesis or not ( 12 , 13 ). The secondary findings, e.g., results related to secondary outcomes and subgroup analyses, may also be reported in this section ( 22 ). Results must be presented for both experimental and control groups ( 13 ). Results of each item mentioned in the materials and methods should be given in the results section ( 12 , 15 ).

The text of the “results section” should state and summarize the main results and explain the data presented within tables and/or figures ( 23 ); reiteration of all numbers presented in tables and figures is not recommended ( 22 ); however, readers must be given the main messages derived from a table or figure without having to interpret the data themselves ( 7 ). It means that if there is a large amount of data in a table or figure, restating a key piece of data in the text is acceptable and helps the reader zero in on important data ( 14 ).

3.3.1. Reporting Negative Findings

Authors are highly recommended excluding irrelevant results but not ignoring valid anomalous results that contradict the research hypothesis or do not support the current scientific literature ( 22 ). The Feynman, says “if you are doing an experiment, you should report everything that you think might make it invalid-not only what you think is right about it” ( 24 ). Although reporting null or negative findings is not as straightforward as positive findings, it may lead to reexamining current scientific thinking, and guide scientists towards unabridged science ( 25 ). Reporting negative findings can also prevent the replication of the study and prevent the waste of time and resources ( 25 ). The ignorance of null or negative findings also leads to an overestimation of an effect size or treatment effect in available data ( 9 ).

3.3.2. Referring to Unpublished Results

Referring to unpublished results is not recommend unless there is a strong argument supporting their inclusion ( 14 ); therefore, authors are advised to avoid using the term “data not shown” ( 4 ).

3.3.3. Methods or Interpretation in the Results Section

Generally, the “results section” is not the place for presenting methods and experimental details or interpreting data ( 14 ). When experiments are described in this section, if a result leads to additional experiments, it is better to report the new experimental details in the “results section” ( 14 ). Sometimes authors want to refer to a specific experiment or method in results; in these cases, they should not repeat experimental details, but preferably use a transition phrase to link methods with results ( 14 ). To justify the rationale behind the experiment, using topic sentences/phrases (e.g. in order to determine whether…) provides an overview before giving details ( 12 ); however, in this case, the method statement should not be used as a topic sentence and the main verbs should describe results, not methods (e.g., “ when propranolol was administered during normal ventilation, phospholipids decreased ”; here “ method ” is subordinated in a transition clause and result is the main clause) ( 13 ). Two patterns of sentence structure are recommended for including methods in a result statement: making the method the subject of the sentence or stating the method using a transition phrase or clause and the result in the main clause ( 13 ).

The traditional view of writing the “results section” is just to report data and results without any interpretation; accordingly, the result is not expected to contain statements that need to be referenced (comparisons of findings) ( 13 , 26 ). In another view, some interpretation or brief comparisons that do not fit into the discussion may be included ( 13 , 27 ).

Data are facts and numbers, mostly presented as non-textual elements (usually in tables and figures) where they are easy to read ( 13 , 14 , 28 ). A limited amount of data may also be presented in the text, following a result statement ( 13 ) although too much data in the text make it too long ( Box 1 ) ( 28 ). Data may be in the form of raw data, summarized data, or transformed data ( 13 ); however, it is suggested that raw data (i.e. patients’ records, individual observations) not be presented in results ( 12 ). Note that numerical data are absolute while some data, e.g. microscopic data, are subjective ( 2 ).

3.4.1. Non-Textual Elements

Providing study findings visually, rather than entire textualizing, enables authors to summarize a great deal of data compactly within the text with an appropriate reference; some images convey more than words ( 29 ). The primary purpose of non-textual elements, i.e. tables, graphs, figures, and maps, is to present data such that they can be easily and quickly grasped ( 23 ) while being more informative than when appearing in the text ( 6 ). Tables and figures should be complete/comprehensible, being able to stand alone without the text ( 5 , 12 ).

Non-textual elements should be referred to in the text at the appropriate point ( 5 , 6 , 12 ). Location statements, i.e. statements referring to non-textual elements, may be presented in different patterns (e.g., A. X is shown in table/figure; B. table/figure shows; C. see table/figure; D. as shown in table/figure); pattern B is more and pattern C is less common ( 27 ).

Some general tips about using non-textual elements in the “results section” are reviewed in Box 2 . The most common rules in organizing tables and figures are given in the following. For more information about designing different types of tables/figures/graphs, please refer to additional references ( 7 , 19 , 20 , 30 , 31 ).

3.4.1.1. Tables

The use of tables is an effective way to summarize demographic information and descriptive statistics ( 23 ). Note that tables must have a purpose and be integrated into the text ( 21 ). Tables are most useful to present counts, proportions, and percentages ( 8 ), and are appropriate also for presenting details especially when exact values matter ( 32 ), being are more informative than graphs ( 29 ). However, limited information should be presented in tables; otherwise, most readers find them difficult to read and thus, may ignore them ( 5 , 23 ). Data in tables can be arranged horizontally or vertically; whenever possible, primary comparisons are preferably presented horizontally from left to right ( 19 ).

3.4.1.1.1. Basic Elements of Tables

Tables usually have at least six elements: (1) table number, (2) table title, (3) row headings (stubs), and (4) column headings (boxes), identifying information in rows and columns, (5) data in data field, and (6) horizontal lines (rules). Most also have footnotes, row subheadings, spanner headings (identifying subgroups in column headings), and expanded forms of abbreviations in the table ( 19 , 21 , 31 , 33 ).

The table title should clearly state what appears in it and provide sufficient information on the study, i.e. provide a context helping readers interpret the table information ( 19 ). Some specific details may also be provided including the type and number of subjects or the period of study ( 30 ). For developing the title of a table, one can describe the main cell entries, followed by qualification or more description ( 32 ). The table’s title is presented as a phrase not a full sentence ( 19 ). Authors need to refer to the journal’s style for rules on which words in titles are capitalized.

As a rule, comparing two (or even three) numbers should be side-by-side rather than above and below ( 30 ). Column and row headings help readers find information and they should be included group sizes and measurement units ( 19 ). Tables should be in borderless grids of rows and columns ( 5 , 32 ) with no vertical rule and limited horizontal rules ( 32 ). The first column of a table includes usually a list of variables that are presented in the table; although the first column usually does not need a header, sometimes a simple description of what appears in each row may be provided as the heading of the first column. Units for variables may be placed in parentheses immediately below the row descriptions ( 30 ).

Headings for other columns should also be informative without vague labels, e.g. group A, group B, group C, etc.; instead, a brief description summarizing group characteristics is used ( 30 ). The last column may show P values for comparison between study groups ( 34 ), except for randomized clinical trials, where P values are not needed to compare baseline characteristics of participants ( 7 ). The first letters of lines and column headings in tables should be capitalized.

The fields of tables are points at which columns and rows intersect ( 19 ). Cells of a table are the data field of the table, other than those containing row and column headings ( 21 ). Cells contain information as numerals, text, or symbols ( 19 ). Every cell must contain information; if no information is available, one can use NA in the cell and define it in the footnote as not available or not applicable; alternatively, a dash mark may be inserted ( 19 ). The content of columns need to be aligned ( 19 ); words are usually left aligned, numerals are aligned at decimals, parenthesis, and factors of 10 ( 19 , 21 ).

Table footnotes should be brief, and define abbreviations, provide statistical results, and explain discrepancies in data, e.g., “percentages do not total 100 because of rounding” ( 19 , 30 ). In addition to asterisks usually used to show statistical significance ( 33 ), the following symbols are used, in sequence, for further notes: †, ‡, §, ¶, #, ††, ‡‡ ( 30 ).

3.4.1.1.2. Different Types of Tables

Table of lists, table of baseline or clinical characteristics of subjects, table of comparisons, and table of multivariable results are various types of tables that may be used ( 30 ). The table’s format should be selected according to the purpose of the table ( 30 ). A table of lists just presents a list of items including diagnostic criteria or causes of a disease; it is critical to arrange such tables based on their contents by order (e.g., alphabetical order) or their importance (most to least) ( 30 ). Tables of study participants’ characteristics usually provide a general overview of the essential characteristics of subjects, such as age, sex, race, disease stage, and selected risk factors ( 30 ). The table of comparisons (≥ two groups) provides details for each group and differences between the groups. Tables of multivariable results elaborate results of statistical analyses assessing relationships between predictor (independent) and outcome (dependent) variables, and usually include regression coefficients, standard errors, slopes, partial correlation coefficients, and P values or odds ratio, hazard ratios, and 95% confidence intervals for regression models ( 30 ).

3.4.1.2. Figures

Graphical elements convey the important messages of research ( 20 ). A figure is “any graphical display to present information or data” ( 20 ), and it effectively presents complicated patterns ( 32 ), best used for presenting an important point at a glance or indicating trends or relationships ( 20 ). Like tables, figures should have a purpose and be integrated with the rest of the text ( 21 ).

3.4.1.2.1. Basic Elements of Figures

Most figures that present quantitative information (charts and graphs) have at least seven elements, including figure number, figure caption/legend, data field, vertical scale, horizontal scale, labels, and data (plotting symbols, lines, and so on) ( 21 ). Some figures also have reference lines in the data field to help orient readers and keys that identify data ( 21 ).

Figure caption/legend, usually given below the figure, describes the figure and must reflect the figure entirely, independent of the main text ( 21 , 31 ). For the figure to stand alone, a figure legend needs to be included four parts (a brief title, experimental or statistical information/details, definitions of symbols, line, or bar patterns, and abbreviations) ( 31 ).

Data field is a space in the figure in which data are presented; it is usually bordered on the left by the X-axis (abscissa) and on the bottom by the Y-axis (ordinate) ( 20 , 21 ). Labels identify the variables graphed and the units of measurement ( 21 ). Figure lines should be broad and the labeling text should be large enough to be legible after reduction to a single- or two-column size ( 32 ). Appropriate font size should be used to maintain legibility after fitting figures to publication size ( 31 ).

Scales on each axis should match the data range and be slightly above the highest value ( 20 ). Symbols should be uniform across the figures ( 20 ). The data point symbols should be easily distinguishable; using black and white circles (● - ∘) is the easiest way when two are needed ( 31 ); if more are needed, using up-pointing triangles (▲ - Δ) and squares (■ - □) is suggested ( 31 ). Using symbols, line types, and colors is also effective in differentiating important strata in figures ( 8 ).

3.4.1.2.2. Emphasizing Important Data on Figures

To make figures visually efficient, the subordination of all non-data elements vs. data elements is advised (gridlines should be used as thin as possible and very faint). Directly labeling objects, instead of legends, may keep readers’ attention on the most important parts of the figure ( 8 ). Using different line weights may also be helpful to emphasize the important information/data in figures ( 31 ). The use of color, shading, or 3D perspectives is not suggested unless they serve a specific explanatory function in figure ( 8 ).

3.4.1.2.3. Different Types of Figures

Two major categories of figures are statistical figures (graphs) and non-statistical figures (clinical images, photographs, diagrams, illustrations, and textual figures) ( 20 ). Graphs are suitable for presenting relationships whereas non-statistical figures are used to confirm findings or provide explanatory information ( 20 ).

In statistical figures, selecting a graphical format (bar graph, line graph, dot plot, and scatterplot) is done according to the type of relationship that authors wish to communicate ( 20 ); for example, line graphs are appropriate for showing trends and bar graphs for magnitudes ( 20 ). Using a graphing format that is easy to interpret is preferred ( 20 ); pie graphs are sparingly used because comparing different angles is complicated with them ( 20 ). Graphs should accurately represent findings; when possible, scales should start at zero, and figure axes should not be altered in order to make data more meaningful ( 20 ).

Non-statistical figures are those that visually present information that does not contain data ( 20 ). Clinical images and photographs [ultrasonograms, computed tomographic scans (CT scans), magnetic resonance images (MRI), images of patients, tissue samples, microscopic findings, and so on] provide absolute proof of findings ( 20 ). Illustrations are used for explaining structures (parts of a cell), mechanisms, and relationships ( 20 ). Diagrams (flowcharts, algorithms, pedigrees, and maps) are useful for displaying complex relations ( 20 ). Textual figures, containing only text, are mostly used for describing steps of a procedure or summarizing guidelines ( 20 ). For photographs, patient information or identifiers should be removed ( 20 ).

3.5. Statistics in the Results Section

Statistics in the “results section” must report data in a way that enables readers to assess the degree of experimental variation and to estimate the variability or precision of the findings ( 22 ). For more details, one can see SAMPL (Statistical Analysis and methods in the Published Literature) guidelines ( 35 ). To report normally distributed data, the mean and estimated variation from mean should be stated ( 13 ). Variability should be reported using standard deviation (SD), which is a descriptive statistic ( 36 ) and reflects the dispersion of individual sample observation of the sample mean ( 37 ). The standard error (SE), an inferential statistic ( 36 ) reflecting the theoretical dispersion of sample means about some population means, characterizes uncertainty about true values of population means ( 37 ). It is useful for assessing the precision of an estimator ( 36 ) and is not an appropriate estimate of the variability in observations ( 37 ). Using “mean (SD or SE)” is preferred to “mean ± SD or SE” because the “±” sign can cause confusion ( 22 ). Increasing sample size decreases SE but not SD ( 36 ). To report data with a skewed distribution, the median and the interquartile range (between 25th and 75th percentiles) should be provided ( 22 ).

To report risk, rates, and ratios, one should use a type of rate (incidence rate, survival rate), ratio (odds ratio, hazards ratio), or risk (absolute risk, relative risk, relative risk reduction) ( 35 ). The measure of precision (95% CI) for estimated risks, rates, and ratios should also be provided ( 35 ). For correlation analysis, the exact values of the correlation coefficient and 95% CI should be reported. Describing correlation using qualitative words (low, moderate, high) without providing a clear definition is not acceptable ( 35 ). Results of regression analysis should include regression coefficients (β) of each explanatory variable, corresponding 95% CI and/or P value and a measure of the “goodness-of-fit” of the model ( 35 ).

3.5.1. Significance Levels

A P value is the probability of consistency between data and the hypothesis being tested ( 38 ). Reporting the exact P values ( P = 0.34 or P = 0.02) rather than the conventional P ( P < 0.05) is recommended for all primary analyses ( 12 , 37 ) as it conveys more information ( 37 ). The use of the term “partially significant” or “marginally significant”, where the P value is almost significant (e.g. P = 0.057) is not acceptable if the significance level is defined as P = 0.05 ( 39 ). Some, however, argue that it is not always necessary to stick to P = 0.05 for the interpretation of results and it is better to report the exact P value and confidence interval for the estimator ( 40 ).

The use of the 95% confidence interval (95% CI) can provide further information compared to P values per se, and prefigures the direction of the effect size (negative or positive), its magnitude, and the degree of precision ( 17 ). A confidence interval characterizes uncertainty about the true value of population parameters ( 37 ). It is essential to provide the sample size (n) and probability values for tests of statistical significance ( 13 ).

Statements about significance must be qualified numerically ( 41 ). In the text, it is suggested that P values be reported as equalities rather than as inequalities in relation to the alpha criterion ( 41 ). In tables and figures, inequalities may be useful for groups of data ( 41 ) where asterisks *, **, and *** are usually used to show statistical significance at 0.05, 0.01, and 0.001 probability levels, respectively ( 33 ).

Although not consistent, P values < 0.001 are reported as P < 0.001; for 0.001 ≤ P values < 0.01, a three-significant digit is recommended, e.g. P = 0.003; for 0.01 ≤ P values < 0.1, a two-significant digit is sufficient (e.g. P = 0.05); for 0.1 ≤ P values ≤ 0.9, a one-significant digit is sufficient (e.g. P = 0.4); and P values > 0.9 are reported as P > 0.9 ( 42 ). For genome-wide association studies, the power of 10 is used for reporting P values, e.g. 6 × 10 -9 ( 42 ). It is generally suggested that zero be used before a decimal point when the value is below one, e.g. 0.37 ( 43 ). According to the American Psychological Association, zero before a decimal point is used for numbers that are below one, but it can also be used for values that may exceed one (e.g. 0.23 cm). Therefore, when statistics cannot be greater than one (e.g. correlations, proportions, and P values), do not use a zero before decimal fraction, e.g. P = .028 not P = 0.028 ( 18 ); this recommendation, however, is not always adopted by everyone. The international standard is P (large italic) although both ‘p’ and ‘P’ are allowed ( 40 ).

4. Organization of the Results Section

There are different ways for organizing the “results section” including ( 1 , 12 , 14 , 22 , 44 ): (1) chronological order, (2) general to specific, (3) most to least important, and (4) grouping results by topic/study groups or experiment/measured parameters. Authors decide which format is more appropriate for the presentation of their data ( 12 ); anyway, results should be presented in a logical manner ( 4 ).

4.1. Different Ways of Organizing the Results Section

4.1.1. chronological order.

The best order for organizing “results section” may be the chronological order ( 22 ). It is considered as the most straightforward approach using subheadings that parallel methods ( 14 ). This order facilitates referring to a method associated with a given result ( 14 ) such that results are presented in the same order as methods ( 15 ).

4.1.2. General to Specific

This format is mostly used in clinical studies involving multiple groups of individuals receiving different treatments ( 14 ). The “results section” usually proceeds from general to more specific findings ( 1 ). Characteristics of the overall study population (sex and age distribution and dropouts) are first given ( 14 ), followed by data and results for each group starting with the control group or the group receiving the standard treatment ( 14 ); finally, the disease group or group receiving the experimental treatment are addressed ( 14 ). As a general rule, secondary results should be given after presenting more important (primary) results, followed by any supporting information ( 22 ). A common order is stating recruitment/response, characteristics of the sample/study participants, findings from the primary analyses, findings from secondary analyses, and any additional or unexpected findings ( 17 ). In other words, the “results section” should be initiated by univariate statistics, followed by bivariate analyses to describe associations between explanatory and outcome variables; finally, it gets through by any multivariate analyses ( 7 ).

4.1.3. Most to Least Important

This format is used in case that the order of presenting results is not critical to their being comprehendible and allows the author to immediately highlight important findings ( 14 ). Results that answer the main question are presented at the beginning of the “results section,” followed by other results in next paragraphs ( 13 ).

4.1.4. Grouping by Topic or Experiment

Comparison of the diagnostic and analytical performance of a number of assays for analytes is an example of using this format ( 14 ).

4.2. Paragraphing of the Results Section

The “results section” may be initiated by two approaches: (1) by giving a general (not detailed) overview of the experiment and (2) by going directly to the results by referring to tables or figures ( 44 ). The first paragraph of this section, along with table 1, describes the characteristics of the study population (number, sex, age, and symptoms) ( 23 ). These data show the comparability of the study groups at baseline and the distribution of potential confounders between groups, as a source of bias that can affect the study findings ( 7 ). It allows the reader to decide whether or not the case and control groups are similar and represent the patient population in their private practice ( 23 ).

For clinical trials, the number of patients completing the protocol in each treatment/study group, the number of patients lost to follow-up, and the number and reasons for excluded/withdrawn subjects should be given. Commenting on whether baseline characteristics of study groups are statistically similar or different is also important ( 1 ). For further information, authors can consult reporting guidelines for the main study types available at http://www.equator-network.org.

The number of the middle paragraphs depends on the number of research questions/hypotheses and the types of statistical analyses; each hypothesis or specific analysis typically devotes at least a paragraph to itself ( 1 ). Figure legends, description of the methods and results for control groups should not be given at the beginning of paragraphs, as they do not narrate the story ( 28 ). However, sometimes, it is needed that results of the control group are presented first (e.g. for establishing the stability of baseline) ( 13 ).

5. Emphasizing Important Results

Since not all results are equally important, the reader must be able to distinguish important results and authors have to emphasize important information and de-emphasize less important information ( 13 ). There are various techniques for emphasizing important information, including condensing or omitting less important information, subordinating less important information, placing important results at the power position, and labeling, stating, and repeating important information ( 13 ).

For condensing or omitting less important information, you should be careful not to duplicate/repeat data in tables and figures or repeat them in the text ( 4 , 6 , 12 ); one or two values from tables/figures can be repeated in the text for emphasis ( 13 ).

For subordinating less important information, one should not use table titles, figure legends or methods statement as a topic sentence in the text ( 13 , 22 ). Instead, after stating the first result relevant to the table/figure, you can cite it in parenthesis ( 13 ). Since a result states a message and creates an expectation, it is a more powerful topic sentence than a figure legend or table title ( 13 ). Sometimes, control results can be subordinated by incorporating them into experimental results ( 13 ).

To highlight more important results (those that help answer questions), authors can put these results at the beginning of paragraphs, the strongest power position ( 12 , 22 , 28 ), followed by supporting details and control results ( 28 ).

Moreover, key findings may receive more attention by using a signal (e.g. we found or we observed) at the beginning of the sentence ( 13 ).

6. Other Considerations

6.1. length and paragraphing.

To see the forest for the tree, the “results section” should be as brief and uncluttered as possible ( 13 ), which can be accomplished by having a well-organized “materials and methods” section ( 3 ) and avoiding unnecessary repetition ( 13 ); for example, similar results for several variables can be reported together. The “results section” of an original manuscript usually includes 2 - 3 pages (~1000 words) with a 1.5 line spacing, font size 11 (including tables and figures) ( 45 ), and 4 - 9 paragraphs (each 130 words) on average ( 45 ); a paragraph should be devoted to one or more closely related figures ( 4 ).

Presenting additional results/data as supplementary materials is a suggestion for keeping the “results section” brief ( 17 ). In addition to save the text space, supplementary materials improve the presentation and facilitate communications among scientists ( 46 , 47 ). According to Springer, supplementary materials can be used for presenting data that are not needed to support the major conclusions but are still interesting. However, keep in mind that the unregulated use of supplementary materials is harmful to science ( 47 ). Supplementary materials should be referred to at the appropriate points in the main text.

For referring to results obtained in hypothesis testing studies, using past tenses is recommended ( 4 , 12 - 14 ); non-textual elements should be referred using present tenses, e.g. “as seen in table 1 …” or “table 1 shows …” in descriptive studies, results are reported in the present tense ( 13 ).

6.3. Word Choice

Although adverbs/adjectives are commonly used to highlight the importance of results, it is recommended altogether avoiding the use of such qualitative/emotive words in the “results section” ( 7 , 13 ). Some believe that qualitative words should not be used because they may imply an interpretation of findings ( 17 ). In biomedical publications, the terms ‘significant, significance, and significantly’ (followed by P values) are used to show statistical relationships and should not be used for other purposes for which, other terms such as substantial, considerable, or noteworthy can be used ( 14 ). See Box 3 for appropriate word choice for the “results section.”

In the “results section,” to make a comparison between the results, i.e. stating the similarity/equivalence or difference/non-equivalence, using appropriate signals is recommended ( 27 ). To show a similarity, a signal to the reader may be used such as “like”, “alike”, “similar to”, and “the same as”; to show differences, the following signals can be used: “but”, “while”, “however”, “in contrast”, “more likely than”, and “less likely than” ( 27 ).

6.4. Reporting Numbers

Numbers play an important role in scientific communication and there are some golden rules for reporting numbers in a scientific paper ( 43 , 48 ). Significant figures (significant digits) should reflect the degree of precision of the original measurement ( 12 ). The number of digits reported for a quantity should be consistent with scientific relevance ( 37 ); for example, a resolution to 0.001 units is necessary for pH but a resolution of < 1 mm Hg is unimportant for blood pressure ( 37 ). Avoid using “about” or “approximately” to qualify a measurement or calculation ( 12 ). The use of percentage for sample sizes of < 20 and decimal for sample sizes of < 100 is not recommended ( 43 ).

The numbers should be spelled out at the beginning of a sentence or when they are less than 10, e.g., twelve students improved… ( 43 ). In a sentence, the authors should be consistent where they use numbers as numerals or spelled-out ( 43 ). Before a unit of a measure, time, dates, and points, numbers should be used as numerals, e.g. 12 cm; 1 h 34 min; at 12:30 A.M., and on a 7-point scale ( 18 ).

A space between the numeral and the unit should be considered, except in the case of %. Because the terms “billion,” “trillion,” and “quadrillion” imply different numbers in Europe and the USA, they should not be used ( 48 ). To express ranges in text, the terms “to” or “through” are preferred to dashes; in tables, the use of dashes or hyphens is recommended ( 48 ).

7. Conclusions

The “results section” of a biomedical manuscript should clearly present findings of the study using an effective combination of results and data. Some dos and don’ts of writing the “results section” are provided in Box 4 . Authors should try to find the best format using a dynamic interplay between text and figures/tables. Results can be organized in different ways including chronological order or most to least important; however, results should be presented in a manner that makes sense.

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to acknowledge Ms. Niloofar Shiva for critical editing of English grammar and syntax of the manuscript.

Conflict of Interests: It is not declared by the authors.

Funding/Support: Research Institute for Endocrine Sciences supported the study.

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings
• My Bibliography
• Collections
• Citation manager

Save citation to file

Email citation, add to collections.

• Create a new collection
• Add to an existing collection

Add to My Bibliography

Your saved search, create a file for external citation management software, your rss feed.

• Search in PubMed
• Search in NLM Catalog
• Add to Search

How to Write an Effective Results Section

Affiliation.

• 1 Rothman Orthopaedics Institute, Philadelphia, PA.
• PMID: 31145152
• DOI: 10.1097/BSD.0000000000000845

Developing a well-written research paper is an important step in completing a scientific study. This paper is where the principle investigator and co-authors report the purpose, methods, findings, and conclusions of the study. A key element of writing a research paper is to clearly and objectively report the study's findings in the Results section. The Results section is where the authors inform the readers about the findings from the statistical analysis of the data collected to operationalize the study hypothesis, optimally adding novel information to the collective knowledge on the subject matter. By utilizing clear, concise, and well-organized writing techniques and visual aids in the reporting of the data, the author is able to construct a case for the research question at hand even without interpreting the data.

PubMed Disclaimer

Similar articles

• How to Write Effective Discussion and Conclusion Sections. Makar G, Foltz C, Lendner M, Vaccaro AR. Makar G, et al. Clin Spine Surg. 2018 Oct;31(8):345-346. doi: 10.1097/BSD.0000000000000687. Clin Spine Surg. 2018. PMID: 29979216
• How to write an original radiological research manuscript. Bannas P, Reeder SB. Bannas P, et al. Eur Radiol. 2017 Nov;27(11):4455-4460. doi: 10.1007/s00330-017-4879-8. Epub 2017 Jun 14. Eur Radiol. 2017. PMID: 28616726 Free PMC article. Review.
• Rules to be adopted for publishing a scientific paper. Picardi N. Picardi N. Ann Ital Chir. 2016;87:1-3. Ann Ital Chir. 2016. PMID: 28474609
• The rites of writing papers: steps to successful publishing for psychiatrists. Brakoulias V, Macfarlane MD, Looi JC. Brakoulias V, et al. Australas Psychiatry. 2015 Feb;23(1):32-6. doi: 10.1177/1039856214560180. Epub 2014 Dec 2. Australas Psychiatry. 2015. PMID: 25469001
• How to write a research paper. Alexandrov AV. Alexandrov AV. Cerebrovasc Dis. 2004;18(2):135-8. doi: 10.1159/000079266. Epub 2004 Jun 23. Cerebrovasc Dis. 2004. PMID: 15218279 Review.
• Essential Guide to Manuscript Writing for Academic Dummies: An Editor's Perspective. Aga SS, Nissar S. Aga SS, et al. Biochem Res Int. 2022 Sep 1;2022:1492058. doi: 10.1155/2022/1492058. eCollection 2022. Biochem Res Int. 2022. PMID: 36092536 Free PMC article. Review.
• Search in MeSH

LinkOut - more resources

Full text sources.

• Ovid Technologies, Inc.
• Wolters Kluwer

• Citation Manager

NCBI Literature Resources

MeSH PMC Bookshelf Disclaimer

The PubMed wordmark and PubMed logo are registered trademarks of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). Unauthorized use of these marks is strictly prohibited.

How To Write The Results/Findings Chapter

For qualitative studies (dissertations & theses).

By: Jenna Crossley (PhD). Expert Reviewed By: Dr. Eunice Rautenbach | August 2021

So, you’ve collected and analysed your qualitative data, and it’s time to write up your results chapter. But where do you start? In this post, we’ll guide you through the qualitative results chapter (also called the findings chapter), step by step. 

Overview: Qualitative Results Chapter

• What (exactly) the qualitative results chapter is
• What to include in your results chapter
• How to write up your results chapter
• A few tips and tricks to help you along the way
• Free results chapter template

What exactly is the results chapter?

The results chapter in a dissertation or thesis (or any formal academic research piece) is where you objectively and neutrally present the findings of your qualitative analysis (or analyses if you used multiple qualitative analysis methods ). This chapter can sometimes be combined with the discussion chapter (where you interpret the data and discuss its meaning), depending on your university’s preference.  We’ll treat the two chapters as separate, as that’s the most common approach.

In contrast to a quantitative results chapter that presents numbers and statistics, a qualitative results chapter presents data primarily in the form of words . But this doesn’t mean that a qualitative study can’t have quantitative elements – you could, for example, present the number of times a theme or topic pops up in your data, depending on the analysis method(s) you adopt.

Adding a quantitative element to your study can add some rigour, which strengthens your results by providing more evidence for your claims. This is particularly common when using qualitative content analysis. Keep in mind though that qualitative research aims to achieve depth, richness and identify nuances , so don’t get tunnel vision by focusing on the numbers. They’re just cream on top in a qualitative analysis.

So, to recap, the results chapter is where you objectively present the findings of your analysis, without interpreting them (you’ll save that for the discussion chapter). With that out the way, let’s take a look at what you should include in your results chapter.

What should you include in the results chapter?

As we’ve mentioned, your qualitative results chapter should purely present and describe your results , not interpret them in relation to the existing literature or your research questions . Any speculations or discussion about the implications of your findings should be reserved for your discussion chapter.

In your results chapter, you’ll want to talk about your analysis findings and whether or not they support your hypotheses (if you have any). Naturally, the exact contents of your results chapter will depend on which qualitative analysis method (or methods) you use. For example, if you were to use thematic analysis, you’d detail the themes identified in your analysis, using extracts from the transcripts or text to support your claims.

While you do need to present your analysis findings in some detail, you should avoid dumping large amounts of raw data in this chapter. Instead, focus on presenting the key findings and using a handful of select quotes or text extracts to support each finding . The reams of data and analysis can be relegated to your appendices.

While it’s tempting to include every last detail you found in your qualitative analysis, it is important to make sure that you report only that which is relevant to your research aims, objectives and research questions .  Always keep these three components, as well as your hypotheses (if you have any) front of mind when writing the chapter and use them as a filter to decide what’s relevant and what’s not.

Need a helping hand?

How do I write the results chapter?

Now that we’ve covered the basics, it’s time to look at how to structure your chapter. Broadly speaking, the results chapter needs to contain three core components – the introduction, the body and the concluding summary. Let’s take a look at each of these.

Section 1: Introduction

The first step is to craft a brief introduction to the chapter. This intro is vital as it provides some context for your findings. In your introduction, you should begin by reiterating your problem statement and research questions and highlight the purpose of your research . Make sure that you spell this out for the reader so that the rest of your chapter is well contextualised.

The next step is to briefly outline the structure of your results chapter. In other words, explain what’s included in the chapter and what the reader can expect. In the results chapter, you want to tell a story that is coherent, flows logically, and is easy to follow , so make sure that you plan your structure out well and convey that structure (at a high level), so that your reader is well oriented.

The introduction section shouldn’t be lengthy. Two or three short paragraphs should be more than adequate. It is merely an introduction and overview, not a summary of the chapter.

Pro Tip – To help you structure your chapter, it can be useful to set up an initial draft with (sub)section headings so that you’re able to easily (re)arrange parts of your chapter. This will also help your reader to follow your results and give your chapter some coherence.  Be sure to use level-based heading styles (e.g. Heading 1, 2, 3 styles) to help the reader differentiate between levels visually. You can find these options in Word (example below).

Section 2: Body

Before we get started on what to include in the body of your chapter, it’s vital to remember that a results section should be completely objective and descriptive, not interpretive . So, be careful not to use words such as, “suggests” or “implies”, as these usually accompany some form of interpretation – that’s reserved for your discussion chapter.

The structure of your body section is very important , so make sure that you plan it out well. When planning out your qualitative results chapter, create sections and subsections so that you can maintain the flow of the story you’re trying to tell. Be sure to systematically and consistently describe each portion of results. Try to adopt a standardised structure for each portion so that you achieve a high level of consistency throughout the chapter.

For qualitative studies, results chapters tend to be structured according to themes , which makes it easier for readers to follow. However, keep in mind that not all results chapters have to be structured in this manner. For example, if you’re conducting a longitudinal study, you may want to structure your chapter chronologically. Similarly, you might structure this chapter based on your theoretical framework . The exact structure of your chapter will depend on the nature of your study , especially your research questions.

As you work through the body of your chapter, make sure that you use quotes to substantiate every one of your claims . You can present these quotes in italics to differentiate them from your own words. A general rule of thumb is to use at least two pieces of evidence per claim, and these should be linked directly to your data. Also, remember that you need to include all relevant results , not just the ones that support your assumptions or initial leanings.

In addition to including quotes, you can also link your claims to the data by using appendices , which you should reference throughout your text. When you reference, make sure that you include both the name/number of the appendix , as well as the line(s) from which you drew your data.

As referencing styles can vary greatly, be sure to look up the appendix referencing conventions of your university’s prescribed style (e.g. APA , Harvard, etc) and keep this consistent throughout your chapter.

Section 3: Concluding summary

The concluding summary is very important because it summarises your key findings and lays the foundation for the discussion chapter . Keep in mind that some readers may skip directly to this section (from the introduction section), so make sure that it can be read and understood well in isolation.

In this section, you need to remind the reader of the key findings. That is, the results that directly relate to your research questions and that you will build upon in your discussion chapter. Remember, your reader has digested a lot of information in this chapter, so you need to use this section to remind them of the most important takeaways.

Importantly, the concluding summary should not present any new information and should only describe what you’ve already presented in your chapter. Keep it concise – you’re not summarising the whole chapter, just the essentials.

Tips for writing an A-grade results chapter

Now that you’ve got a clear picture of what the qualitative results chapter is all about, here are some quick tips and reminders to help you craft a high-quality chapter:

• Your results chapter should be written in the past tense . You’ve done the work already, so you want to tell the reader what you found , not what you are currently finding .
• Make sure that you review your work multiple times and check that every claim is adequately backed up by evidence . Aim for at least two examples per claim, and make use of an appendix to reference these.
• When writing up your results, make sure that you stick to only what is relevant . Don’t waste time on data that are not relevant to your research objectives and research questions.
• Use headings and subheadings to create an intuitive, easy to follow piece of writing. Make use of Microsoft Word’s “heading styles” and be sure to use them consistently.
• When referring to numerical data, tables and figures can provide a useful visual aid. When using these, make sure that they can be read and understood independent of your body text (i.e. that they can stand-alone). To this end, use clear, concise labels for each of your tables or figures and make use of colours to code indicate differences or hierarchy.
• Similarly, when you’re writing up your chapter, it can be useful to highlight topics and themes in different colours . This can help you to differentiate between your data if you get a bit overwhelmed and will also help you to ensure that your results flow logically and coherently.

If you have any questions, leave a comment below and we’ll do our best to help. If you’d like 1-on-1 help with your results chapter (or any chapter of your dissertation or thesis), check out our private dissertation coaching service here or book a free initial consultation to discuss how we can help you.

Psst... there’s more!

This post was based on one of our popular Research Bootcamps . If you're working on a research project, you'll definitely want to check this out ...

You Might Also Like:

20 Comments

This was extremely helpful. Thanks a lot guys

Hi, thanks for the great research support platform created by the gradcoach team!

I wanted to ask- While “suggests” or “implies” are interpretive terms, what terms could we use for the results chapter? Could you share some examples of descriptive terms?

I think that instead of saying, ‘The data suggested, or The data implied,’ you can say, ‘The Data showed or revealed, or illustrated or outlined’…If interview data, you may say Jane Doe illuminated or elaborated, or Jane Doe described… or Jane Doe expressed or stated.

I found this article very useful. Thank you very much for the outstanding work you are doing.

What if i have 3 different interviewees answering the same interview questions? Should i then present the results in form of the table with the division on the 3 perspectives or rather give a results in form of the text and highlight who said what?

I think this tabular representation of results is a great idea. I am doing it too along with the text. Thanks

That was helpful was struggling to separate the discussion from the findings

this was very useful, Thank you.

Very helpful, I am confident to write my results chapter now.

It is so helpful! It is a good job. Thank you very much!

Very useful, well explained. Many thanks.

Hello, I appreciate the way you provided a supportive comments about qualitative results presenting tips

I loved this! It explains everything needed, and it has helped me better organize my thoughts. What words should I not use while writing my results section, other than subjective ones.

Thanks a lot, it is really helpful

Thank you so much dear, i really appropriate your nice explanations about this.

Thank you so much for this! I was wondering if anyone could help with how to prproperly integrate quotations (Excerpts) from interviews in the finding chapter in a qualitative research. Please GradCoach, address this issue and provide examples.

what if I’m not doing any interviews myself and all the information is coming from case studies that have already done the research.

Very helpful thank you.

This was very helpful as I was wondering how to structure this part of my dissertation, to include the quotes… Thanks for this explanation

This is very helpful, thanks! I am required to write up my results chapters with the discussion in each of them – any tips and tricks for this strategy?

Submit a Comment Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

• Print Friendly

When you choose to publish with PLOS, your research makes an impact. Make your work accessible to all, without restrictions, and accelerate scientific discovery with options like preprints and published peer review that make your work more Open.

• PLOS Biology
• PLOS Climate
• PLOS Complex Systems
• PLOS Computational Biology
• PLOS Digital Health
• PLOS Genetics
• PLOS Global Public Health
• PLOS Medicine
• PLOS Mental Health
• PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases
• PLOS Pathogens
• PLOS Sustainability and Transformation
• PLOS Collections
• How to Write Discussions and Conclusions

The discussion section contains the results and outcomes of a study. An effective discussion informs readers what can be learned from your experiment and provides context for the results.

What makes an effective discussion?

When you’re ready to write your discussion, you’ve already introduced the purpose of your study and provided an in-depth description of the methodology. The discussion informs readers about the larger implications of your study based on the results. Highlighting these implications while not overstating the findings can be challenging, especially when you’re submitting to a journal that selects articles based on novelty or potential impact. Regardless of what journal you are submitting to, the discussion section always serves the same purpose: concluding what your study results actually mean.

A successful discussion section puts your findings in context. It should include:

• the results of your research,
• a discussion of related research, and
• a comparison between your results and initial hypothesis.

Tip: Not all journals share the same naming conventions.

You can apply the advice in this article to the conclusion, results or discussion sections of your manuscript.

Our Early Career Researcher community tells us that the conclusion is often considered the most difficult aspect of a manuscript to write. To help, this guide provides questions to ask yourself, a basic structure to model your discussion off of and examples from published manuscripts. 

Questions to ask yourself:

• Was my hypothesis correct?
• If my hypothesis is partially correct or entirely different, what can be learned from the results? 
• How do the conclusions reshape or add onto the existing knowledge in the field? What does previous research say about the topic? 
• Why are the results important or relevant to your audience? Do they add further evidence to a scientific consensus or disprove prior studies? 
• How can future research build on these observations? What are the key experiments that must be done? 
• What is the “take-home” message you want your reader to leave with?

How to structure a discussion

Trying to fit a complete discussion into a single paragraph can add unnecessary stress to the writing process. If possible, you’ll want to give yourself two or three paragraphs to give the reader a comprehensive understanding of your study as a whole. Here’s one way to structure an effective discussion:

Writing Tips

While the above sections can help you brainstorm and structure your discussion, there are many common mistakes that writers revert to when having difficulties with their paper. Writing a discussion can be a delicate balance between summarizing your results, providing proper context for your research and avoiding introducing new information. Remember that your paper should be both confident and honest about the results! 

• Read the journal’s guidelines on the discussion and conclusion sections. If possible, learn about the guidelines before writing the discussion to ensure you’re writing to meet their expectations. 
• Begin with a clear statement of the principal findings. This will reinforce the main take-away for the reader and set up the rest of the discussion. 
• Explain why the outcomes of your study are important to the reader. Discuss the implications of your findings realistically based on previous literature, highlighting both the strengths and limitations of the research. 
• State whether the results prove or disprove your hypothesis. If your hypothesis was disproved, what might be the reasons? 
• Introduce new or expanded ways to think about the research question. Indicate what next steps can be taken to further pursue any unresolved questions. 
• If dealing with a contemporary or ongoing problem, such as climate change, discuss possible consequences if the problem is avoided. 
• Be concise. Adding unnecessary detail can distract from the main findings. 

Don’t

• Rewrite your abstract. Statements with “we investigated” or “we studied” generally do not belong in the discussion. 
• Include new arguments or evidence not previously discussed. Necessary information and evidence should be introduced in the main body of the paper. 
• Apologize. Even if your research contains significant limitations, don’t undermine your authority by including statements that doubt your methodology or execution. 
• Shy away from speaking on limitations or negative results. Including limitations and negative results will give readers a complete understanding of the presented research. Potential limitations include sources of potential bias, threats to internal or external validity, barriers to implementing an intervention and other issues inherent to the study design. 
• Overstate the importance of your findings. Making grand statements about how a study will fully resolve large questions can lead readers to doubt the success of the research. 

Snippets of Effective Discussions:

Consumer-based actions to reduce plastic pollution in rivers: A multi-criteria decision analysis approach

Identifying reliable indicators of fitness in polar bears

• How to Write a Great Title
• How to Write an Abstract
• How to Write Your Methods
• How to Report Statistics
• How to Edit Your Work

The contents of the Peer Review Center are also available as a live, interactive training session, complete with slides, talking points, and activities. …

The contents of the Writing Center are also available as a live, interactive training session, complete with slides, talking points, and activities. …

There’s a lot to consider when deciding where to submit your work. Learn how to choose a journal that will help your study reach its audience, while reflecting your values as a researcher…

How to Present Results in a Research Paper

• First Online: 01 October 2023

Cite this chapter

• Aparna Mukherjee 4 ,
• Gunjan Kumar 4 &
• Rakesh Lodha 5  

905 Accesses

The results section is the core of a research manuscript where the study data and analyses are presented in an organized, uncluttered manner such that the reader can easily understand and interpret the findings. This section is completely factual; there is no place for opinions or explanations from the authors. The results should correspond to the objectives of the study in an orderly manner. Self-explanatory tables and figures add value to this section and make data presentation more convenient and appealing. The results presented in this section should have a link with both the preceding methods section and the following discussion section. A well-written, articulate results section lends clarity and credibility to the research paper and the study as a whole. This chapter provides an overview and important pointers to effective drafting of the results section in a research manuscript and also in theses.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

• Available as PDF
• Read on any device
• Instant download
• Own it forever
• Available as EPUB and PDF
• Durable hardcover edition
• Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
• Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Conclusions

Research Method

Research Questions and Research Design

Kallestinova ED (2011) How to write your first research paper. Yale J Biol Med 84(3):181–190

PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

STROBE. STROBE. [cited 2022 Nov 10]. https://www.strobe-statement.org/

Consort—Welcome to the CONSORT Website. http://www.consort-statement.org/ . Accessed 10 Nov 2022

Korevaar DA, Cohen JF, Reitsma JB, Bruns DE, Gatsonis CA, Glasziou PP et al (2016) Updating standards for reporting diagnostic accuracy: the development of STARD 2015. Res Integr Peer Rev 1(1):7

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Page MJ, McKenzie JE, Bossuyt PM, Boutron I, Hoffmann TC, Mulrow CD et al (2021) The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ 372:n71

Page MJ, Moher D, Bossuyt PM, Boutron I, Hoffmann TC, Mulrow CD et al (2021) PRISMA 2020 explanation and elaboration: updated guidance and exemplars for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ 372:n160

Consolidated criteria for reporting qualitative research (COREQ): a 32-item checklist for interviews and focus groups | EQUATOR Network. https://www.equator-network.org/reporting-guidelines/coreq/ . Accessed 10 Nov 2022

Aggarwal R, Sahni P (2015) The results section. In: Aggarwal R, Sahni P (eds) Reporting and publishing research in the biomedical sciences, 1st edn. National Medical Journal of India, Delhi, pp 24–44

Google Scholar  

Mukherjee A, Lodha R (2016) Writing the results. Indian Pediatr 53(5):409–415

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Lodha R, Randev S, Kabra SK (2016) Oral antibiotics for community acquired pneumonia with chest indrawing in children aged below five years: a systematic review. Indian Pediatr 53(6):489–495

Anderson C (2010) Presenting and evaluating qualitative research. Am J Pharm Educ 74(8):141

Roberts C, Kumar K, Finn G (2020) Navigating the qualitative manuscript writing process: some tips for authors and reviewers. BMC Med Educ 20:439

Bigby C (2015) Preparing manuscripts that report qualitative research: avoiding common pitfalls and illegitimate questions. Aust Soc Work 68(3):384–391

Article   Google Scholar  

Vincent BP, Kumar G, Parameswaran S, Kar SS (2019) Barriers and suggestions towards deceased organ donation in a government tertiary care teaching hospital: qualitative study using socio-ecological model framework. Indian J Transplant 13(3):194

McCormick JB, Hopkins MA (2021) Exploring public concerns for sharing and governance of personal health information: a focus group study. JAMIA Open 4(4):ooab098

Groenland -emeritus professor E. Employing the matrix method as a tool for the analysis of qualitative research data in the business domain. Rochester, NY; 2014. https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2495330 . Accessed 10 Nov 2022

Download references

Acknowledgments

The book chapter is derived in part from our article “Mukherjee A, Lodha R. Writing the Results. Indian Pediatr. 2016 May 8;53(5):409-15.” We thank the Editor-in-Chief of the journal “Indian Pediatrics” for the permission for the same.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Clinical Studies, Trials and Projection Unit, Indian Council of Medical Research, New Delhi, India

Aparna Mukherjee & Gunjan Kumar

Department of Pediatrics, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India

Rakesh Lodha

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Rakesh Lodha .

Editor information

Editors and affiliations.

Retired Senior Expert Pharmacologist at the Office of Cardiology, Hematology, Endocrinology, and Nephrology, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD, USA

Gowraganahalli Jagadeesh

Professor & Director, Research Training and Publications, The Office of Research and Development, Periyar Maniammai Institute of Science & Technology (Deemed to be University), Vallam, Tamil Nadu, India

Pitchai Balakumar

Division Cardiology & Nephrology, Office of Cardiology, Hematology, Endocrinology and Nephrology, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD, USA

Fortunato Senatore

Ethics declarations

Rights and permissions.

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.

About this chapter

Mukherjee, A., Kumar, G., Lodha, R. (2023). How to Present Results in a Research Paper. In: Jagadeesh, G., Balakumar, P., Senatore, F. (eds) The Quintessence of Basic and Clinical Research and Scientific Publishing. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1284-1_44

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1284-1_44

Published : 01 October 2023

Publisher Name : Springer, Singapore

Print ISBN : 978-981-99-1283-4

Online ISBN : 978-981-99-1284-1

eBook Packages : Biomedical and Life Sciences Biomedical and Life Sciences (R0)

Share this chapter

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research

Organizing Academic Research Papers: 7. The Results

• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Executive Summary
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tertiary Sources
• What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Annotated Bibliography
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• How to Manage Group Projects
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Essays
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Acknowledgements

The results section of the research paper is where you report the findings of your study based upon the information gathered as a result of the methodology [or methodologies] you applied. The results section should simply state the findings, without bias or interpretation, and arranged in a logical sequence. The results section should always be written in the past tense. A section describing results [a.k.a., "findings"] is particularly necessary if your paper includes data generated from your own research.

Importance of a Good Results Section

When formulating the results section, it's important to remember that the results of a study do not prove anything . Research results can only confirm or reject the research problem underpinning your study. However, the act of articulating the results helps you to understand the problem from within, to break it into pieces, and to view the research problem from various perspectives.

The page length of this section is set by the amount and types of data to be reported . Be concise, using non-textual elements, such as figures and tables, if appropriate, to present results more effectively. In deciding what data to describe in your results section, you must clearly distinguish material that would normally be included in a research paper from any raw data or other material that could be included as an appendix. In general, raw data should not be included in the main text of your paper unless requested to do so by your professor.

Avoid providing data that is not critical to answering the research question . The background information you described in the introduction section should provide the reader with any additional context or explanation needed to understand the results. A good rule is to always re-read the background section of your paper after you have written up your results to ensure that the reader has enough context to understand the results [and, later, how you interpreted the results in the discussion section of your paper].

Bates College; Burton, Neil et al. Doing Your Education Research Project . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2008; Results . The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College.

Structure and Writing Style

I. Structure and Approach

For most research paper formats, there are two ways of presenting and organizing the results .

• Present the results followed by a short explanation of the findings . For example, you may have noticed an unusual correlation between two variables during the analysis of your findings. It is correct to point this out in the results section. However, speculating as to why this correlation exists, and offering a hypothesis about what may be happening, belongs in the discussion section of your paper.
• Present a section and then discuss it, before presenting the next section then discussing it, and so on . This is more common in longer papers because it helps the reader to better understand each finding. In this model, it can be helpful to provide a brief conclusion in the results section that ties each of the findings together and links to the discussion.

NOTE: The discussion section should generally follow the same format chosen in presenting and organizing the results.

II.  Content

In general, the content of your results section should include the following elements:

• An introductory context for understanding the results by restating the research problem that underpins the purpose of your study.
• A summary of your key findings arranged in a logical sequence that generally follows your methodology section.
• Inclusion of non-textual elements, such as, figures, charts, photos, maps, tables, etc. to further illustrate the findings, if appropriate.
• In the text, a systematic description of your results, highlighting for the reader observations that are most relevant to the topic under investigation [remember that not all results that emerge from the methodology that you used to gather the data may be relevant].
• Use of the past tense when refering to your results.
• The page length of your results section is guided by the amount and types of data to be reported. However, focus only on findings that are important and related to addressing the research problem.

Using Non-textual Elements

• Either place figures, tables, charts, etc. within the text of the result, or include them in the back of the report--do one or the other but never do both.
• In the text, refer to each non-textual element in numbered order [e.g.,  Table 1, Table 2; Chart 1, Chart 2; Map 1, Map 2].
• If you place non-textual elements at the end of the report, make sure they are clearly distinguished from any attached appendix materials, such as raw data.
• Regardless of placement, each non-textual element must be numbered consecutively and complete with caption [caption goes under the figure, table, chart, etc.]
• Each non-textual element must be titled, numbered consecutively, and complete with a heading [title with description goes above the figure, table, chart, etc.].
• In proofreading your results section, be sure that each non-textual element is sufficiently complete so that it could stand on its own, separate from the text.

III. Problems to Avoid

When writing the results section, avoid doing the following :

• Discussing or interpreting your results . Save all this for the next section of your paper, although where appropriate, you should compare or contrast specific results to those found in other studies [e.g., "Similar to Smith [1990], one of the findings of this study is the strong correlation between motivation and academic achievement...."].
• Reporting background information or attempting to explain your findings ; this should have been done in your Introduction section, but don't panic! Often the results of a study point to the need to provide additional background information or to explain the topic further, so don't think you did something wrong. Revise your introduction as needed.
• Ignoring negative results . If some of your results fail to support your hypothesis, do not ignore them. Document them, then state in your discussion section why you believe a negative result emerged from your study. Note that negative results, and how you handle them, often provides you with the opportunity to write a more engaging discussion section, therefore, don't be afraid to highlight them.
• Including raw data or intermediate calculations . Ask your professor if you need to include any raw data generated by your study, such as transcripts from interviews or data files. If raw data is to be included, place it in an appendix or set of appendices that are referred to in the text.
• Be as factual and concise as possible in reporting your findings . Do not use phrases that are vague or non-specific, such as, "appeared to be greater or lesser than..." or "demonstrates promising trends that...."
• Presenting the same data or repeating the same information more than once . If you feel the need to highlight something, you will have a chance to do that in the discussion section.
• Confusing figures with tables . Be sure to properly label any non-textual elements in your paper. If you are not sure, look up the term in a dictionary.

Burton, Neil et al. Doing Your Education Research Project . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2008;  Caprette, David R. Writing Research Papers . Experimental Biosciences Resources. Rice University; Hancock, Dawson R. and Bob Algozzine. Doing Case Study Research: A Practical Guide for Beginning Researchers . 2nd ed. New York: Teachers College Press, 2011; Introduction to Nursing Research: Reporting Research Findings. Nursing Research: Open Access Nursing Research and Review Articles. (January 4, 2012); Reporting Research Findings. Wilder Research, in partnership with the Minnesota Department of Human Services. (February 2009); Results . The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Schafer, Mickey S. Writing the Results . Thesis Writing in the Sciences. Course Syllabus. University of Florida.

Writing Tip

Why Don't I Just Combine the Results Section with the Discussion Section?

It's not unusual to find articles in social science journals where the author(s) have combined a description of the findings from the study with a discussion about their implications. You could do this. However, if you are inexperienced writing research papers, consider creating two sections for each element in your paper as a way to better organize your thoughts and, by extension, your  paper. Think of the results section as the place where you report what your study found; think of the discussion section as the place where you interpret your data and answer the "so what?" question. As you become more skilled writing research papers, you may want to meld the results of your study with a discussion of its implications.

• << Previous: Quantitative Methods
• Next: Using Non-Textual Elements >>
• Last Updated: Jul 18, 2023 11:58 AM
• URL: https://library.sacredheart.edu/c.php?g=29803
• QuickSearch
• Library Catalog
• Databases A-Z
• Publication Finder
• Course Reserves
• Citation Linker
• Digital Commons
• Our Website

Research Support

• Ask a Librarian
• Appointments
• Interlibrary Loan (ILL)
• Research Guides
• Databases by Subject
• Citation Help

Using the Library

• Reserve a Group Study Room
• Renew Books
• Honors Study Rooms
• Off-Campus Access
• Library Policies
• Library Technology

User Information

• Grad Students
• Online Students
• COVID-19 Updates
• Staff Directory
• News & Announcements
• Library Newsletter

My Accounts

• Interlibrary Loan
• Staff Site Login

FIND US ON  

• Langson Library
• Science Library
• Grunigen Medical Library
• Law Library
• Connect From Off-Campus
• Accessibility
• Gateway Study Center

Email this link

Writing a scientific paper.

• Writing a lab report
• INTRODUCTION

Writing a "good" results section

Figures and Captions in Lab Reports

"Results Checklist" from: How to Write a Good Scientific Paper. Chris A. Mack. SPIE. 2018.

Additional tips for results sections.

• LITERATURE CITED
• Bibliography of guides to scientific writing and presenting
• Peer Review
• Presentations
• Lab Report Writing Guides on the Web

This is the core of the paper. Don't start the results sections with methods you left out of the Materials and Methods section. You need to give an overall description of the experiments and present the data you found.

• Factual statements supported by evidence. Short and sweet without excess words
• Present representative data rather than endlessly repetitive data
• Discuss variables only if they had an effect (positive or negative)
• Use meaningful statistics
• Avoid redundancy. If it is in the tables or captions you may not need to repeat it

A short article by Dr. Brett Couch and Dr. Deena Wassenberg, Biology Program, University of Minnesota

• Present the results of the paper, in logical order, using tables and graphs as necessary.
• Explain the results and show how they help to answer the research questions posed in the Introduction. Evidence does not explain itself; the results must be presented and then explained. 
• Avoid: presenting results that are never discussed;  presenting results in chronological order rather than logical order; ignoring results that do not support the conclusions; 
• Number tables and figures separately beginning with 1 (i.e. Table 1, Table 2, Figure 1, etc.).
• Do not attempt to evaluate the results in this section. Report only what you found; hold all discussion of the significance of the results for the Discussion section.
• It is not necessary to describe every step of your statistical analyses. Scientists understand all about null hypotheses, rejection rules, and so forth and do not need to be reminded of them. Just say something like, "Honeybees did not use the flowers in proportion to their availability (X2 = 7.9, p<0.05, d.f.= 4, chi-square test)." Likewise, cite tables and figures without describing in detail how the data were manipulated. Explanations of this sort should appear in a legend or caption written on the same page as the figure or table.
• You must refer in the text to each figure or table you include in your paper.
• Tables generally should report summary-level data, such as means ± standard deviations, rather than all your raw data.  A long list of all your individual observations will mean much less than a few concise, easy-to-read tables or figures that bring out the main findings of your study.  
• Only use a figure (graph) when the data lend themselves to a good visual representation.  Avoid using figures that show too many variables or trends at once, because they can be hard to understand.

From:  https://writingcenter.gmu.edu/guides/imrad-results-discussion

• << Previous: METHODS
• Next: DISCUSSION >>
• Last Updated: Aug 4, 2023 9:33 AM
• URL: https://guides.lib.uci.edu/scientificwriting

Off-campus? Please use the Software VPN and choose the group UCIFull to access licensed content. For more information, please Click here

Software VPN is not available for guests, so they may not have access to some content when connecting from off-campus.

• How it works

How to Write the Dissertation Findings or Results – Steps & Tips

Published by Grace Graffin at August 11th, 2021 , Revised On June 11, 2024

Each  part of the dissertation is unique, and some general and specific rules must be followed. The dissertation’s findings section presents the key results of your research without interpreting their meaning .

Theoretically, this is an exciting section of a dissertation because it involves writing what you have observed and found. However, it can be a little tricky if there is too much information to confuse the readers.

The goal is to include only the essential and relevant findings in this section. The results must be presented in an orderly sequence to provide clarity to the readers.

This section of the dissertation should be easy for the readers to follow, so you should avoid going into a lengthy debate over the interpretation of the results.

It is vitally important to focus only on clear and precise observations. The findings chapter of the  dissertation  is theoretically the easiest to write.

It includes  statistical analysis and a brief write-up about whether or not the results emerging from the analysis are significant. This segment should be written in the past sentence as you describe what you have done in the past.

This article will provide detailed information about  how to   write the findings of a dissertation .

When to Write Dissertation Findings Chapter

As soon as you have gathered and analysed your data, you can start to write up the findings chapter of your dissertation paper. Remember that it is your chance to report the most notable findings of your research work and relate them to the research hypothesis  or  research questions set out in  the introduction chapter of the dissertation .

You will be required to separately report your study’s findings before moving on to the discussion chapter  if your dissertation is based on the  collection of primary data  or experimental work.

However, you may not be required to have an independent findings chapter if your dissertation is purely descriptive and focuses on the analysis of case studies or interpretation of texts.

• Always report the findings of your research in the past tense.
• The dissertation findings chapter varies from one project to another, depending on the data collected and analyzed.
• Avoid reporting results that are not relevant to your research questions or research hypothesis.

Does your Dissertation Have the Following?

• Great Research/Sources
• Perfect Language
• Accurate Sources

If not, we can help. Our panel of experts makes sure to keep the 3 pillars of the Dissertation strong.

1. Reporting Quantitative Findings

The best way to present your quantitative findings is to structure them around the research  hypothesis or  questions you intend to address as part of your dissertation project.

Report the relevant findings for each research question or hypothesis, focusing on how you analyzed them.

Analysis of your findings will help you determine how they relate to the different research questions and whether they support the hypothesis you formulated.

While you must highlight meaningful relationships, variances, and tendencies, it is important not to guess their interpretations and implications because this is something to save for the discussion  and  conclusion  chapters.

Any findings not directly relevant to your research questions or explanations concerning the data collection process  should be added to the dissertation paper’s appendix section.

Use of Figures and Tables in Dissertation Findings

Suppose your dissertation is based on quantitative research. In that case, it is important to include charts, graphs, tables, and other visual elements to help your readers understand the emerging trends and relationships in your findings.

Repeating information will give the impression that you are short on ideas. Refer to all charts, illustrations, and tables in your writing but avoid recurrence.

The text should be used only to elaborate and summarize certain parts of your results. On the other hand, illustrations and tables are used to present multifaceted data.

It is recommended to give descriptive labels and captions to all illustrations used so the readers can figure out what each refers to.

How to Report Quantitative Findings

Here is an example of how to report quantitative results in your dissertation findings chapter;

Two hundred seventeen participants completed both the pretest and post-test and a Pairwise T-test was used for the analysis. The quantitative data analysis reveals a statistically significant difference between the mean scores of the pretest and posttest scales from the Teachers Discovering Computers course. The pretest mean was 29.00 with a standard deviation of 7.65, while the posttest mean was 26.50 with a standard deviation of 9.74 (Table 1). These results yield a significance level of .000, indicating a strong treatment effect (see Table 3). With the correlation between the scores being .448, the little relationship is seen between the pretest and posttest scores (Table 2). This leads the researcher to conclude that the impact of the course on the educators’ perception and integration of technology into the curriculum is dramatic.

Paired Samples

Paired Samples Correlation

Paired Samples Test

Also Read: How to Write the Abstract for the Dissertation.

2. Reporting Qualitative Findings

A notable issue with reporting qualitative findings is that not all results directly relate to your research questions or hypothesis.

The best way to present the results of qualitative research is to frame your findings around the most critical areas or themes you obtained after you examined the data.

In-depth data analysis will help you observe what the data shows for each theme. Any developments, relationships, patterns, and independent responses directly relevant to your research question or hypothesis should be mentioned to the readers.

Additional information not directly relevant to your research can be included in the appendix .

How to Report Qualitative Findings

Here is an example of how to report qualitative results in your dissertation findings chapter;

The last question of the interview focused on the need for improvement in Thai ready-to-eat products and the industry at large, emphasizing the need for enhancement in the current products being offered in the market. When asked if there was any particular need for Thai ready-to-eat meals to be improved and how to improve them in case of ‘yes,’ the males replied mainly by saying that the current products need improvement in terms of the use of healthier raw materials and preservatives or additives. There was an agreement amongst all males concerning the need to improve the industry for ready-to-eat meals and the use of more healthy items to prepare such meals. The females were also of the opinion that the fast-food items needed to be improved in the sense that more healthy raw materials such as vegetable oil and unsaturated fats, including whole-wheat products, to overcome risks associated with trans fat leading to obesity and hypertension should be used for the production of RTE products. The frozen RTE meals and packaged snacks included many preservatives and chemical-based flavouring enhancers that harmed human health and needed to be reduced. The industry is said to be aware of this fact and should try to produce RTE products that benefit the community in terms of healthy consumption.

Looking for dissertation help?

Research prospect to the rescue then.

We have expert writers on our team who are skilled at helping students with dissertations across a variety of disciplines. Guaranteeing 100% satisfaction!

What to Avoid in Dissertation Findings Chapter

• Avoid using interpretive and subjective phrases and terms such as “confirms,” “reveals,” “suggests,” or “validates.” These terms are more suitable for the discussion chapter , where you will be expected to interpret the results in detail.
• Only briefly explain findings in relation to the key themes, hypothesis, and research questions. You don’t want to write a detailed subjective explanation for any research questions at this stage.

The Do’s of Writing the Findings or Results Section

• Ensure you are not presenting results from other research studies in your findings.
• Observe whether or not your hypothesis is tested or research questions answered.
• Illustrations and tables present data and are labelled to help your readers understand what they relate to.
• Use software such as Excel, STATA, and SPSS to analyse results and important trends.

Essential Guidelines on How to Write Dissertation Findings

The dissertation findings chapter should provide the context for understanding the results. The research problem should be repeated, and the research goals should be stated briefly.

This approach helps to gain the reader’s attention toward the research problem. The first step towards writing the findings is identifying which results will be presented in this section.

The results relevant to the questions must be presented, considering whether the results support the hypothesis. You do not need to include every result in the findings section. The next step is ensuring the data can be appropriately organized and accurate.

You will need to have a basic idea about writing the findings of a dissertation because this will provide you with the knowledge to arrange the data chronologically.

Start each paragraph by writing about the most important results and concluding the section with the most negligible actual results.

A short paragraph can conclude the findings section, summarising the findings so readers will remember as they transition to the next chapter. This is essential if findings are unexpected or unfamiliar or impact the study.

Our writers can help you with all parts of your dissertation, including statistical analysis of your results . To obtain free non-binding quotes, please complete our online quote form here .

Be Impartial in your Writing

When crafting your findings, knowing how you will organize the work is important. The findings are the story that needs to be told in response to the research questions that have been answered.

Therefore, the story needs to be organized to make sense to you and the reader. The findings must be compelling and responsive to be linked to the research questions being answered.

Always ensure that the size and direction of any changes, including percentage change, can be mentioned in the section. The details of p values or confidence intervals and limits should be included.

The findings sections only have the relevant parts of the primary evidence mentioned. Still, it is a good practice to include all the primary evidence in an appendix that can be referred to later.

The results should always be written neutrally without speculation or implication. The statement of the results mustn’t have any form of evaluation or interpretation.

Negative results should be added in the findings section because they validate the results and provide high neutrality levels.

The length of the dissertation findings chapter is an important question that must be addressed. It should be noted that the length of the section is directly related to the total word count of your dissertation paper.

The writer should use their discretion in deciding the length of the findings section or refer to the dissertation handbook or structure guidelines.

It should neither belong nor be short nor concise and comprehensive to highlight the reader’s main findings.

Ethically, you should be confident in the findings and provide counter-evidence. Anything that does not have sufficient evidence should be discarded. The findings should respond to the problem presented and provide a solution to those questions.

Structure of the Findings Chapter

The chapter should use appropriate words and phrases to present the results to the readers. Logical sentences should be used, while paragraphs should be linked to produce cohesive work.

You must ensure all the significant results have been added in the section. Recheck after completing the section to ensure no mistakes have been made.

The structure of the findings section is something you may have to be sure of primarily because it will provide the basis for your research work and ensure that the discussions section can be written clearly and proficiently.

One way to arrange the results is to provide a brief synopsis and then explain the essential findings. However, there should be no speculation or explanation of the results, as this will be done in the discussion section.

Another way to arrange the section is to present and explain a result. This can be done for all the results while the section is concluded with an overall synopsis.

This is the preferred method when you are writing more extended dissertations. It can be helpful when multiple results are equally significant. A brief conclusion should be written to link all the results and transition to the discussion section.

Numerous data analysis dissertation examples are available on the Internet, which will help you improve your understanding of writing the dissertation’s findings.

Problems to Avoid When Writing Dissertation Findings

One of the problems to avoid while writing the dissertation findings is reporting background information or explaining the findings. This should be done in the introduction section .

You can always revise the introduction chapter based on the data you have collected if that seems an appropriate thing to do.

Raw data or intermediate calculations should not be added in the findings section. Always ask your professor if raw data needs to be included.

If the data is to be included, then use an appendix or a set of appendices referred to in the text of the findings chapter.

Do not use vague or non-specific phrases in the findings section. It is important to be factual and concise for the reader’s benefit.

The findings section presents the crucial data collected during the research process. It should be presented concisely and clearly to the reader. There should be no interpretation, speculation, or analysis of the data.

The significant results should be categorized systematically with the text used with charts, figures, and tables. Furthermore, avoiding using vague and non-specific words in this section is essential.

It is essential to label the tables and visual material properly. You should also check and proofread the section to avoid mistakes.

The dissertation findings chapter is a critical part of your overall dissertation paper. If you struggle with presenting your results and statistical analysis, our expert dissertation writers can help you get things right. Whether you need help with the entire dissertation paper or individual chapters, our dissertation experts can provide customized dissertation support .

FAQs About Findings of a Dissertation

How do i report quantitative findings.

The best way to present your quantitative findings is to structure them around the research hypothesis or research questions you intended to address as part of your dissertation project. Report the relevant findings for each of the research questions or hypotheses, focusing on how you analyzed them.

How do I report qualitative findings?

The best way to present the qualitative research results is to frame your findings around the most important areas or themes that you obtained after examining the data.

An in-depth analysis of the data will help you observe what the data is showing for each theme. Any developments, relationships, patterns, and independent responses that are directly relevant to your research question or hypothesis should be clearly mentioned for the readers.

Can I use interpretive phrases like ‘it confirms’ in the finding chapter?

No, It is highly advisable to avoid using interpretive and subjective phrases in the finding chapter. These terms are more suitable for the discussion chapter , where you will be expected to provide your interpretation of the results in detail.

Can I report the results from other research papers in my findings chapter?

NO, you must not be presenting results from other research studies in your findings.

You May Also Like

If your dissertation includes many abbreviations, it would make sense to define all these abbreviations in a list of abbreviations in alphabetical order.

When writing your dissertation, an abstract serves as a deal maker or breaker. It can either motivate your readers to continue reading or discourage them.

Anyone who supports you in your research should be acknowledged in dissertation acknowledgments. Learn more on how to write dissertation acknowledgements.

USEFUL LINKS

LEARNING RESOURCES

COMPANY DETAILS

• How It Works

• Chapter Seven: Presenting Your Results

This chapter serves as the culmination of the previous chapters, in that it focuses on how to present the results of one's study, regardless of the choice made among the three methods. Writing in academics has a form and style that you will want to apply not only to report your own research, but also to enhance your skills at reading original research published in academic journals. Beyond the basic academic style of report writing, there are specific, often unwritten assumptions about how quantitative, qualitative, and critical/rhetorical studies should be organized and the information they should contain. This chapter discusses how to present your results in writing, how to write accessibly, how to visualize data, and how to present your results in person.  

• Chapter One: Introduction
• Chapter Two: Understanding the distinctions among research methods
• Chapter Three: Ethical research, writing, and creative work
• Chapter Four: Quantitative Methods (Part 1)
• Chapter Four: Quantitative Methods (Part 2 - Doing Your Study)
• Chapter Four: Quantitative Methods (Part 3 - Making Sense of Your Study)
• Chapter Five: Qualitative Methods (Part 1)
• Chapter Five: Qualitative Data (Part 2)
• Chapter Six: Critical / Rhetorical Methods (Part 1)
• Chapter Six: Critical / Rhetorical Methods (Part 2)

Written Presentation of Results

Once you've gone through the process of doing communication research – using a quantitative, qualitative, or critical/rhetorical methodological approach – the final step is to  communicate  it.

The major style manuals (the APA Manual, the MLA Handbook, and Turabian) are very helpful in documenting the structure of writing a study, and are highly recommended for consultation. But, no matter what style manual you may use, there are some common elements to the structure of an academic communication research paper.

Title Page :

This is simple: Your Paper's Title, Your Name, Your Institutional Affiliation (e.g., University), and the Date, each on separate lines, centered on the page. Try to make your title both descriptive (i.e., it gives the reader an idea what the study is about) and interesting (i.e., it is catchy enough to get one's attention).

For example, the title, "The uncritical idealization of a compensated psychopath character in a popular book series," would not be an inaccurate title for a published study, but it is rather vague and exceedingly boring. That study's author fortunately chose the title, "A boyfriend to die for: Edward Cullen as compensated psychopath in Stephanie Meyer's  Twilight ," which is more precisely descriptive, and much more interesting (Merskin, 2011). The use of the colon in academic titles can help authors accomplish both objectives: a catchy but relevant phrase, followed by a more clear explanation of the article's topic.

In some instances, you might be asked to write an abstract, which is a summary of your paper that can range in length from 75 to 250 words. If it is a published paper, it is useful to include key search terms in this brief description of the paper (the title may already have a few of these terms as well). Although this may be the last thing your write, make it one of the best things you write, because this may be the first thing your audience reads about the paper (and may be the only thing read if it is written badly). Summarize the problem/research question, your methodological approach, your results and conclusions, and the significance of the paper in the abstract.

Quantitative and qualitative studies will most typically use the rest of the section titles noted below. Critical/rhetorical studies will include many of the same steps, but will often have different headings. For example, a critical/rhetorical paper will have an introduction, definition of terms, and literature review, followed by an analysis (often divided into sections by areas of investigation) and ending with a conclusion/implications section. Because critical/rhetorical research is much more descriptive, the subheadings in such a paper are often times not generic subheads like "literature review," but instead descriptive subheadings that apply to the topic at hand, as seen in the schematic below. Because many journals expect the article to follow typical research paper headings of introduction, literature review, methods, results, and discussion, we discuss these sections briefly next.

Introduction:

As you read social scientific journals (see chapter 1 for examples), you will find that they tend to get into the research question quickly and succinctly. Journal articles from the humanities tradition tend to be more descriptive in the introduction. But, in either case, it is good to begin with some kind of brief anecdote that gets the reader engaged in your work and lets the reader understand why this is an interesting topic. From that point, state your research question, define the problem (see Chapter One) with an overview of what we do and don't know, and finally state what you will do, or what you want to find out. The introduction thus builds the case for your topic, and is the beginning of building your argument, as we noted in chapter 1.

By the end of the Introduction, the reader should know what your topic is, why it is a significant communication topic, and why it is necessary that you investigate it (e.g., it could be there is gap in literature, you will conduct valuable exploratory research, or you will provide a new model for solving some professional or social problem).

Literature Review:

The literature review summarizes and organizes the relevant books, articles, and other research in this area. It sets up both quantitative and qualitative studies, showing the need for the study. For critical/rhetorical research, the literature review often incorporates the description of the historical context and heuristic vocabulary, with key terms defined in this section of the paper. For more detail on writing a literature review, see Appendix 1.

The methods of your paper are the processes that govern your research, where the researcher explains what s/he did to solve the problem. As you have seen throughout this book, in communication studies, there are a number of different types of research methods. For example, in quantitative research, one might conduct surveys, experiments, or content analysis. In qualitative research, one might instead use interviews and observations. Critical/rhetorical studies methods are more about the interpretation of texts or the study of popular culture as communication. In creative communication research, the method may be an interpretive performance studies or filmmaking. Other methods used sometimes alone, or in combination with other methods, include legal research, historical research, and political economy research.

In quantitative and qualitative research papers, the methods will be most likely described according to the APA manual standards. At the very least, the methods will include a description of participants, data collection, and data analysis, with specific details on each of these elements. For example, in an experiment, the researcher will describe the number of participants, the materials used, the design of the experiment, the procedure of the experiment, and what statistics will be used to address the hypotheses/research questions.

Critical/rhetorical researchers rarely have a specific section called "methods," as opposed to quantitative and qualitative researchers, but rather demonstrate the method they use for analysis throughout the writing of their piece.

Helping your reader understand the methods you used for your study is important not only for your own study's credibility, but also for possible replication of your study by other researchers. A good guideline to keep in mind is  transparency . You want to be as clear as possible in describing the decisions you made in designing your study, gathering and analyzing your data so that the reader can retrace your steps and understand how you came to the conclusions you formed. A research study can be very good, but if it is not clearly described so that others can see how the results were determined or obtained, then the quality of the study and its potential contributions are lost.

After you completed your study, your findings will be listed in the results section. Particularly in a quantitative study, the results section is for revisiting your hypotheses and reporting whether or not your results supported them, and the statistical significance of the results. Whether your study supported or contradicted your hypotheses, it's always helpful to fully report what your results were. The researcher usually organizes the results of his/her results section by research question or hypothesis, stating the results for each one, using statistics to show how the research question or hypothesis was answered in the study.

The qualitative results section also may be organized by research question, but usually is organized by themes which emerged from the data collected. The researcher provides rich details from her/his observations and interviews, with detailed quotations provided to illustrate the themes identified. Sometimes the results section is combined with the discussion section.

Critical/rhetorical researchers would include their analysis often with different subheadings in what would be considered a "results" section, yet not labeled specifically this way.

Discussion:

In the discussion section, the researcher gives an appraisal of the results. Here is where the researcher considers the results, particularly in light of the literature review, and explains what the findings mean. If the results confirmed or corresponded with the findings of other literature, then that should be stated. If the results didn't support the findings of previous studies, then the researcher should develop an explanation of why the study turned out this way. Sometimes, this section is called a "conclusion" by researchers.

References:

In this section, all of the literature cited in the text should have full references in alphabetical order. Appendices: Appendix material includes items like questionnaires used in the study, photographs, documents, etc. An alphabetical letter is assigned for each piece (e.g. Appendix A, Appendix B), with a second line of title describing what the appendix contains (e.g. Participant Informed Consent, or  New York Times  Speech Coverage). They should be organized consistently with the order in which they are referenced in the text of the paper. The page numbers for appendices are consecutive with the paper and reference list.

Tables/Figures:

Tables and figures are referenced in the text, but included at the end of the study and numbered consecutively. (Check with your professor; some like to have tables and figures inserted within the paper's main text.) Tables generally are data in a table format, whereas figures are diagrams (such as a pie chart) and drawings (such as a flow chart).

Accessible Writing

As you may have noticed, academic writing does have a language (e.g., words like heuristic vocabulary and hypotheses) and style (e.g., literature reviews) all its own. It is important to engage in that language and style, and understand how to use it to  communicate effectively in an academic context . Yet, it is also important to remember that your analyses and findings should also be written to be accessible. Writers should avoid excessive jargon, or—even worse—deploying jargon to mask an incomplete understanding of a topic.

The scourge of excessive jargon in academic writing was the target of a famous hoax in 1996. A New York University physics professor submitted an article, " Transgressing the Boundaries: Toward a Transformative Hermeneutics of Quantum Gravity ," to a special issue of the academic journal  Social Text  devoted to science and postmodernism. The article was designed to point out how dense academic jargon can sometimes mask sloppy thinking. As the professor, Alan Sokal, had expected, the article was published. One sample sentence from the article reads:

It has thus become increasingly apparent that physical "reality", no less than social "reality", is at bottom a social and linguistic construct; that scientific "knowledge", far from being objective, reflects and encodes the dominant ideologies and power relations of the culture that produced it; that the truth claims of science are inherently theory-laden and self-referential; and consequently, that the discourse of the scientific community, for all its undeniable value, cannot assert a privileged epistemological status with respect to counter-hegemonic narratives emanating from dissident or marginalized communities. (Sokal, 1996. pp. 217-218)

According to the journal's editor, about six reviewers had read the article but didn't suspect that it was phony. A public debate ensued after Sokal revealed his hoax. Sokal said he worried that jargon and intellectual fads cause academics to lose contact with the real world and "undermine the prospect for progressive social critique" ( Scott, 1996 ). The APA Manual recommends to avoid using technical vocabulary where it is not needed or relevant or if the technical language is overused, thus becoming jargon. In short, the APA argues that "scientific jargon...grates on the reader, encumbers the communication of information, and wastes space" (American Psychological Association, 2010, p. 68).

Data Visualization

Images and words have long existed on the printed page of manuscripts, yet, until recently, relatively few researchers possessed the resources to effectively combine images combined with words (Tufte, 1990, 1983). Communication scholars are only now becoming aware of this dimension in research as computer technologies have made it possible for many people to produce and publish multimedia presentations.

Although visuals may seem to be anathema to the primacy of the written word in research, they are a legitimate way, and at times the best way, to present ideas. Visual scholar Lester Faigley et al. (2004) explains how data visualizations have become part of our daily lives:

Visualizations can shed light on research as well. London-based David McCandless specializes in visualizing interesting research questions, or in his words "the questions I wanted answering" (2009, p. 7). His images include a graph of the  peak times of the year for breakups  (based on Facebook status updates), a  radiation dosage chart , and some  experiments with the Google Ngram Viewer , which charts the appearance of keywords in millions of books over hundreds of years.

The  public domain image  below creatively maps U.S. Census data of the outflow of people from California to other states between 1995 and 2000.

Visualizing one's research is possible in multiple ways. A simple technology, for example, is to enter data into a spreadsheet such as Excel, and select  Charts  or  SmartArt  to generate graphics. A number of free web tools can also transform raw data into useful charts and graphs.  Many Eyes , an open source data visualization tool (sponsored by IBM Research), says its goal "is to 'democratize' visualization and to enable a new social kind of data analysis" (IBM, 2011). Another tool,  Soundslides , enables users to import images and audio to create a photographic slideshow, while the program handles all of the background code. Other tools, often open source and free, can help visual academic research into interactive maps; interactive, image-based timelines; interactive charts; and simple 2-D and 3-D animations. Adobe Creative Suite (which includes popular software like Photoshop) is available on most computers at universities, but open source alternatives exist as well.  Gimp  is comparable to Photoshop, and it is free and relatively easy to use.

One online performance studies journal,  Liminalities , is an excellent example of how "research" can be more than just printed words. In each issue, traditional academic essays and book reviews are often supported photographs, while other parts of an issue can include video, audio, and multimedia contributions. The journal, founded in 2005, treats performance itself as a methodology, and accepts contribution in html, mp3, Quicktime, and Flash formats.

For communication researchers, there is also a vast array of visual digital archives available online. Many of these archives are located at colleges and universities around the world, where digital librarians are spearheading a massive effort to make information—print, audio, visual, and graphic—available to the public as part of a global information commons. For example, the University of Iowa has a considerable digital archive including historical photos documenting American railroads and a database of images related to geoscience. The University of Northern Iowa has a growing Special Collections Unit that includes digital images of every UNI Yearbook between 1905 and 1923 and audio files of UNI jazz band performances. Researchers at he University of Michigan developed  OAIster , a rich database that has joined thousands of digital archives in one searchable interface. Indeed, virtually every academic library is now digitizing all types of media, not just texts, and making them available for public viewing and, when possible, for use in presenting research. In addition to academic collections, the  Library of Congress  and the  National Archives  offer an ever-expanding range of downloadable media; commercial, user-generated databases such as Flickr, Buzznet, YouTube and Google Video offer a rich resource of images that are often free of copyright constraints (see Chapter 3 about Creative Commons licenses) and nonprofit endeavors, such as the  Internet Archive , contain a formidable collection of moving images, still photographs, audio files (including concert recordings), and open source software.

Presenting your Work in Person

As Communication students, it's expected that you are not only able to communicate your research project in written form but also in person.

Before you do any oral presentation, it's good to have a brief "pitch" ready for anyone who asks you about your research. The pitch is routine in Hollywood: a screenwriter has just a few minutes to present an idea to a producer. Although your pitch will be more sophisticated than, say, " Snakes on a Plane " (which unfortunately was made into a movie), you should in just a few lines be able to explain the gist of your research to anyone who asks. Developing this concise description, you will have some practice in distilling what might be a complicated topic into one others can quickly grasp.

Oral presentation

In most oral presentations of research, whether at the end of a semester, or at a research symposium or conference, you will likely have just 10 to 20 minutes. This is probably not enough time to read the entire paper aloud, which is not what you should do anyway if you want people to really listen (although, unfortunately some make this mistake). Instead, the point of the presentation should be to present your research in an interesting manner so the listeners will want to read the whole thing. In the presentation, spend the least amount of time on the literature review (a very brief summary will suffice) and the most on your own original contribution. In fact, you may tell your audience that you are only presenting on one portion of the paper, and that you would be happy to talk more about your research and findings in the question and answer session that typically follows. Consider your presentation the beginning of a dialogue between you and the audience. Your tone shouldn't be "I have found everything important there is to find, and I will cram as much as I can into this presentation," but instead "I found some things you will find interesting, but I realize there is more to find."

Turabian (2007) has a helpful chapter on presenting research. Most important, she emphasizes, is to remember that your audience members are listeners, not readers. Thus, recall the lessons on speech making in your college oral communication class. Give an introduction, tell them what the problem is, and map out what you will present to them. Organize your findings into a few points, and don't get bogged down in minutiae. (The minutiae are for readers to find if they wish, not for listeners to struggle through.) PowerPoint slides are acceptable, but don't read them. Instead, create an outline of a few main points, and practice your presentation.

Turabian  suggests an introduction of not more than three minutes, which should include these elements:

• The research topic you will address (not more than a minute).
• Your research question (30 seconds or less)
• An answer to "so what?" – explaining the relevance of your research (30 seconds)
• Your claim, or argument (30 seconds or less)
• The map of your presentation structure (30 seconds or less)

As Turabian (2007) suggests, "Rehearse your introduction, not only to get it right, but to be able to look your audience in the eye as you give it. You can look down at notes later" (p. 125).

Poster presentation

In some symposiums and conferences, you may be asked to present at a "poster" session. Instead of presenting on a panel of 4-5 people to an audience, a poster presenter is with others in a large hall or room, and talks one-on-one with visitors who look at the visual poster display of the research. As in an oral presentation, a poster highlights just the main point of the paper. Then, if visitors have questions, the author can informally discuss her/his findings.

To attract attention, poster presentations need to be nicely designed, or in the words of an advertising professor who schedules poster sessions at conferences, "be big, bold, and brief" ( Broyles , 2011). Large type (at least 18 pt.), graphics, tables, and photos are recommended.

A poster presentation session at a conference, by David Eppstein (Own work) [CC-BY-SA-3.0 ( www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0 )], via Wikimedia Commons]

The Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (AEJMC) has a  template for making an effective poster presentation . Many universities, copy shops, and Internet services also have large-scale printers, to print full-color research poster designs that can be rolled up and transported in a tube.

Judging Others' Research

After taking this course, you should have a basic knowledge of research methods. There will still be some things that may mystify you as a reader of other's research. For example, you may not be able to interpret the coefficients for statistical significance, or make sense of a complex structural equation. Some specialized vocabulary may still be difficult.

But, you should understand how to critically review research. For example, imagine you have been asked to do a blind (i.e., the author's identity is concealed) "peer review" of communication research for acceptance to a conference, or publication in an academic journal. For most  conferences  and  journals , submissions are made online, where editors can manage the flow and assign reviews to papers. The evaluations reviewers make are based on the same things that we have covered in this book. For example, the conference for the AEJMC ask reviewers to consider (on a five-point scale, from Excellent to Poor) a number of familiar research dimensions, including the paper's clarity of purpose, literature review, clarity of research method, appropriateness of research method, evidence presented clearly, evidence supportive of conclusions, general writing and organization, and the significance of the contribution to the field.

Beyond academia, it is likely you will more frequently apply the lessons of research methods as a critical consumer of news, politics, and everyday life. Just because some expert cites a number or presents a conclusion doesn't mean it's automatically true. John Allen Paulos, in his book  A Mathematician reads the newspaper , suggests some basic questions we can ask. "If statistics were presented, how were they obtained? How confident can we be of them? Were they derived from a random sample or from a collection of anecdotes? Does the correlation suggest a causal relationship, or is it merely a coincidence?" (1997, p. 201).

Through the study of research methods, we have begun to build a critical vocabulary and understanding to ask good questions when others present "knowledge." For example, if Candidate X won a straw poll in Iowa, does that mean she'll get her party's nomination? If Candidate Y wins an open primary in New Hampshire, does that mean he'll be the next president? If Candidate Z sheds a tear, does it matter what the context is, or whether that candidate is a man or a woman? What we learn in research methods about validity, reliability, sampling, variables, research participants, epistemology, grounded theory, and rhetoric, we can consider whether the "knowledge" that is presented in the news is a verifiable fact, a sound argument, or just conjecture.

American Psychological Association (2010). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

Broyles, S. (2011). "About poster sessions." AEJMC.  http://www.aejmc.org/home/2013/01/about-poster-sessions/ .

Faigley, L., George, D., Palchik, A., Selfe, C. (2004).  Picturing texts . New York: W.W. Norton & Company.

IBM (2011). Overview of Many Eyes.  http://www.research.ibm.com/social/projects_manyeyes.shtml .

McCandless, D. (2009).  The visual miscellaneum . New York: Collins Design.

Merskin, D. (2011). A boyfriend to die for: Edward Cullen as compensated psychopath in Stephanie Meyer's  Twilight. Journal of Communication Inquiry  35: 157-178. doi:10.1177/0196859911402992

Paulos, J. A. (1997).  A mathematician reads the newspaper . New York: Anchor.

Scott, J. (1996, May 18). Postmodern gravity deconstructed, slyly.  New York Times , http://www.nytimes.com/books/98/11/15/specials/sokal-text.html .

Sokal, A. (1996). Transgressing the boundaries: towards a transformative hermeneutics of quantum gravity.  Social Text  46/47, 217-252.

Tufte, E. R. (1990).  Envisioning information . Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press.

Tufte, E. R. (1983).  The visual display of quantitative information . Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press.

Turabian, Kate L. (2007).  A manual for writers of research papers, theses, and dissertations: Chicago style guide for students and researchers  (7th ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Understanding the Interpretation of Results in Research

Doing the interpretation of results in research is crucial to obtaining valuable findings. Learn how to achieve a good interpretation here!

Research is a powerful tool for gaining insights into the world around us. Whether in academia, industry, or the public sector, research studies can inform decision-making, drive innovation, and improve our understanding of complex phenomena. However, the value of research lies not only in the data collected but also in the interpretation of results. Properly interpreting research findings is critical to extracting meaningful insights, drawing accurate conclusions, and informing future research directions. 

In this Mind the Graph article, you’ll understand the basic concept of interpretation of results in research. The article will go over the right procedure for checking, cleaning, and editing your data as well as how to organize it effectively to aid interpretation.

What is the interpretation of results in research?

The process of interpreting and making meaning of data produced in a research study is known as research result interpretation. It entails studying the data’s patterns, trends, and correlations in order to develop reliable findings and make meaningful conclusions.  

Interpretation is a crucial step in the research process as it helps researchers to determine the relevance of their results, relate them to existing knowledge, and shape subsequent research goals. A thorough interpretation of results in research may assist guarantee that the findings are legitimate and trustworthy and that they contribute to the development of knowledge in an area of study. 

The interpretation of results in research requires multiple steps, including checking, cleaning, and editing data to ensure its accuracy, and properly organizing it in order to simplify interpretation. To examine data and derive reliable findings, researchers must employ suitable statistical methods. They must additionally consider the larger ramifications of their results and how they apply to everyday scenarios. 

It’s crucial to keep in mind that coming to precise conclusions while generating meaningful inferences is an iterative process that needs thorough investigation. 

The process of checking, cleaning, and editing data

The process of data checking, cleaning, and editing may be separated into three stages: screening, diagnostic, and treatment . Each step has a distinct goal and set of tasks to verify the data’s accuracy and reliability. 

Screening phase

The screening process consists of a first inspection of the data to find any errors or anomalies. Running basic descriptive statistics, reviewing data distributions, and discovering missing values may all be part of this. This phase’s goal is to discover any concerns with the data that need to be investigated further.

Diagnostic phase

The diagnostic phase entails a more extensive review of the data to identify particular concerns that must be addressed. Identifying outliers, investigating relationships between variables, and spotting abnormalities in the data are all examples of this. This phase’s goal is to identify any problems with the data and propose suitable treatment options.

Treatment phase

The treatment phase entails taking action to resolve any difficulties found during the diagnostic phase. This may involve eliminating outliers, filling in missing values, transforming data, and editing data. This phase’s goal is to guarantee that the data is reliable, precise, and in the appropriate format for analysis.

Researchers may guarantee that their data is high-quality and acceptable for analysis by using a structured approach to data checking, cleaning, and editing.

How to organize data display and description?

Organizing data display and description is another critical stage in the process of analyzing study results. The format in which data is presented has a significant influence on how quickly it may be comprehended and interpreted. The following are some best practices for data display and description organization.

Best practices for qualitative data include the following:

• Use quotes and anecdotes: Use quotes and anecdotes from participants to illustrate key themes and patterns in the data.
• Group similar responses: Similar replies should be grouped together to find major themes and patterns in the data.
• Use tables: Tables to arrange and summarize major themes, categories, or subcategories revealed by the data.
• Use figures: Figures, such as charts or graphs, may help you visualize data and spot patterns or trends.
• Provide context: Explain the research project’s topic or hypothesis being examined, as well as any important background information, before presenting the findings.
• Use simple and direct language: To describe the data being given, use clear and succinct language.

Best practices for quantitative data include the following:

• Use relevant charts and graphs: Select the right chart or graph for the data being presented. A bar chart, for example, could be ideal for categorical data, but a scatter plot might be appropriate for continuous data.
• Label the axes and include a legend: Label the axes of the chart or graph and include a legend to explain any symbols or colors used. This makes it easier for readers to comprehend the information offered.
• Provide context: Give context to the data that is being given. This may include a brief summary of the research issue or hypothesis under consideration, as well as any pertinent background information.
• Use clear and succinct language: To describe the data being given, use clear and concise language. Avoid using technical jargon or complex language that readers may find difficult to grasp.
• Highlight significant findings: Highlight noteworthy findings in the provided data. Identifying any trends, patterns, or substantial disparities across groups is one example.
• Create a summary table: Provide a summary table that explains the data being provided. Key data such as means, medians, and standard deviations may be included.

3 Tips for interpretation of results in research

Here are some key tips to keep in mind when interpreting research results:  

• Keep your research question in mind: The most important piece of advice for interpreting the results is to keep your research question in mind. Your interpretation should be centered on addressing your research question, and all of your analysis should be directed in that direction.
• Consider alternate explanations: It’s critical to think about alternative explanations for your results. Ask yourself whether any other circumstances might be impacting your findings, and carefully assess them. This can assist guarantee that your interpretation is based on the evidence and not on assumptions or biases. 
• Contextualize the results: Put the results into perspective by comparing them to past research in the topic at hand. This can assist in identifying trends, patterns, or discrepancies that you may have missed otherwise, as well as providing a foundation for subsequent research. 

By following these three tips, you may assist guarantee that your interpretation of data is correct, useful, and relevant to your research topic and the larger context of your field of research.

Professional and custom designs for your publications

Mind the Graph is a sophisticated tool that provides professional and customizable research publication designs. Enhance the visual impact of your research by using eye-catching visuals, charts, and graphs. With Mind the Graph, you can simply generate visually appealing and informative publications that captivate your audience and successfully explain the research’s findings.

Subscribe to our newsletter

Exclusive high quality content about effective visual communication in science.

About Jessica Abbadia

Jessica Abbadia is a lawyer that has been working in Digital Marketing since 2020, improving organic performance for apps and websites in various regions through ASO and SEO. Currently developing scientific and intellectual knowledge for the community's benefit. Jessica is an animal rights activist who enjoys reading and drinking strong coffee.

Content tags

AI Generator

Research is a systematic investigation to establish facts and reach new conclusions. It involves collecting and analyzing data, often using a research questionnaire , and presenting findings to expand knowledge in a specific field. Key aspects include adhering to research ethics and exploring crisis communication research topics to manage and communicate effectively during crises.

What is Research?

Research is a systematic investigation and study of materials, sources, and data to establish facts and reach new conclusions. It involves gathering information, analyzing it critically, and presenting findings in a structured manner to increase knowledge in a specific field or address a particular problem. This process is fundamental in various disciplines, including science, humanities, and social sciences, and it helps to develop theories, inform policy, and contribute to the advancement of society.

Examples of Research

• Medical Research
• Educational Research
• Environmental Research
• Psychological Research
• Market Research
• Historical Research
• Sociological Research
• Technological Research
• Crisis Communication Research
• Agricultural Research
• Economic Research
• Political Research
• Linguistic Research
• Public Health Researc h
• Cultural Research
• Genetic Research
• Behavioral Research
• Engineering Research
• Legal Research
• Anthropological Research

Examples of Research in a Sentence

• The research conducted by the university scientists led to a breakthrough in renewable energy technology.
• She spent several months doing research for her thesis on ancient Greek literature.
• Our team is currently engaged in market research to understand consumer preferences better.
• The research findings were published in a prestigious medical journal.
• He was awarded a grant to continue his research on climate change and its impact on coastal ecosystems.
• Before launching the new product, the company conducted extensive research to ensure its success.
• Her research into the effects of sleep deprivation on cognitive function provided valuable insights.
• The research project aims to develop more effective treatments for Alzheimer’s disease.
• During the conference, many scholars presented their research on the latest advancements in artificial intelligence.
• The research paper highlighted the importance of early childhood education in academic achievement.

Research Examples for Students

• Science Fair Projects: Students conduct experiments to test hypotheses, such as examining the effects of different fertilizers on plant growth.
• History Papers: Students research a historical event, like the Civil Rights Movement, analyzing primary and secondary sources to understand its impact.
• Environmental Studies: Students investigate local water sources to assess pollution levels and propose solutions for improvement.
• Literature Analysis: Students research the themes and symbols in a novel, such as analyzing the use of symbolism in “To Kill a Mockingbird” by Harper Lee.
• Social Studies Projects: Students explore different cultures by researching their customs, traditions, and societal structures.
• Health Studies: Students study the effects of nutrition on adolescent health, conducting surveys and reviewing scientific literature.
• Technology Projects: Students research the development of artificial intelligence and its potential impacts on various industries.
• Business Studies: Students analyze market trends and consumer behavior to develop a marketing plan for a hypothetical product.
• Psychology Experiments: Students conduct research on human behavior, such as studying the effects of sleep on memory retention.
• Creative Arts: Students research different art movements, like Impressionism, and create a presentation showcasing key artists and their works.

Quantitative Research Examples

• Survey on Consumer Preferences: A company surveys 1,000 customers to quantify their preferences for different product features, such as color, size, and price.
• Medical Trials: A pharmaceutical company conducts a clinical trial involving 500 participants to measure the effectiveness of a new drug.
• Educational Achievement Study: Researchers collect standardized test scores from 10,000 students across various schools to analyze the impact of different teaching methods on student performance.
• Market Analysis: An economist analyzes sales data from 50 retail stores to identify trends and predict future sales patterns.
• Census Data Analysis: Government agencies use census data to quantify population growth, demographic changes, and housing needs over a decade.
• Customer Satisfaction Survey: A restaurant chain distributes a survey to 2,000 customers to measure satisfaction levels and identify areas for improvement.
• Behavioral Economics Study: Researchers conduct an experiment with 300 participants to quantify the effects of different incentives on saving behaviors.
• Workplace Productivity Study: A company tracks the productivity levels of 1,200 employees over six months to assess the impact of flexible working hours.
• Public Health Research: Health researchers analyze data from 20,000 participants to determine the correlation between exercise frequency and incidence of chronic diseases.
• Political Polling: Pollsters survey 5,000 voters to predict election outcomes and understand voter preferences and behavior.

Qualitative Research Examples

• Interview Studies: Researchers conduct in-depth interviews with participants to explore their experiences and perspectives on a specific topic, such as the impact of remote learning on student engagement.
• Focus Groups: A group of participants discusses a particular issue, like consumer attitudes towards sustainable fashion, allowing researchers to gather diverse opinions and insights.
• Ethnography: Researchers immerse themselves in a community or organization to observe and document cultural practices, social interactions, and daily routines, such as studying the work culture in a tech startup.
• Case Studies: An in-depth analysis of an individual, group, or event, like examining the recovery process of a patient with a rare medical condition, to understand the complexities involved.
• Narrative Research: Collecting and analyzing stories from individuals to understand how they make sense of their experiences, such as exploring the life stories of immigrants adapting to a new country.
• Phenomenological Research: Investigating the lived experiences of individuals regarding a particular phenomenon, such as the experiences of first-time mothers during childbirth.
• Grounded Theory: Developing a theory based on data collected from participants, like studying the coping mechanisms of people living with chronic pain to formulate a new psychological model.
• Content Analysis: Analyzing texts, media, or documents to identify patterns and themes, such as examining newspaper articles to understand media representation of climate change.
• Action Research: Collaborating with participants to address a problem and implement solutions, such as working with teachers to develop and test new classroom management strategies.
• Discourse Analysis: Studying communication patterns, language use, and social interactions within a specific context, like analyzing political speeches to understand how leaders frame policy issues.

Types of Research with Examples

Research is a systematic investigation aimed at discovering new information, understanding existing phenomena, and solving problems. There are several types of research, each with its own methodologies and purposes. Below are the main types of research with examples.

1. Basic Research

Basic research, also known as pure or fundamental research, is conducted to increase knowledge and understanding of fundamental principles. It is not aimed at solving immediate practical problems but rather at gaining a deeper insight into the subject. Example: A study investigating the molecular structure of proteins to understand how they function in the human body.

2. Applied Research

Applied research is designed to solve practical problems and improve the human condition. It uses the knowledge gained from basic research to develop new products, processes, or techniques. Example: Developing a new medication to treat Alzheimer’s disease based on findings from basic research on brain cell functions.

3. Quantitative Research

Quantitative research involves the systematic empirical investigation of observable phenomena via statistical, mathematical, or computational techniques. It seeks to quantify data and typically uses surveys, questionnaires, or experiments. Example: Conducting a survey to measure customer satisfaction levels among users of a new smartphone.

4. Qualitative Research

Qualitative research aims to understand human behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior. It involves collecting non-numerical data, such as interviews, observations, and open-ended surveys. Example: Interviewing patients to understand their experiences and feelings about a new healthcare program.

5. Descriptive Research

Descriptive research seeks to describe characteristics of a population or phenomenon being studied. It does not answer questions about how/when/why the characteristics occurred, but rather “what” is happening. Example: A study detailing the demographics of students in a particular school district.

6. Experimental Research

Experimental research is used to establish cause-and-effect relationships among variables. It involves manipulating one variable to determine if changes in one variable cause changes in another variable. Example: Testing the effectiveness of a new drug by administering it to one group of patients and a placebo to another group.

7. Correlational Research

Correlational research investigates the relationship between two or more variables without manipulating them. It identifies patterns, trends, and associations between variables. Example: Studying the correlation between hours of study and academic performance among high school students.

8. Exploratory Research

Exploratory research is conducted to explore a problem or a new area where little information exists. It is often the initial research conducted before more conclusive research. Example: Exploring the potential uses of a newly discovered plant with medicinal properties.

9. Longitudinal Research

Longitudinal research involves repeated observations of the same variables over a period of time. It is useful for studying changes and developments over time. Example: Following a group of children from kindergarten through high school to study the impact of early education on later academic success.

10. Cross-sectional Research

Cross-sectional research analyzes data from a population, or a representative subset, at a specific point in time. It provides a snapshot of the variables of interest. Example: A survey assessing the health status of a community at a single point in time.

11. Case Study Research

Case study research involves an in-depth, detailed examination of a single subject, group, or event. It provides a comprehensive understanding of the case being studied. Example: Analyzing the business strategies of a successful startup to understand the factors contributing to its success.

12. Action Research

Action research is conducted to solve an immediate problem or improve p Example: Implementing and assessing a new teaching method in a classroom to improve student engagement and learning outcomes.

Types of Research Methods and Example

• Method: Distributing questionnaires or online surveys to collect data from a large group of people.
• Example: Conducting a national survey to assess public opinion on climate change policies.
• Method: Manipulating one or more variables to determine their effect on another variable in a controlled environment.
• Example: Testing the impact of a new educational program on student performance by comparing test scores of participants and non-participants.
• Method: Observing subjects in their natural environment without interference.
• Example: Studying children’s behavior in playgrounds to understand social interactions and play patterns.
• Method: Conducting an in-depth analysis of a single subject or a small group of subjects.
• Example: Analyzing the business strategies of a successful startup to identify key factors contributing to its growth.
• Method: Systematically examining texts, media, and documents to identify patterns and themes.
• Example: Analyzing social media posts to understand public sentiment during a major political event.

What are the Characteristics of Research?

• Research follows a structured and organized approach, involving specific steps and methodologies to ensure consistency and reliability.
• Research includes control mechanisms to minimize bias and external variables that may influence the results, especially in experimental studies.
• Research relies on observable and measurable evidence. Data is collected through direct or indirect observation and experimentation.
• Research is based on logical reasoning and sound theoretical frameworks. Conclusions are drawn from data analysis and established principles.
• Research can be repeated by other researchers to verify results. Replication helps to confirm the validity and reliability of findings.
• Research aims to be unbiased and impartial. The researcher’s personal beliefs and opinions should not influence the study’s outcomes.
• Research involves critical analysis and interpretation of data. Researchers seek to understand patterns, relationships, and causality within the data.
• Research can involve numerical data (quantitative) or non-numerical data (qualitative), depending on the nature of the study and the research questions.
• Research adheres to ethical standards, ensuring the rights and well-being of participants are protected. Informed consent, confidentiality, and integrity are essential.
• Research seeks to explore new ideas, develop new theories, and discover new knowledge. It often addresses gaps in existing literature.

Importance of Research

Research is crucial in various fields, offering numerous benefits and advancing knowledge in significant ways. Here are some key reasons why research is important:

1. Advancement of Knowledge

Research pushes the boundaries of what is known and explores new areas of inquiry. It helps to uncover new facts, theories, and insights that contribute to the collective understanding of a subject.

2. Informed Decision-Making

Research provides reliable data and evidence that guide decisions in fields such as healthcare, business, education, and public policy. For example, medical research can lead to the development of new treatments and drugs.

3. Problem-Solving

Research identifies and analyzes problems, proposing effective solutions. For instance, environmental research can help address climate change by finding sustainable practices and technologies.

4. Innovation and Development

Research fosters innovation by developing new products, technologies, and processes. Technological advancements, such as smartphones and renewable energy sources, are direct results of extensive research.

5. Economic Growth

Research drives economic development by creating new industries and improving existing ones. It leads to job creation, enhances productivity, and contributes to a nation’s economic stability.

6. Educational Enrichment

Research enhances educational content and teaching methods. It provides a deeper understanding of subjects, helping educators develop better curricula and instructional strategies.

FAQ’s

What is a hypothesis in research.

A hypothesis is a testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables. It guides the research process.

How do you choose a research topic?

Select a topic that interests you, fills a gap in existing literature, and is feasible in terms of resources and time.

What is a literature review?

A literature review is a comprehensive summary of previous research on a topic. It identifies trends, gaps, and key findings.

What is the difference between primary and secondary data?

Primary data is collected firsthand by the researcher. Secondary data is gathered from existing sources like books, articles, and reports.

What are research ethics?

Research ethics involve principles like honesty, integrity, and respect for participants. Ethical guidelines ensure research is conducted responsibly.

What is a research design?

A research design is a plan that outlines how to collect and analyze data. It includes methods, sampling, and procedures.

What is sampling in research?

Sampling is selecting a subset of individuals from a population to represent the entire group. It can be random or non-random.

What is data analysis?

Data analysis involves processing and interpreting data to draw meaningful conclusions. Techniques vary based on the research type.

How do you write a research paper?

A research paper includes an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion. Follow a clear and logical structure.

What is peer review?

Peer review is a process where experts evaluate a researcher’s work for quality, accuracy, and validity before publication.

Text prompt

• Instructive
• Professional

10 Examples of Public speaking

20 Examples of Gas lighting

Information

• Author Services

Initiatives

You are accessing a machine-readable page. In order to be human-readable, please install an RSS reader.

All articles published by MDPI are made immediately available worldwide under an open access license. No special permission is required to reuse all or part of the article published by MDPI, including figures and tables. For articles published under an open access Creative Common CC BY license, any part of the article may be reused without permission provided that the original article is clearly cited. For more information, please refer to https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess .

Feature papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. A Feature Paper should be a substantial original Article that involves several techniques or approaches, provides an outlook for future research directions and describes possible research applications.

Feature papers are submitted upon individual invitation or recommendation by the scientific editors and must receive positive feedback from the reviewers.

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

Original Submission Date Received: .

• Active Journals
• Find a Journal
• Proceedings Series
• For Authors
• For Reviewers
• For Editors
• For Librarians
• For Publishers
• For Societies
• For Conference Organizers
• Open Access Policy
• Institutional Open Access Program
• Special Issues Guidelines
• Editorial Process
• Research and Publication Ethics
• Article Processing Charges
• Testimonials
• Preprints.org
• SciProfiles
• Encyclopedia

Article Menu

• Subscribe SciFeed
• Recommended Articles
• Author Biographies
• Google Scholar
• on Google Scholar
• Table of Contents

Find support for a specific problem in the support section of our website.

Please let us know what you think of our products and services.

Visit our dedicated information section to learn more about MDPI.

JSmol Viewer

Food insecurity and sleep-related problems in adolescents: findings from the ehdla study.

1. Introduction

2. materials and methods, 2.1. study design and population, 2.2. procedures, 2.2.1. food insecurity, 2.2.2. sleep-related problems, 2.2.3. covariates, 2.3. statistical analysis, 4. discussion, 5. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

• Thomas, M.M.C.; Miller, D.P.; Morrissey, T.W. Food Insecurity and Child Health. Pediatrics 2019 , 144 , e20190397. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Sheikh, S.; Barolia, R.; Habib, A.; Azam, I.; Qureshi, R.; Iqbal, R. “If the Food Is Finished after My Brother Eats Then We (Girls) Sleep Hungry.” Food Insecurity and Dietary Diversity among Slum-Dwelling Adolescent Girls and Boys in Pakistan: A Mixed Methods Study. Appetite 2024 , 195 , 107212. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• He, J.; Xiao, Y.; Zhang, Y.; Wang, H.; Ganson, K.T.; Nagata, J.M.; Chen, C. Food Insecurity Is Related to Eating Disorder Psychopathology beyond Psychological Distress in Rural Chinese Adolescents. Int. J. Eat. Disord. 2024 , eat.24227. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Moradi, S.; Mirzababaei, A.; Mohammadi, H.; Moosavian, S.P.; Arab, A.; Jannat, B.; Mirzaei, K. Food Insecurity and the Risk of Undernutrition Complications among Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Nutrition 2019 , 62 , 52–60. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Calcaterra, V.; Rossi, V.; Tagi, V.M.; Baldassarre, P.; Grazi, R.; Taranto, S.; Zuccotti, G. Food Intake and Sleep Disorders in Children and Adolescents with Obesity. Nutrients 2023 , 15 , 4736. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Rytter, M.J.H.; Kolte, L.; Briend, A.; Friis, H.; Christensen, V.B. The Immune System in Children with Malnutrition—A Systematic Review. PLoS ONE 2014 , 9 , e105017. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Smith, M.D.; Rabbitt, M.P.; Coleman-Jensen, A. Who Are the World’s Food Insecure? New Evidence from the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Food Insecurity Experience Scale. World Dev. 2017 , 93 , 402–412. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Smith, L.; Ward, P.B.; Vancampfort, D.; López-Sánchez, G.F.; Yang, L.; Grabovac, I.; Jacob, L.; Pizzol, D.; Veronese, N.; Shin, J.I.; et al. Food Insecurity with Hunger and Sexual Behavior among Adolescents from 53 Countries. Int. J. Sex. Health 2021 , 33 , 88–98. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Sluggett, L.; Wagner, S.L.; Harris, R.L. Sleep Duration and Obesity in Children and Adolescents. Can. J. Diabetes 2019 , 43 , 146–152. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Abraham, S.; Breeze, P.; Sutton, A.; Lambie-Mumford, H. Household Food Insecurity and Child Health Outcomes: A Rapid Review of Mechanisms and Associations. Lancet 2023 , 402 , S16. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zarpellon, R.S.; Vilela, R.M.; Louzada, F.M.; Radominski, R.B.; de Souza Crippa, A.C. Association of Food Intake with Sleep Disorders in Children and Adolescents with Obesity. Sleep Med. X 2022 , 4 , 100053. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Wang, Q. Food Insecurity and Sleep Disturbance among 223,561 Adolescents: A Multi-Country Analysis of Cross-Sectional Surveys. Front. Public Health 2021 , 9 , 693544. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Gracia-Arnaiz, M. The Precarisation of Daily Life in Spain: Austerity, Social Policy and Food Insecurity. Appetite 2022 , 171 , 105906. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Shankar-Krishnan, N.; Fornieles Deu, A.; Sánchez-Carracedo, D. Associations between Food Insecurity and Psychological Wellbeing, Body Image, Disordered Eating and Dietary Habits: Evidence from Spanish Adolescents. Child Indic. Res. 2021 , 14 , 163–183. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Barreiro-Álvarez, M.F.; Latorre-Millán, M.; Bach-Faig, A.; Fornieles-Deu, A.; Sánchez-Carracedo, D. Family Meals and Food Insecurity in Spanish Adolescents. Appetite 2024 , 195 , 107214. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Zamora-Sarabia, A.L.; Guterman, R.H.; Sanz-Barbero, B.; Rico Gómez, A.; Otero García, L. Child Health and the Possibilities for Childcare in a Context of Poverty and Food Insecurity: The Narratives of Parents Attending a Self-managed Foodbank in Spain. Health Soc. Care Community 2019 , 27 , 953–964. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• López-Gil, J.F. The Eating Healthy and Daily Life Activities (EHDLA) Study. Children 2022 , 9 , 370. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Shankar-Krishnan, N.; Penelo, E.; Fornieles Deu, A.; Sánchez-Carracedo, D. Spanish Adaptation and Validation of the Child Food Security Survey Module (CFSSM-S). Public Health Nutr. 2018 , 21 , 2753–2761. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Connell, C.L.; Nord, M.; Lofton, K.L.; Yadrick, K. Food Security of Older Children Can Be Assessed Using a Standardized Survey Instrument. J. Nutr. 2004 , 134 , 2566–2572. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Coleman-Jensen, A.; Rabbit, M.P.; Gregory, C.A.; Singh, A. Household Food Security in the United States in 2020 ; USDA: Washington, DC, USA, 2020. [ Google Scholar ]
• Owens, J.A.; Dalzell, V. Use of the ‘BEARS’ Sleep Screening Tool in a Pediatric Residents’ Continuity Clinic: A Pilot Study. Sleep Med. 2005 , 6 , 63–69. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Bastida-Pozuelo, M.F.; Sánchez-Ortuño, M.M. Preliminary Analysis of the Concurrent Validity of the Spanish Translation of the BEARS Sleep Screening Tool for Children. J. Psychiatr. Ment. Health Nurs. 2016 , 23 , 513–520. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Currie, C.; Molcho, M.; Boyce, W.; Holstein, B.; Torsheim, T.; Richter, M. Researching Health Inequalities in Adolescents: The Development of the Health Behaviour in School-Aged Children (HBSC) Family Affluence Scale. Soc. Sci. Med. 2008 , 66 , 1429–1436. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Segura-Díaz, J.M.; Barranco-Ruiz, Y.; Saucedo-Araujo, R.G.; Aranda-Balboa, M.J.; Cadenas-Sanchez, C.; Migueles, J.H.; Saint-Maurice, P.F.; Ortega, F.B.; Welk, G.J.; Herrador-Colmenero, M.; et al. Feasibility and Reliability of the Spanish Version of the Youth Activity Profile Questionnaire (YAP-Spain) in Children and Adolescents. J. Sports Sci. 2021 , 39 , 801–807. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Rodríguez, I.T.; Ballart, J.F.; Pastor, G.C.; Jordà, E.B.; Val, V.A. Validation of a short questionnaire on frequency of dietary intake: Reproducibility and validity. Nutr. Hosp. 2008 , 23 , 242–252. [ Google Scholar ] [ PubMed ]
• Lee, T.-H.; Kuo, J.-H.; Liu, C.-Y.; Yu, Y.-F.; Strong, C.; Lin, C.-Y.; Lee, C.-T.; Tsai, M.-C. Trajectory of Food Insecurity and Its Association with Longitudinal Mental Health and Sleep Outcomes in Adolescents from Economically Disadvantaged Families. Nutrients 2021 , 13 , 1696. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• King, C. Soft Drinks Consumption and Child Behaviour Problems: The Role of Food Insecurity and Sleep Patterns. Public Health Nutr. 2017 , 20 , 266–273. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Na, M.; Eagleton, S.G.; Jomaa, L.; Lawton, K.; Savage, J.S. Food Insecurity Is Associated with Suboptimal Sleep Quality, but Not Sleep Duration, among Low-Income Head Start Children of Pre-School Age. Public Health Nutr. 2020 , 23 , 701–710. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• De Jong, E.; Stocks, T.; Visscher, T.L.S.; HiraSing, R.A.; Seidell, J.C.; Renders, C.M. Association between Sleep Duration and Overweight: The Importance of Parenting. Int. J. Obes. 2012 , 36 , 1278–1284. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Osei Bonsu, E.; Afetor, M.; Munkaila, L.; Okwei, R.; Nachibi, S.U.; Adjei, B.N.; Frimpong, E.; Arimiyaw, A.W.; Adu, C.; Peprah, P. Association of Food Insecurity and Sleep Difficulty among 189,619 School-Going Adolescents: A Study from the Global in-School Students Survey. Front. Public Health 2023 , 11 , 1212254. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Paruthi, S.; Brooks, L.J.; D’Ambrosio, C.; Hall, W.A.; Kotagal, S.; Lloyd, R.M.; Malow, B.A.; Maski, K.; Nichols, C.; Quan, S.F.; et al. Recommended Amount of Sleep for Pediatric Populations: A Consensus Statement of the American Academy of Sleep Medicine. J. Clin. Sleep Med. 2016 , 12 , 785–786. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Dashti, H.S.; Follis, J.L.; Smith, C.E.; Tanaka, T.; Cade, B.E.; Gottlieb, D.J.; Hruby, A.; Jacques, P.F.; Lamon-Fava, S.; Richardson, K.; et al. Habitual Sleep Duration Is Associated with BMI and Macronutrient Intake and May Be Modified by CLOCK Genetic Variants. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2015 , 101 , 135–143. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Scheer, F.A.J.L.; Hilton, M.F.; Mantzoros, C.S.; Shea, S.A. Adverse Metabolic and Cardiovascular Consequences of Circadian Misalignment. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2009 , 106 , 4453–4458. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Morin, V.; Hozer, F.; Costemale-Lacoste, J.-F. The Effects of Ghrelin on Sleep, Appetite, and Memory, and Its Possible Role in Depression: A Review of the Literature. L’Encéphale 2018 , 44 , 256–263. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Peuhkuri, K.; Sihvola, N.; Korpela, R. Diet Promotes Sleep Duration and Quality. Nutr. Res. 2012 , 32 , 309–319. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Hermes, F.N.; Nunes, E.E.M.; Melo, C.M.D. Sono, Estado Nutricional e Hábitos Alimentares Em Crianças: Um Estudo de Revisão. Rev. Paul. Pediatr. 2022 , 40 , e2020479. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Loopstra, R.; Tarasuk, V. Severity of Household Food Insecurity Is Sensitive to Change in Household Income and Employment Status among Low-Income Families1–3. J. Nutr. 2013 , 143 , 1316–1323. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Drewnowski, A. Food Insecurity Has Economic Root Causes. Nat. Food 2022 , 3 , 555–556. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Dush, J.L. Adolescent Food Insecurity: A Review of Contextual and Behavioral Factors. Public Health Nurs. 2020 , 37 , 327–338. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Berge, J.M.; Fertig, A.R.; Trofholz, A.; Neumark-Sztainer, D.; Rogers, E.; Loth, K. Associations between Parental Stress, Parent Feeding Practices, and Child Eating Behaviors within the Context of Food Insecurity. Prev. Med. Rep. 2020 , 19 , 101146. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Shtasel-Gottlieb, Z.; Palakshappa, D.; Yang, F.; Goodman, E. The Relationship Between Developmental Assets and Food Security in Adolescents From a Low-Income Community. J. Adolesc. Health 2015 , 56 , 215–222. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ravikumar, D.; Spyreli, E.; Woodside, J.; McKinley, M.; Kelly, C. Parental Perceptions of the Food Environment and Their Influence on Food Decisions among Low-Income Families: A Rapid Review of Qualitative Evidence. BMC Public Health 2022 , 22 , 9. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Godos, J.; Grosso, G.; Castellano, S.; Galvano, F.; Caraci, F.; Ferri, R. Association between Diet and Sleep Quality: A Systematic Review. Sleep Med. Rev. 2021 , 57 , 101430. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• López-Gil, J.F.; Smith, L.; Victoria-Montesinos, D.; Gutiérrez-Espinoza, H.; Tárraga-López, P.J.; Mesas, A.E. Mediterranean Dietary Patterns Related to Sleep Duration and Sleep-Related Problems among Adolescents: The EHDLA Study. Nutrients 2023 , 15 , 665. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• López-Gil, J.F.; Reis Gaya, A.; Reuter, C.P.; Caetano, C.I.; Gomes Sentone, R.; Silva Caetano, H.B.; Brazo-Sayavera, J. Sleep-Related Problems and Eating Habits during COVID-19 Lockdown in a Southern Brazilian Youth Sample. Sleep Med. 2021 , 85 , 150–156. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Fram, M.S.; Nguyen, H.T.; Frongillo, E.A. Food Insecurity among Adolescent Students from 95 Countries Is Associated with Diet, Behavior, and Health, and Associations Differ by Student Age and Sex. Curr. Dev. Nutr. 2022 , 6 , nzac024. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Paquin, V.; Muckle, G.; Bolanis, D.; Courtemanche, Y.; Castellanos-Ryan, N.; Boivin, M.; Tremblay, R.; Côté, S.; Geoffroy, M.-C. Longitudinal Trajectories of Food Insecurity in Childhood and Their Associations with Mental Health and Functioning in Adolescence. JAMA Netw. Open 2021 , 4 , e2140085. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Burke, M.P.; Martini, L.H.; Çayır, E.; Hartline-Grafton, H.L.; Meade, R.L. Severity of Household Food Insecurity Is Positively Associated with Mental Disorders among Children and Adolescents in the United States. J. Nutr. 2016 , 146 , 2019–2026. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Hall, M.; Buysse, D.J.; Nofzinger, E.A.; Reynolds, C.F.; Thompson, W.; Mazumdar, S.; Monk, T.H. Financial Strain Is a Significant Correlate of Sleep Continuity Disturbances in Late-Life. Biol. Psychol. 2008 , 77 , 217–222. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Moeis, R.M.; Kuswiyanto, R.B.; Tarigan, R.; Pandia, V.; Dhamayanti, M. Correlation Between Adolescent Mental Health and Sleep Quality: A Study in Indonesian Rural Areas During the COVID-19 Pandemic. Int. J. Gen. Med. 2023 , 16 , 3203–3210. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Shankar, P.; Chung, R.; Frank, D.A. Association of Food Insecurity with Children’s Behavioral, Emotional, and Academic Outcomes: A Systematic Review. J. Dev. Behav. Pediatr. 2017 , 38 , 135–150. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Gallegos, D.; Eivers, A.; Sondergeld, P.; Pattinson, C. Food Insecurity and Child Development: A State-of-the-Art Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021 , 18 , 8990. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• De Camargo, E.M.; Chen, S.; Jiménez-López, E.; Victoria-Montesinos, D.; Smith, L.; López-Gil, J.F. Food Insecurity and Academic Performance in Spanish Adolescents: Results from the EHDLA Study. Heliyon 2024 , 10 , e29489. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Royer, M.F.; Guerithault, N.; Braden, B.B.; Laska, M.N.; Bruening, M. Food Insecurity Is Associated with Cognitive Function: A Systematic Review of Findings across the Life Course. Int. J. Transl. Med. 2021 , 1 , 205–222. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kotchick, B.A.; Whitsett, D.; Sherman, M.F. Food Insecurity and Adolescent Psychosocial Adjustment: Indirect Pathways through Caregiver Adjustment and Caregiver–Adolescent Relationship Quality. J. Youth Adolesc. 2021 , 50 , 89–102. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]

Click here to enlarge figure

Share and Cite

de Camargo, E.M.; Gutiérrez-Espinoza, H.; López-Gil, J.F. Food Insecurity and Sleep-Related Problems in Adolescents: Findings from the EHDLA Study. Nutrients 2024 , 16 , 1960. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16121960

de Camargo EM, Gutiérrez-Espinoza H, López-Gil JF. Food Insecurity and Sleep-Related Problems in Adolescents: Findings from the EHDLA Study. Nutrients . 2024; 16(12):1960. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16121960

de Camargo, Edina Maria, Héctor Gutiérrez-Espinoza, and José Francisco López-Gil. 2024. "Food Insecurity and Sleep-Related Problems in Adolescents: Findings from the EHDLA Study" Nutrients 16, no. 12: 1960. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16121960

Article Metrics

Article access statistics, further information, mdpi initiatives, follow mdpi.

Subscribe to receive issue release notifications and newsletters from MDPI journals

• Search News and Events
• News overview
• Media relations

‘Even negative research findings deserve to be published - others can learn from them’

Postdoctoral researcher Florencia Abinzano was nominated for the Trial and Error award, established to create more awareness for open science: the open sharing of all research results, positive and negative, in science.

Scientific research does not always go as it was conceived or hoped for. Sometimes, your hypothesis doesn’t work out, mistakes may be made. Experiments can yield negative or unusable results, which then end up in the trash can. Postdoctoral researcher Florencia Abinzano and her team, however, insisted on publishing the negative results of an animal study from her PhD research so that others could learn from them. This brought her a nomination for the Trial and Error award.

It may seem like a dubious honor to be in the running for a Trial and Error award, but Abinzano is proud of it. She was nominated for part of her doctoral research at Utrecht University. Since 2022, she has worked as a senior cartilage repair researcher at the TU/e Department of Biomedical Engineering in the Orthopaedic Biomechanics group.

Florencia Abinzano completed her doctorate in March 2024, richer by two children, a coronavirus pandemic, and a job at TU/e. In the closing words of her dissertation, she thanks the eight ponies that sacrificed their lives for cartilage repair research.

Negative results

Abinzano outlines the situation. “I was working on a sub-study on a huge project. I focused on cartilage repair; others were working on a bone implant. Everything seemed fine, but it’s sometimes not enough to work with these different, limited models that are unable to truly recreate the complex situation inside the knee. Sadly, we learned this the hard way. That’s why now we’re working to develop more realistic models using bioreactors.”

“We spent six months doing in vivo research. There was so much work from so many people, and being left empty-handed was hugely disappointing. Due to the problems with the bone component, we couldn’t come to any conclusions about the cartilage repair. We had an incredible amount of data and eight dead ponies. We were scared that the data would end up in some drawer just because the results were negative.”

Abinzano doesn’t want her experience to have been for nothing. “I learned valuable lessons about how we could have done things differently. I wanted others to be able to learn from my mistakes.”

Journal of Trial and Error

Abinzano and other members of her Utrecht-based research team decided to write an article on the lessons learned and submit it for publication in the scientific journal ‘Journal of Trial and Error.’

“That was a longer process than I had hoped, but now all that research wasn’t in vain. Other researchers can read the paper, learn from what went wrong in our project and do things better.”

Close the gap

The open-access journal Trial and Error is an initiative of Utrecht University that ‘aims to close the gap between what is researched and what is published,’ as they state on their website. “It’s a small journal, but the people who make it take open science extremely seriously,” Abinzano says.

They publish not only failed experiments but also rejected research proposals. And articles reflecting on meta-science: scientific studies of science and its challenges.

To further their commitment to open science, they publish and release all articles for free thanks to financial support from the Descartes Centre for the History and Philosophy of the Sciences and the Humanities at Utrecht University.

The Journal of Trial and Error is a fantastic platform to publish negative results; I’m glad we found it. Postdoctoral researcher Florencia Abinzano

Interest from the scientific community

Abinzano also wrote an abstract of her publication for several international conferences, expecting it to become a poster that was hung in a corner somewhere. “However, they asked us to prepare oral presentations that attracted a big response, with well-attended sessions on how important it is to talk about negative results and not shelve them. We need to learn from them so that others don’t make the same mistakes by sharing and talking about them. Other researchers wanted to know how I had managed to publish about this and why we don’t do that more.”

The Trial and Error award presented in March was established by the editors of the journal of the same name. To create awareness around failure in science and praise it. Abinzano didn’t win, but still got a lot of satisfaction and lessons from it.

Publish all your results, including those that don’t seem to matter. Then others won’t have to research this again. Postdoctoral researcher Florencia Abinzano

The cartilage conundrum

Cartilage tissue, found at the ends of long bones, forms a thin cushion between moving joints. This allows bones to slide over each other easily and painlessly. Make no mistake about cartilage, warns Abinzano about her favorite research topic.

“Cartilage seems relatively simple because it has no nerves or blood vessels. In the early days of tissue engineering, people thought they would quickly find a solution to tissue engineer cartilage. But 20 years later, we still haven’t developed durable cartilage repair.”

Abinzano focuses on cartilage repair, specifically in the knee joint. When cartilage in the knee becomes damaged, it causes patients a great deal of pain and discomfort, and if left untreated, it can lead to early osteoarthritis.

In the Netherlands, one and a half million people suffer from osteoarthritis due to wear and tear of the cartilage. “Cartilage cannot repair itself, but with outside help, it may succeed,” says the researcher of Argentine origin.

Deceptively simple

“But cartilage is deceptively simple because its mechanical properties come from a complex microscopic organization and have been shown to be difficult to reproduce in the lab or patients. The cartilage we can now fabricate in the lab is not durable. When implanted, the material breaks down too quickly, and it’s never as good as the body’s cartilage in your knee.”

Here at TU/e, Abinzano uses an advanced cartilage model to test possible treatments for cartilage repair using a bioreactor that can imitate the forces in the knee joint. Only after these are thoroughly validated in the lab will animal tests follow. 

“I learned that you shouldn’t test too quickly in vivo (laboratory animals, ed.). We now receive leftover knee material from the Máxima Medical Center from patients who have received prosthetic knees. We test our theory on those first in the laboratory, helping to reduce and maybe even replace animal testing.”

Hopeful knee patients

Ever since her master’s degree, Abinzano has been focusing on growing cartilage. “My ultimate goal is to create a biological implant to replace damaged cartilage. One that can accompany the patient during their entire life. That’s what many knee patients are hopefully waiting for.”

She is realistic enough to realize that finding the holy grail will take some time. “Should I not succeed, I hope that the students we train here will succeed in the future. I’m putting my efforts into that because, with this, we could ultimately help many people.”

From our strategy: on open science

As a social organization, TU/e focuses on generating and disseminating knowledge. Research paid for from public funds must be freely accessible worldwide. This applies to scientific publications and other forms of scientific output. By sharing our research results and methods with anyone who wants to read them - open science - we share our knowledge with society, industry, and scientific colleagues.

We seek greater collaboration and transparency in all phases of research so that others can learn from it. And we can work together to find solutions to future challenges.

• Open science @ TU/e

More on our strategy

• Overview stories about our strategy

Keep following us

Be the first to know the latest TU/e news via our X channel.

Be part of our community and stay up to date on everything that happens at TU/e by following us on LinkedIn.

Instagram - Campus Life

Follow everything that happens on and around our campus on Instagram.

On our YouTube channel you find the latest videos and animations about research, education and working at TU/e.

Follow the TU/e updates on our Facebook page.

• Share full article

Advertisement

Supported by

Is Fish Oil Helpful or Harmful for the Heart?

Despite decades of research, the evidence for omega-3 supplements is murky.

By Alice Callahan

In 1970, two Danish researchers traveled to Greenland to investigate a nutritional paradox: The Inuit people living in the region consumed foods very high in fat, yet reportedly had very low rates of heart attacks.

That observation flew in the face of nutrition dogma at the time, which held that eating fatty foods — like whale and seal meat and oily fish — would clog your arteries and cause heart disease.

The Inuit on Greenland, a Danish territory, had lower levels of blood cholesterol and triglycerides than people back in Denmark, the researchers reported . The reason, they hypothesized, was that the Inuit diet was rich in omega-3 fatty acids — particularly EPA and DHA, which are concentrated in fish and the animals that eat them.

These findings sparked decades of scientific and commercial interest in the role omega-3 fatty acids play in heart health, even after later studies suggested that, in fact, the Inuit had rates of heart disease similar to those found in Europe, the United States and Canada. Today, omega-3 supplements are among the most popular in the United States, surpassed only by multivitamins and vitamin D. Among U.S. adults 60 and older, about 22 percent reported taking omega-3s in a 2017-2018 survey.

Unlike most other supplements , fish oil has been rigorously studied, said Dr. JoAnn Manson, a professor of medicine at Harvard Medical School. But the results of those studies have been mixed, leaving researchers and doctors still debating whether fish oil is beneficial for heart health. They have also revealed that taking fish oil is linked to a slightly greater risk of developing atrial fibrillation , a type of irregular heartbeat.

Here’s where the evidence for both the benefits and risks of fish oil stands today.

A boatload of studies, but unclear benefits

After reading the dispatches from Greenland, researchers began looking at people elsewhere in the world and finding, in study after study , that those who consumed fish at least once per week were less likely to die from coronary heart disease than those who rarely ate fish. In animal experiments , they found that fish oil helped keep electrical signaling in heart cells functioning properly, said Dr. Dariush Mozaffarian, a cardiologist and director of the Food is Medicine Institute at Tufts University.

We are having trouble retrieving the article content.

Please enable JavaScript in your browser settings.

Thank you for your patience while we verify access. If you are in Reader mode please exit and  log into  your Times account, or  subscribe  for all of The Times.

Thank you for your patience while we verify access.

Already a subscriber?  Log in .

Want all of The Times?  Subscribe .

• Open access
• Published: 20 June 2024

Comparative transcriptome analysis reveals transcriptional regulation of anthocyanin biosynthesis in purple radish ( Raphanus sativus L.)

• Chenchen Wang 1 ,
• Haidong Chen 1 ,
• Guoqiang Dai 1 ,
• Qiushi Cuimu 1 ,
• Wenjie Shen 1 ,
• Liwei Gao 1 ,
• Changbin Gao 2 ,
• Lunlin Chen 3 ,
• Daozong Chen 1 ,
• Xueli Zhang 2 &
• Chen Tan 1  

BMC Genomics volume  25 , Article number:  624 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

138 Accesses

Metrics details

Radish exhibits significant variation in color, particularly in sprouts, leaves, petals, fleshy roots, and other tissues, displaying a range of hues such as green, white, red, purple, and black. Although extensive research has been conducted on the color variation of radish, the underlying mechanism behind the variation in radish flower color remains unclear. To date, there is a lack of comprehensive research investigating the variation mechanism of radish sprouts, leaves, fleshy roots, and flower organs. This study aims to address this gap by utilizing transcriptome sequencing to acquire transcriptome data for white and purple radish flowers. Additionally, the published transcriptome data of sprouts, leaves, and fleshy roots were incorporated to conduct a systematic analysis of the regulatory mechanisms underlying anthocyanin biosynthesis in these four radish tissues. The comparative transcriptome analysis revealed differential expression of the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway genes DFR , UGT78D2 , TT12 and CPC in the four radish tissues. Additionally, the WGCNA results identified RsDFR.9c and RsUGT78D2.2c as hub genes responsible for regulating anthocyanin biosynthesis. By integrating the findings from the comparative transcriptome analysis, WGCNA, and anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway-related gene expression patterns, it is hypothesized that genes RsDFR.9c and RsUGT78D2.2c may serve as pivotal regulators of anthocyanins in the four radish tissues. Furthermore, the tissue-specific expression of the four copies of RsPAP1 is deemed crucial in governing anthocyanin synthesis and accumulation. Our results provide new insights into the molecular mechanism of anthocyanin biosynthesis and accumulation in different tissues of radish.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

Anthocyanins, which are flavonoid secondary metabolites, play a pivotal role as natural pigments in plants. They impart red, purple, or blue colors to different plant tissues, including leaves, stems, roots, flowers, and fruits, thereby contributing to plant growth and development [ 19 , 29 ]. Moreover, these compounds serve as attractants for pollinators and aid in seed dispersal [ 10 ]. Furthermore, anthocyanins have been extensively studied for their involvement in plant responses to both biotic and abiotic stresses, encompassing UV protection, pigmentation, and defense mechanisms [ 30 , 38 ]. The antioxidant properties and associated health benefits of anthocyanins have attracted considerable attention. These compounds, when included in the diet, not only act as safe and non-toxic natural food colorants but also exhibit potent free radical scavenging activity [ 1 , 27 ]. This activity has the potential to reduce the risk of certain cancers, cardiovascular diseases, and other chronic ailments [ 16 , 38 ]. Consequently, the cultivation of vibrantly colored vegetable varieties enriched with anthocyanins holds substantial commercial value. This endeavor aligns closely with the goals of breeders, as it addresses both consumer preferences and the pursuit of healthier dietary choices.

Since its discovery in 1986, the C1 gene has been identified as a key regulator in the biosynthesis of anthocyanin pigments in the aleurone layer of maize endosperm [ 6 ]. Subsequently, numerous studies have elucidated the biosynthetic and transcriptional regulation mechanisms of anthocyanins in various plant species [ 13 , 15 , 21 , 26 , 29 , 41 , 42 ]. Genes related to the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway mainly include early biosynthetic genes (EBGs) phenylalanine ammonia-lyase ( PAL ), cinnamate-4-hydroxylase ( C4H ), 4-coumarate CoA ligase 4 ( 4CL ), chalcone synthase ( CHS ), chalcone isomerase ( CHI ), flavanone 3’-hydroxylase ( F3’H ), and late biosynthetic genes (LBGs) dihydroflavonol reductase ( DFR ), anthocyanin synthetase / leucoanthocyanin dioxygenase ( ANS / LDOX ), and UDP-flavonoid glucosyltransferase ( UFGT ). Concurrently, extensive research has demonstrated that the expression of anthocyanin biosynthetic genes is controlled at the transcriptional level, involving transcription factors from the MYB, bHLH, and WD40 protein families [ 9 , 29 , 32 ]. In the phenylpropanoid biosynthetic pathway, the regulation of PAL , C4H , and 4CL expression is mediated by MYB transcription factors MYB3 , MYB4 , MYB7 , and MYB32 [ 7 , 12 , 22 ]. Similarly, in the flavonoid biosynthetic pathway, the expression of CHS , CHI , and F3'H is controlled by MYB transcription factors MYB11 , MYB12 , and MYB111 [ 24 , 28 , 31 ]. Lastly, in the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway, the regulation of DFR , ANS ( LDOX ), and UFGT expression is orchestrated by the MBW transcriptional regulatory complex, which is composed of MYB transcription factors MYB75 , MYB90 , MYB113 , MYB114 , and bHLH transcription factors TT8 , GL3 , EGL3 , and WAD40 proteins [ 9 , 14 , 32 , 36 ].

Radish ( Raphanus sativus L., RR, 2n = 18) is a highly nutritious vegetable, abundant in phenols, vitamin C, chlorophyll, carotenoids, and glucosinolates, which confer potential health benefits to individuals. Consequently, it is extensively cultivated and consumed globally [ 43 ]. The roots, leaves, and flowers of radish exhibit considerable diversity in terms of color, shape, and size. Notably, the wide range of color variations has emerged as a prominent characteristic that appeals to consumers. Previous studies have investigated the color variation in various tissues of radish, including sprouts, leaves, and roots. Muleke et al. [ 17 ] utilized four inbred lines of radish to conduct a comparative transcriptome analysis at three different developmental stages (10DAS, 30DAS, 50DAS), there findings indicate that the primary regulatory factor in radish anthocyanin biosynthesis is RsUFGT . Furthermore, they observed a close association between the transcript levels of RsUFGT , RsF3H , RsANS , RsCHS3 , and RsF3'H1 and the overall concentration of anthocyanins [ 17 ]. Upon subjecting radish sprouts to UV-A treatment, there was a significant increase in anthocyanin content, through comparative transcriptome sequencing analysis, the transcript levels of transcriptional regulators related to the MYB-bHLH-WD40 complex were consistent with the observed concentration of anthocyanins [ 40 ]. In the study conducted by Pu et al. [ 23 ], it was observed that the expression levels of the structural genes PAL4 , 4CL4 , CHS , F3H , DFR , ANS , OMT1 , as well as the transcription factors TT8 , CPC , and MYB114 , were significantly elevated in purple leaves. Similarly, Gao et al. [ 8 ] found that in radish fleshy roots, the transcription factors RsMYB_9 , RsERF070 , and the anthocyanin synthesis-related genes RsCHS , RsCHI , RsANS , RsMT2-4 , RsUF3GT , RsUFGT78D2-like , and RsUDGT-75C1-like play crucial roles in anthocyanin biosynthesis in radish varieties. In the context of root-skin color variants, the CHS gene exhibits specific expression in red skin, suggesting its potential role as a crucial regulator in the accumulation of red pigment in red-skinned radish. Furthermore, the expression levels of transcription factors MYB1/2/75 , bHLH ( TT8 ), WD40, and the structural genes involved in the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway are significantly higher in red skin compared to white skin [ 35 ]. In a recent study by Zhang et al. [ 37 , 39 ], a comparative transcriptome analysis was conducted using six radish materials with varying skin and flesh colors, aiming to identify key genes responsible for anthocyanin biosynthesis. The findings of this study demonstrated that RsTT4 , RsC4H , RsTT7 , RsCCOAMT , RsDFR , and RsLDOX were significantly upregulated in the red- and purple-colored accessions. The metabolic and transcriptome analysis findings of the dark red taproot of radish indicate that RsCHS and RsDFR exhibit the highest up-regulation in this particular taproot. Additionally, the heightened co-expression of RsMYB1 and RsMYB2 potentially plays a role in the development of the dark red coloration [ 11 ]. However, the molecular underpinnings of radish flower color variation remain unexplored, and there exists a dearth of comprehensive investigations into the mechanisms governing color variation in radish hypocotyl, leaves, fleshy roots, and petals. In this study, the most recent published radish reference genome information (Xinlimei) was utilized as a reference. Sequencing and transcriptome data were gathered from radish hypocotyl, leaves, fleshy roots, and petals to perform a comparative analysis. The findings revealed that 10 genes exhibited significant differential expression across all tissues. The results of GO enrichment and KEGG annotation indicated that these differentially expressed genes were enriched in the pathways associated with flavonoid metabolism and anthocyanin metabolism. Specifically, among the 10 genes that were differentially expressed, four exhibited a close association with anthocyanin biosynthesis. Following this, we employed the known anthocyanin-related genes of Arabidopsis thaliana to perform a comprehensive search for genes associated with the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway in radish at a genome-wide level. A total of 103 genes were successfully identified, with several genes displaying tandem duplications. Additionally, we conducted weighted correlation network analysis (WGCNA) utilizing transcriptome data from four distinct tissues, encompassing 24 sets of gene expression data related to anthocyanin synthesis. The findings indicate that RsDFR.9c and RsUGT78D2.2c may serve as hub genes in the biosynthesis of anthocyanins. Moreover, by combining comparative transcriptome data and WGCNA results, we have constructed potential regulatory patterns for anthocyanin production in the four tissues of radish. The distinct synthesis and accumulation of anthocyanins in various radish tissues may be intricately linked to the tissue-specific expression of distinct copies of RsPAP1 . Consequently, our investigation contributes to the advancement of knowledge regarding the genetic and molecular mechanisms that govern the tissue-specific biosynthesis and accumulation of anthocyanins in radish.

Materials and methods

Plant materials.

The purple-flowered and white-flowered radish inbred lines used in this study were grown at the Wuhan Academy of Agriculture Science and Technology experimental base. Under the same cultivation conditions, white-flowered and purple-flowered radish were planted in the experimental plot, and flower buds (about 3 mm in length) to be opened were selected for sampling during the flowering period. Three biological replicates were taken from each material. All samples were then frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored at 80 °C for RNA extraction. The RNA-seq data of hypocotyl and fleshy roots were collected from National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ ) with the following biological projects PRJNA388018 (hypocotyl), PRJNA810281 (fleshy roots), PRJNA810914 (fleshy roots). The RNA-seq data of leaves were collected from National Genomics Data Center ( https://ngdc.cncb.ac.cn/gsa/browse/CRA008485 ) under accession ID CRA008485.

Transcriptome analysis of the purple and green/white radish tissues

The raw data obtained from the NCBI was initially converted into fastq format using the SRA toolkit. Then, all raw data processed with default parameters using trimmatic (v0.39, [ 2 ]). Subsequently, the RNA-seq clean reads were aligned to the reference genome of radish (Xinlimei, http://brassicadb.cn/ #/) using the HISAT2 software (v2.1.0, [ 20 ]). The obtained millions of fragments per thousand bases (FPKM) values were then calculated using StringTie (v2.1.1, [ 20 ]). The expression histogram was generated using Excel, while the heat map was generated using TBtools software (v1.133, [ 4 ]). In addition, Gene Ontology (GO) and KEGG pathway functional enrichment analyses of DEGs were significantly enriched in GO terms and metabolic pathways at Bonferroni-corrected P -value ≤ 0.05 compared with the whole-transcriptome background. GO functional enrichment and KEGG pathway analysis were carried out by Goatools ( https://github.com/tanghaibao/Goatools ) and KOBAS ( http://kobas.cbi.pku.edu.cn/home.do ). The 25 enrichment items with the highest correlation (Q-value) were used to draw the GO enrichment map, and the map was generated using TBtools software (v1.133, [ 4 ]).

Genome-wide identification of genes related to anthocyanin biosynthesis in radish

Here, all the protein sequences and CDS sequences radish (Xinlimei) were obtained from the Brassicaceae Database http://www.brassicadb.cn/#/  [ 37 , 39 ]. The genes related to anthocyanin biosynthesis from Arabidopsis was selected as the reference for identifying homologous genes in the radish. To ensure accurate identification homologous genes of anthocyanin biosynthesis related genes in radish, the following steps were primarily employed. Firstly, initial searches were conducted using local BLASTP and local BLASTN algorithms, with a significance threshold of E < 1e—20. Secondly, the screening process involved identifying candidate genes that exhibited a consistency rate exceeding 65% and a coverage rate surpassing 60%.

Construction of co-expression network modules using association analysis modules and phenotypes

To explore the metabolite fluxes of the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway and identification of hub genes regulating anthocyanin biosynthesis in radish, we employed the weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) to establish a gene co-expression network for the transcriptional regulation of anthocyanin in four tissues of radish. The construction of co-expression networks was carried out using the WGCNA software package, specifically version R-4.3.1. Subsequently, correlation analysis was performed to determine the correlation between each co-expression module and the collected tissue data of radish, enabling the identification of hub genes associated with anthocyanin. All 24 sets of transcriptome expression data of anthocyanin biosynthesis-related genes in four radish tissues were then utilized to construct a co-expression network module. For the detailed method, refer to the articles of Chen et al. [ 4 ]. Finally, the gene regulatory network data analyzed by WGCNA was imported into Cytoscape (v 3.80, [ 25 ]) for visual display.

RNA extraction, and qRT-PCR analysis

The green and purple hypocotyls, leaves, roots, and the white and purple flowers with three biological replicates were collected, all samples were collected and immediately frozen in liquid nitrogen for RNA extraction and qRT-PCR analysis. eight genes ( RsDFR.9c , RsUGT78D2.2c , RsCPC.1c , RsTT8.9c , RsPAP1.5c , RsPAP1.7c1 , and RsPAP1.7c2 ) have been used for qRT-PCR analysis, and the Actin3 gene as an internal reference gene control. The primers information was list in Supplementary Table S6. For the detailed methods, please refer to Chen et al. [ 4 ]. All materials of this research were collected from Gannan Normal University research base.

Identification of differentially expressed genes (DGEs) in different tissues of radish

The radish plant exhibits a diverse range of organ and color variations, rendering it a valuable specimen for investigating the mechanisms underlying color formation and regulation. In order to elucidate the genome-wide gene expression patterns associated with purple pigmentation in different radish tissues, we performed a comparative transcriptome analysis encompassing hypocotyls, leaves, radish taproots, and petals. The application of principal component analysis (PCA) yielded distinct separation among these various radish tissues (Supplementary Fig. 1). Significantly, the three biological replicates of the same tissue, albeit with distinct colors, were successfully clustered together, thereby emphasizing the reproducibility and consistency of the RNA-seq data. Additionally, we conducted a differential expression analysis using DESeq2, whereby genes were deemed significantly differentially expressed if they displayed |log2FC|≥ 2 and a P -value ≤ 0.01. Our expression analysis unveiled that, out of the 44109 annotated genes in radish (reference genome RS00, Xin-li-mei), 25152, 27607, 28209, and 27607 genes exhibited differential expression in the hypocotyl, leaf, radish taproot and flower, respectively (Table  1 , Fig.  1 ).

Volcano plot of differentially expressed genes in four radish tissues

Specifically, the number of significantly differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in purple tissues compared to green/white tissues varied across different plant organs. In the hypocotyl, leaf, radish taproot, and flower, there were 326, 720, 3866, and 3397 DEGs, respectively (Table  1 , Fig.  1 , Supplementary Table S1). Further analysis revealed that there were 114 genes specifically expressed in the hypocotyl, 331 genes specifically expressed in the leaf, 2636 genes specifically expressed in the radish taproot, and 2213 genes specifically expressed in the flower (Supplementary Fig. 2). Notably, there were 10 genes that exhibited differential expression in all four plant organs, namely the hypocotyl, leaf, radish taproot, and flower (Supplementary Fig. 2, Supplementary Table S2).

GO and KEGG enrichment analysis of DGEs

To further assess the biological functionalities of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in four distinct tissues of radish, we conducted GO and KEGG enrichment analyses on the DEGs identified in these tissues and obtained 25 enrichment items with the highest Q-value (Fig.  2 , Supplementary Fig. 3). Notably, in petals, DEGs exhibited the most significant enrichment score in pathways related to phosphatidylserine binding and flavone metabolic processes (Fig.  2 A). Conversely, in leaves, DEGs displayed the highest enrichment score in pathways associated with anthocyanin-containing compound biosynthesis, amino acid transmembrane transporter activity, and anthocyanin-containing compound metabolism (Fig.  2 B). In the hypocotyl, differentially expressed genes (DEGs) are primarily involved in the biosynthesis of anthocyanin-containing compounds, with the stromule pathway exhibiting the highest enrichment score (Fig.  2 C). In the root, DEGs are predominantly enriched in pathways related to pigment binding, biosynthesis of anthocyanin-containing compounds, and flavone biosynthesis (Fig.  2 D). KEGG annotation analysis reveals that DEGs in the hypocotyl, leaf, radish taproot, and flower are enriched in metabolic pathways associated with flavonoid biosynthesis, phenylpropanoid biosynthesis, and isoflavonoid biosynthesis (Supplementary Fig. 3).The results of the GO functional enrichment and KEGG pathway annotation analysis indicate that the different color tissues of radish hypocotyl, leaf, radish taproot, and flower exhibit significant enrichment in the flavonoid/anthocyanin metabolism pathway. This finding suggests that the biosynthesis and accumulation of flavonoids/anthocyanins may play a crucial role in the observed color variation in these tissues. Furthermore, the GO functional enrichment and KEGG pathway annotation analysis of the 10 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) shared by hypocotyl, leaf, radish taproot, and flower tissues revealed significant enrichment of Rs0  ×  7c033250 , Rs0  ×  9c039896 , Rs0  ×  2c007983 and Rs0  ×  1c000114 in the flavonoid/anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway (Supplementary Table S2).

Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment analysis of the DEGs between four tissues of radish. A GO enrichment analysis of flower DEGs; B GO enrichment analysis of llower DEGs; C GO enrichment analysis Hypocotyl DEGs; D GO enrichment analysis of root DEGs

Identification of anthocyanin biosynthesis-related genes in radish

Both Radish and Arabidopsis thaliana belong to the Brassicaceae family, sharing a common ancestor and exhibiting a close relationship [ 18 ]. The structural genes and transcriptional regulators associated with the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway in Arabidopsis have been extensively studied and characterized [ 9 , 33 ]. By employing a method that combines homologous gene identification with collinearity analysis, we successfully identified a total of 103 genes related to anthocyanin biosynthesis in radish (Fig.  3 , Supplementary Table S3). Among the identified genes, 48 were determined to possess homology with the 50 known anthocyanin biosynthesis-related genes in Arabidopsis (Fig.  3 A, Supplementary Table S3). Notably, PAL1 and 4CL5 exhibited the most significant degree of homology, with each gene having up to five homologous counterparts. In contrast, no homologous genes for TTG1 and MYB11 were detected. The total count of genes associated with anthocyanin biosynthesis in radish amounts to 103, distributed across nine chromosomes. The number of these genes varies on each chromosome, with 20 on Rs1, 12 on Rs2, eight on Rs3, 17 on Rs4, 14 on Rs5, four on Rs6, 12 on Rs7, six on Rs8, and ten on Rs9 (Fig.  3 B, Supplementary Table S3). Significantly, all five homologous genes of 4CL5 are situated on chromosome Rs5. Specifically, Rs0  ×  5c022518 and Rs0  ×  5c022519 are arranged in tandem on one arm of chromosome Rs5, while Rs0  ×  5c025731 , Rs0  ×  5c025732 , and Rs0  ×  5c025733 are arranged in tandem on the opposite arm of chromosome Rs5 (Fig.  3 B, C, Supplementary Table S4). A comparable pattern is observed for C4H ( Rs0  ×  4c019831 , Rs0  ×  4c019832 ), CHI ( Rs0  ×  1c000304 , Rs0  ×  1c000305 ), and UGT78D2 ( Rs0  ×  2c007980 , Rs0  ×  2c007983 ) genes, as well as GST ( Rs0  ×  6c029889 , Rs0  ×  6c029892 , Rs0  ×  6c029893 ) genes (Fig.  3 B, C, Supplementary Table S4). It is noteworthy to mention that Brassica species have experienced whole-genome tripling events throughout their evolutionary trajectory in comparison to Arabidopsis [ 5 ]. The observed tandem duplications in radish may potentially arise as a consequence of the aforementioned whole-genome tripling event.

Distribution of anthocyanin biosynthesis-related genes in Arabidopsis and radish and their collinear relationship. A Distribution of anthocyanin biosynthesis-related genes on Arabidopsis chromosomes; B Distribution of anthocyanin biosynthesis-related genes on radish chromosomes; C Collinearity of anthocyanin-related genes in Arabidopsis and radish. Bars represent chromosomes, and the relative positions of anthocyanin biosynthesis-related genes are marked on the chromosomes, and the scale on the left shows the physical distance of the chromosomes

Analysis of anthocyanin related gene expression patterns in different tissues and colors of radish

To further investigate the expression patterns of genes associated with the anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway in various tissues of radish, including hypocotyl, leaf, taproot, and flower, we utilized comparative transcriptome data from these tissues. This data was used to construct a heat map illustrating the expression levels of genes involved in the anthocyanin metabolism pathway (Fig.  4 ). Notably, early anthocyanin biosynthetic genes (EBGs) such as PAL , C4H , 4CL , CHS , CHI , and F3'H exhibit a certain level of expression in both white/green and purple tissues. This can be attributed to the fact that anthocyanins are also involved in flavonol biosynthesis (Fig.  4 , Supplementary Table S5). In this pathway, the elevated expression of flavonol synthase ( FLS ), a crucial catalytic enzyme for flavonol synthesis, in white flowers and green leaves provides strong evidence for this assertion (Fig.  4 ). Conversely, the late anthocyanin biosynthetic genes (LBGs) DFR , ANS ( LDOX ), and UGT exhibited significantly higher expression levels in purple tissues (Fig.  4 ). Among the transcriptional regulators, the expression pattern of MYB3, MYB4, MYB7, MYB12, MYB32, and MYB111, which are genes regulated by EBGs, closely resembles that of EBGs and is observed to a certain degree in both white/green and purple tissues. The regulatory genes PAP1 and TT8 of LBGs exhibited a significantly higher expression in purple tissues, aligning with the expression pattern of LBGs. Furthermore, we observed a significant up-regulation of glutathione transferase TT19 in purple tissues, which displayed a similar expression trend to that of LBGs (Fig.  4 ).

The expression patterns of anthocyanin-related genes in four tissues of radish were analyzed using a heat map that represents the FPKM values of these genes. The colors on the heat map, ranging from red to pink and white, indicate the expression levels from high to low

Co‑expression network analysis and identification of key regulatory genes

Based on the expression trend of genes associated with the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway, all genes were categorized into four modules using the Weighted Gene Co-expression Network Analysis (WGCNA) approach, one of which was an unclustered gray module (Fig.  5 A). Notably, the 'MEturquoise' module exhibited the strongest positive correlation with the purple phenotype ( r  = 0.35, p  = 0.1), as well as the strongest negative correlation with the green/white phenotype ( r  = -0.35, p  = 0.1), suggesting a potential close association between the genes within this module and anthocyanin biosynthesis (Fig.  5 B). The ‘MEturquoise’ module exhibits the most significant positive correlation in the purple phenotype ( r  = 0.35, p  = 0.1) and the most significant negative correlation in the green/white phenotype ( r  = -0.35, p  = 0.1). This suggests that the genes within this module may have a close association with anthocyanin biosynthesis (Fig.  5 B). To further investigate the connection between the genes within the module and the screening hub genes (genes with high connectivity), a correlation network was constructed for the ‘MEturquoise’ module. In the 'MEturquoise' module, a total of 27 genes associated with the synthesis of anthocyanin biopathways exhibited a significant level of expression correlation. These genes include PAL1 , 4CL3 , CHS , F3H , DFR , ANS , UGT , SGT and LBD37 (structural genes), SPL , MYB3 , MYB32 , MYB111 , PAP1 and EGL3 (transcription factors), and TT19 (transporter). Notably, the comparative transcriptome analysis of four tissues revealed differential expression of RsUGT78D2.2c and RsDFR.9c between purple and green/white samples. This finding suggests that these two genes may play a crucial role in regulating anthocyanin biosynthesis and accumulation in various tissues of radish.

Co-expression analysis of genes related to anthocyanin biosynthesis was conducted in four tissues of radish. A Modular hierarchical clustering: The co-expression modules are depicted in different colors, while gray modules indicate no correlation between genes. B Module-to-sample correlation heatmap: Correlation analysis was performed between the co-expression modules of various genes associated with anthocyanin biosynthesis in different tissues. The numbers above the heat map indicate the Pearson correlation coefficient (r) values. C Cytoscape representation of co-expression network of the hub gene in the ‘MEturquoise’ module

Transcriptional regulation pattern of anthocyanin biosynthesis in four radish tissues

To investigate the expression pattern of hub genes identified through comparative transcriptome and WGCNA analysis, we conducted expression calculations for RsDFR.9c , RsUGT78D2.2c , RsCPC.1c , RsTT8.9c , RsPAP1.2c , RsPAP1.5c , RsPAP1.7c1 , and RsPAP1.7c2 using transcriptome sequencing data from four different radish tissues (Fig.  6 ). The findings revealed a significant up-regulation of RsDFR.9c , RsUGT78D2.2c , RsCPC.1c , RsTT8.9c , RsPAP1.5c , RsPAP1.7c1 , and RsPAP1.7c2 in purple tissues, whereas RsPAP1.2c exhibited expression primarily in white petals of flowers, with a higher expression level compared to purple tissues. Among the four homologous copies of RsPAP1 , it is noteworthy that the expression levels of RsPAP1.5c , RsPAP1.7c1 , and RsPAP1.7c2 exhibit distinct tissue expression specificity, in addition to RsPAP1.2c . Specifically, RsPAP1.5c demonstrates high expression in floral organs, while RsPAP1.7c1 displays high expression in fleshy roots and also exhibits differential expression in flowers and leaves. Furthermore, RsPAP1.7c2 exhibits high expression in the hypocotyl (Fig.  6 ).

Expression analysis of eight hub genes in radish four different tissues. The FPKM (Fragments Per Kilobase Million) value obtained from transcriptome sequencing data analysis was used to represent the expression pattern of the hub genes in different tissues, both four different tissues with three biological replicates

To further elucidate the transcriptional regulation pattern of anthocyanin biosynthesis in the four tissues of radish, we employed comparative transcriptome data and WGCNA analysis to construct a regulatory pattern map of key genes involved in anthocyanin biosynthesis in these tissues (Fig.  7 ). In both radish sprouts and leaves, the transcriptional regulation mode of anthocyanins is identical. Specifically, RsPAP1.7c2 and RsTT8.9c exhibit high expression exclusively in purple tissues, thereby governing the specific upregulation of the target gene DFR and facilitating anthocyanin biosynthesis (Fig.  7 A-B). In fleshy roots, the transcriptional regulatory gene PAP1 , responsible for regulating anthocyanin biosynthesis, has undergone a change. Specifically, RsPAP1.7c1 exhibits high expression exclusively in purple fleshy roots. In conjunction with RsTT8.9c , it governs the specific high expression of the target gene DFR, thereby driving anthocyanin biosynthesis (Fig.  7 C). Interestingly, in petals, the transcriptional regulatory gene PAP1 , responsible for regulating anthocyanin biosynthesis, has undergone another alteration. RsPAP1.5c is specifically highly expressed in purple petals and, in conjunction with RsTT8.9c , regulates the specific high expression of the target gene DFR , thereby driving anthocyanin biosynthesis (Fig.  7 D). The findings of this study suggest that the elevated expression of the late structural genes DFR and UGT in the anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway serves as the foundation for the biosynthesis and accumulation of anthocyanins in purple tissues. Additionally, the distinct expression patterns of various copies of the PAP1 homologous gene in the four tissues may play a crucial role in the observed color variation among different radish tissues. Further investigation and validation are necessary to fully comprehend and confirm this phenomenon.

qRT-PCR validation of eight hub genes related to anthocyanin synthesis regulation in hypocotyl, leaves, fleshy roots, and petals. For qRT-PCR analysis, both white/green or purple sprouts, leaves, fleshy roots and flowers samples are with three biological replicates, the point represents the mean value of three technical replicates in a representative biological experiment, the error bars indicate s.d, student’s t-test, ** P  < 0.01, * P  < 0.05

To enhance understanding of the transcriptional regulation of anthocyanin biosynthesis in various tissues of radish, including hypocotyls, leaves, fleshy roots, and petals, quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) was employed to validate the central genes identified through comparative transcriptome and WGCNA. The findings indicate that the expression profiles of the identified eight regulatory hub genes involved in anthocyanin biosynthesis closely align with the patterns observed in RNA sequencing data (Fig.  7 ). Notably, the expression levels of the key anthocyanin biosynthesis genes RsDFR.9c and RsUGT78D2.2c were significantly elevated in purple tissues, corroborating the results obtained from RNA-seq analysis. The expression levels of the negative regulatory transcription factor RsCPC.1c varied among different tissues in radish, with higher levels observed in purple hypocotyls and fleshy roots compared to green/white tissues, while the opposite trend was observed in leaves and petals. In contrast, RsTT8.9c , a key member of the MBW transcriptional regulatory complex, exhibited significantly higher expression levels in all four purple tissues. Notably, PAP1 , another major member of the MBW complex, has four homologous copies in radish, and its expression pattern differs across hypocotyls, leaves, fleshy roots, and petals. The expression patterns of RsPAP1.2c , RsPAP1.5c , RsPAP1.7c1 , and RsPAP1.2c in various tissues were analyzed. RsPAP1.2c exhibited significantly higher expression in purple hypocotyls, leaves, and petals compared to green/white tissues. Conversely, RsPAP1.5c showed low or negligible expression levels in hypocotyls, leaves, and roots, with white petals displaying significantly higher expression than purple petals. RsPAP1.7c1 demonstrated significantly higher expression in purple tissues compared to green tissues. RsPAP1.7c2 exhibited significantly higher expression in purple hypocotyls and roots compared to green/white tissues, while the opposite trend was observed in leaves. These results further prove that the four homologous copies of PAP1 play different functions in the regulation of anthocyanin synthesis in different tissues or organs of radish, and the relevant results need to be further verified.

The radish exhibits a broad range of planting capabilities and diverse phenotypic characteristics, rendering it suitable for consumption as sprouts, leaf vegetables, and root vegetables. Notably, certain varieties of radish, particularly those with red and purple pigmentation, possess a high nutritional value due to their abundant anthocyanin content, thereby augmenting their desirability as a food source. The availability of comprehensive genomic data pertaining to high-quality radish cultivars has facilitated the identification and documentation of numerous biological traits by researchers.

Regulatory mechanism of color variation in different tissues of radish

In this study, a comprehensive analysis was conducted on various types of radishes, including those classified based on the color of their roots (white skin and white flesh, red skin and white flesh, red skin and red flesh, green skin and white flesh, green skin and green flesh, green skin and red flesh), as well as other variations such as yellow skin, purple skin, and black skin types. Additionally, the study also examined the variant types of radish sprouts and leaves, including those with green and purple colors. Comparative transcriptome and WGCNA analysis were performed using transcriptome sequencing data of purple-flowered and white-flowered radish, in conjunction with previously published transcriptome data of radish buds, leaves and fleshy roots. The findings of this study indicate that the late structural genes of the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway, namely RsUGT78D2.2c and RsDFR.9c , exhibited differential expression in the purple and green/white tissues of the four radish samples. Additionally, the identification of the regulatory hub gene through WGCNA analysis revealed that UGT78D2.2c and RsDFR.9c serve as the hub gene regulating anthocyanin biosynthesis. This aligns with the previous research conducted by Muleke et al. [ 17 ], which demonstrated that RsUFGT plays a crucial role in regulating anthocyanin synthesis during various developmental stages of radish. DFR has been identified as the pivotal regulator of anthocyanin synthesis in purple leaves [ 23 ]. Extensive research has been conducted by scientific and technological experts on radish skin and radish meat in fleshy roots. The CHS gene has been recognized as the principal gene responsible for regulating red skin [ 35 ], whereas RsDFR and RsF3H play a crucial role in governing flavonoid synthesis in purple-skinned radish [ 37 , 39 ]. In the taproot flesh, RsDFR and RsLDOX are considered indispensable for anthocyanin biosynthesis [ 37 , 39 ]. In purple-skinned and purple-fleshed radish, the genes RsCHS and RsDFR have been identified as crucial regulators of anthocyanin synthesis [ 11 ]. Additionally, the high expression of RsANS and RsUF3GT has been implicated as pivotal in anthocyanin biosynthesis [ 8 ]. Overall, our findings indicate that the catalytic enzymes CHS , F3H , DFR , ANS ( LDOX ), and UGT , which are involved in the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway, have been detected in various color variations across multiple tissues in radish. These genes may play a significant role in the diverse coloration observed in radish.

Different copies of RsPAP1 specifically regulate anthocyanin synthesis in different tissues of radish

In this study, a whole-genome identification approach was employed to identify four homologous genes ( RsPAP1.2c , RsPAP1.5c , RsPAP1.7c1 , and RsPAP1.7c2 ) belonging to the PAP1 ( MYB75 )/ PAP2 ( MYB90 )/ MYB113 / MYB114 family from the radish genome (Xinlimei). Subsequently, an analysis of the expression patterns revealed an intriguing phenomenon. Specifically, the expression patterns of the four copies of RsPAP1 exhibited variations across the four different tissues of radish, with no single copy showing significant and specific up-regulation across all four tissues. Previous studies have reported the involvement of MYB114 ( PAP1 homologous gene) in the development of purple leaves in radish, while MYB75 ( PAP1 ) is responsible for regulating anthocyanins in the red skin of radish [ 23 , 35 ]. Notably, our research has revealed, for the first time, that RsPAP1.7c2 exhibits specific and high expression levels in radish sprouts and leaves, RsPAP1.7c1 is specifically highly expressed in purple fleshy roots, and RsPAP1.5c is specifically expressed in purple radish petals. In Brassica napus , a relative of radish, a similar phenomenon has been observed. Specifically, BnaPAP2.A7 has been identified as a crucial regulator of anthocyanin biosynthesis in leaves [ 4 ]. Furthermore, the genes BnaA07.PAP2 In−184–317 [ 34 ] and BnaPAP2.A7a [ 3 ] play a pivotal role in determining the flower color of orange-red rapeseed. Additionally, the specific upregulation of BnaPAP2.C6a in the purple stems of purple leaf rapeseed is essential for the synthesis and accumulation of anthocyanins in the stems [ 3 ]. In conclusion, our research findings offer novel perspectives for the subsequent investigation of the anthocyanin transcriptional regulation mechanism across various radish tissues. The tissue-specific expression of RsPAP1 , which consequently influences the expression of DFR genes, could potentially account for the extensive diversity in radish coloration. Therefore, it is imperative to conduct further exploration into the regulatory mechanism underlying this phenomenon.

In this study, a total of 103 genes associated with the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway were identified from the entire radish genome. Through comparative transcriptome analysis of radish hypocotyls, leaves, fleshy roots, and petals, along with the utilization of weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA), it was determined that RsUGT78D2.2c and RsDFR.9c potentially serve as central genes involved in anthocyanin synthesis across different radish tissues. Furthermore, our analysis revealed that the tissue-specific expression of RsPAP1 , a transcription factor responsible for regulating the expression of DFR genes, likely contributes significantly to the observed variations in radish coloration. These findings contribute novel insights into the understanding of anthocyanin synthesis in radish, thereby expanding our knowledge in this field.

Availability of data and materials

All RNA-seq data in this study were downloaded from the NCBI ( https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ ), with biological projects PRJNA388018 (hypocotyl), PRJNA810281 (fleshy roots), PRJNA810914 (fleshy roots). The RNA-seq data of leaves were collected from National Genomics Data Center ( https://ngdc.cncb.ac.cn/gsa/browse/CRA008485 ) under accession ID CRA008485.

Bendokas V, Skemiene K, Trumbeckaite S, Stanys V, Passamonti S, Borutaite V, Liobikas J. Anthocyanins: From plant pigments to health benefits at mitochondrial level. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2020;60(19):3352–65. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2019 .

Article   CAS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Bolger AM, Lohse M, Usadel B. Trimmomatic: a flexible trimmer for Illumina sequence data. Bioinformatics. 2014;30(15):2114–20. https://doi.org/10.1093/bioinformatics/btu170 .

Chen D, Jin Q, Pan J, Liu Y, Tang Y, E Y, Xu L, Yang T, Qiu J, Chen X, Wang J, Gong D, Ge X, Li Z, Cui C. Fine mapping of genes controlling pigment accumulation in oilseed rape ( Brassica napus L.). Mol Breed. 2023;43(3):19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11032-023-01365-5 .

Chen D, Liu Y, Yin S, Qiu J, Jin Q, King GJ, Wang J, Ge X, Li Z. Alternatively spliced BnaPAP2.A7 isoforms play opposing roles in anthocyanin biosynthesis of Brassica napus L. Front Plant Sci. 2020;11:983. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2020.00983 .

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Cheng F, Mandáková T, Wu J, Xie Q, Lysak MA, Wang X. iphering the diploid ancestral genome of the Mesohexaploid Brassica rapa . Plant Cell. 2013;25(5):1541–54. https://doi.org/10.1105/tpc.113.110486 .

Article   CAS   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Cone KC, Burr FA, Burr B. Molecular analysis of the maize anthocyanin regulatory locus C1 . Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1986;83(24):9631–5. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.83.24.9631 .

Dubos C, Le Gourrierec J, Baudry A, Huep G, Lanet E, Debeaujon I, Routaboul JM, Alboresi A, Weisshaar B, Lepiniec L. MYBL2 is a new regulator of flavonoid biosynthesis in Arabidopsis thaliana . Plant J. 2008;55(6):940–53. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-313X.2008.03564.x .

Gao J, Li WB, Liu HF, Chen FB. Identification of differential expression genes related to anthocyanin biosynthesis in carmine radish ( Raphanus sativus L) fleshy roots using comparative RNA-Seq method. PLoS One. 2020;15(4):e0231729.  https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0231729 .

Gonzalez A, Zhao M, Leavitt JM, Lloyd AM. Regulation of the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway by the TTG1/bHLH/Myb transcriptional complex in Arabidopsis seedlings. Plant J. 2008;53(5):814–27. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-313X.2007.03373.x .

Grotewold E. The genetics and biochemistry of floral pigments. Annu Rev Plant Biol. 2006;57:761–80. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.arplant.57.032905.105248 .

Heng S, Gao C, Cui M, Fu J, Ren S, Xin K, He C, Wang A, Song L, Tang L, Wang B, Zhang X. Metabolic and transcriptome analysis of dark red taproot in radish ( Raphanus sativus L). PLoS One. 2022;17(5):e0268295.  https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0268295 .

Jin H, Cominelli E, Bailey P, Parr A, Mehrtens F, Jones J, Tonelli C, Weisshaar B, Martin C. Transcriptional repression by AtMYB4 controls production of UV-protecting sunscreens in Arabidopsis . EMBO J. 2000;19(22):6150–61. https://doi.org/10.1093/emboj/19.22.6150 .

LaFountain AM, Yuan YW. Repressors of anthocyanin biosynthesis. New Phytol. 2021;231(3):933–49. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.17397 .

Liu Y, Ma K, Qi Y, Lv G, Ren X, Liu Z, Ma F. Transcriptional regulation of anthocyanin synthesis by MYB-bHLH-WDR complexes in Kiwifruit ( Actinidia chinensis ). J Agric Food Chem. 2021;69(12):3677–91. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.0c07037 .

Liu Y, Tikunov Y, Schouten RE, Marcelis LFM, Visser RGF, Bovy A. Anthocyanin biosynthesis and degradation mechanisms in solanaceous vegetables: A review. Front Chem. 2018;6:52. https://doi.org/10.3389/fchem.2018.00052 .

Mattioli R, Francioso A, Mosca L, Silva P. Anthocyanins: A comprehensive review of their chemical properties and health effects on cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases. Molecules. 2020;25(17):3809. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25173809 .

Muleke EM, Fan L, Wang Y, Xu L, Zhu X, Zhang W, Cao Y, Karanja BK, Liu L. Coordinated regulation of anthocyanin biosynthesis genes confers varied phenotypic and spatial-temporal anthocyanin accumulation in radish ( Raphanus sativus L.). Front Plant Sci. 2017;8:1243. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2017.01243 .

Nikolov LA, Shushkov P, Nevado B, Gan X, Al-Shehbaz IA, Filatov D, Bailey CD, Tsiantis M. Resolving the backbone of the Brassicaceae phylogeny for investigating trait diversity. New Phytol. 2019;222(3):1638–51. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.15732 .

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Passeri V, Koes R, Quattrocchio FM. New challenges for the design of high value plant products: stabilization of anthocyanins in plant vacuoles. Front Plant Sci. 2016;7:153. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2016.00153 .

Pertea M, Kim D, Pertea GM, Leek JT, Salzberg SL. Transcript-level expression analysis of RNA-seq experiments with HISAT, StringTie and Ballgown. Nat Protoc. 2016;11(9):1650–67. https://doi.org/10.1038/nprot.2016.095 .

Petroni K, Tonelli C. Recent advances on the regulation of anthocyanin synthesis in reproductive organs. Plant Sci. 2011;181(3):219–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plantsci.2011.05.009 .

Preston J, Wheeler J, Heazlewood J, Li SF, Parish RW. AtMYB32 is required for normal pollen development in Arabidopsis thaliana . Plant J. 2004;40(6):979–95. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-313X.2004.02280.x .

Pu Q, He Z, Xiang C, Shi S, Zhang L, Yang P. Integration of metabolome and transcriptome analyses reveals the mechanism of anthocyanin accumulation in purple radish leaves. Physiol Mol Biol Plants. 2022;28(10):1799–811. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12298-022-01245-w .

Schilbert HM, Glover BJ. Analysis of flavonol regulator evolution in the Brassicaceae reveals MYB12, MYB111 and MYB21 duplications and MYB11 and MYB24 gene loss. BMC Genomics. 2022;23(1):604. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12864-022-08819-8 .

Shannon P, Markiel A, Ozier O, Baliga NS, Wang JT, Ramage D, Amin N, Schwikowski B, Ideker T. Cytoscape: a software environment for integrated models of biomolecular interaction networks. Genome Res. 2003;13(11):2498–504. https://doi.org/10.1101/gr.1239303 .

Shi MZ, Xie DY. Biosynthesis and metabolic engineering of anthocyanins in Arabidopsis thaliana . Recent Pat Biotechnol. 2014;8(1):47–60. https://doi.org/10.2174/1872208307666131218123538 .

Speer H, D’Cunha NM, Alexopoulos NI, McKune AJ, Naumovski N. Anthocyanins and human health-a focus on oxidative stress, inflammation and disease. Antioxidants (Basel). 2020;9(5):366. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox9050366 .

Stracke R, Ishihara H, Huep G, Barsch A, Mehrtens F, Niehaus K, Weisshaar B. Differential regulation of closely related R2R3-MYB transcription factors controls flavonol accumulation in different parts of the Arabidopsis thaliana seedling. Plant J. 2007;50(4):660–77. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-313X.2007.03078.x .

Tanaka Y, Sasaki N, Ohmiya A. Biosynthesis of plant pigments: anthocyanins, betalains and carotenoids. Plant J. 2008;54(4):733–49. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-313X.2008.03447.x .

Tohge T, de Souza LP, Fernie AR. Current understanding of the pathways of flavonoid biosynthesis in model and crop plants. J Exp Bot. 2017;68(15):4013–28. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erx177 .

Wang N, Xu H, Jiang S, Zhang Z, Lu N, Qiu H, Qu C, Wang Y, Wu S, Chen X. MYB12 and MYB22 play essential roles in proanthocyanidin and flavonol synthesis in red-fleshed apple ( Malus sieversii f. niedzwetzkyana). Plant J. 2017;90(2):276–92. https://doi.org/10.1111/tpj.13487 .

Xu W, Dubos C, Lepiniec L. Transcriptional control of flavonoid biosynthesis by MYB-bHLH-WDR complexes. Trends Plant Sci. 2015;20(3):176–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2014.12.001 .

Xu W, Grain D, Bobet S, Le Gourrierec J, Thévenin J, Kelemen Z, Lepiniec L, Dubos C. Complexity and robustness of the flavonoid transcriptional regulatory network revealed by comprehensive analyses of MYB-bHLH-WDR complexes and their targets in Arabidopsis seed. New Phytol. 2014;202(1):132–44. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.12620 .

Ye S, Hua S, Ma T, Ma X, Chen Y, Wu L, Zhao L, Yi B, Ma C, Tu J, Shen J, Fu T, Wen J. Genetic and multi-omics analyses reveal BnaA07.PAP2 In-184–317 as the key gene conferring anthocyanin-based color in Brassica napus flowers. J Exp Bot. 2022;73(19):6630–45. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erac312 .

Yu R, Du X, Li J, Liu L, Hu C, Yan X, Xia Y, Xu H. Identification and differential expression analysis of anthocyanin biosynthetic genes in root-skin color variants of radish ( Raphanus sativus L.). Genes Genomics. 2020;42(4):413–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13258-020-00915-x .

Yue M, Jiang L, Zhang N, Zhang L, Liu Y, Lin Y, Zhang Y, Luo Y, Zhang Y, Wang Y, Li M, Wang X, Chen Q, Tang H. Regulation of flavonoids in strawberry fruits by FaMYB5/FaMYB10 dominated MYB-bHLH-WD40 ternary complexes. Front Plant Sci. 2023;14:1145670. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2023.1145670 .

Zhang J, Zhao J, Tan Q, Qiu X, Mei S. Comparative transcriptome analysis reveals key genes associated with pigmentation in radish ( Raphanus sativus L.) skin and flesh. Sci Rep. 2021;11(1):11434. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-90633-5 .

Zhang N, Jing P. Anthocyanins in Brassicaceae: composition, stability, bioavailability, and potential health benefits. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2022;62(8):2205–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2020.1852170 .

Zhang X, Liu T, Wang J, Wang P, Qiu Y, Zhao W, Pang S, Li X, Wang H, Song J, Zhang W, Yang W, Sun Y, Li X. Pan-genome of Raphanus highlights genetic variation and introgression among domesticated, wild, and weedy radishes. Mol Plant. 2021;14(12):2032–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molp.2021.08.005 .

Zhang X, Su N, Jia L, Tian J, Li H, Huang L, Shen Z, Cui J. Transcriptome analysis of radish sprouts hypocotyls reveals the regulatory role of hydrogen-rich water in anthocyanin biosynthesis under UV-A. BMC Plant Biol. 2018;18(1):227. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12870-018-1449-4 .

Zhang Y, Butelli E, Martin C. Engineering anthocyanin biosynthesis in plants. Curr Opin Plant Biol. 2014;19:81–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pbi.2014.05.011 .

Zhao X, Zhang Y, Long T, Wang S, Yang J. Regulation mechanism of plant pigments biosynthesis: anthocyanins, carotenoids, and betalains. Metabolites. 2022;12(9):871. https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo12090871 .

Zhou C, Zhu Y, Luo Y. Effects of sulfur fertilization on the accumulation of health-promoting phytochemicals in radish sprouts. J Agric Food Chem. 2013;61(31):7552–9. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf402174f .

Download references

Acknowledgements

Thanks for the sequencing service was provided by Bioyi Biotechnology Co., Ltd. Wuhan, China, and thanks to Dr Shubei Wan for his help in the data analysis process of the thesis.

Statement on plant guidelines and permission

All materials in this study comply with relevant institutional, national, and international guidelines, legislation, and sub-section ethical approval and consent to participate.

Gannan Normal University agreed to the sampling of various experimental materials in this study.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare that the study was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be envisaged and/or construed as a conflict of interest.

This research was funded by the Natural Science Foundation of Jiangxi Province, grant number: 20224BAB215016, and 20212BAB215003; Wuhan knowledge innovation special project, grant number: 2022020801010413; the Science and Technology Foundation of Jiangxi Education Department, grant number: GJJ211447; the Key Research and Development Program of Jiangxi Province, grant number: 20223BBF61002.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

College of Life Sciences, Ganzhou Key Laboratory of Greenhouse Vegetable, Gannan Normal University, Ganzhou, China

Yi Liu, Chenchen Wang, Haidong Chen, Guoqiang Dai, Qiushi Cuimu, Wenjie Shen, Liwei Gao, Bo Zhu, Daozong Chen & Chen Tan

Wuhan Vegetable Research Institute, Wuhan Academy of Agriculture Science and Technology, Wuhan, China

Changbin Gao & Xueli Zhang

Nanchang Branch of National Center of Oilcrops Improvement, Jiangxi Province Key Laboratory of Oil Crops Biology, Crops Research Institute of Jiangxi Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanchang, 330200, China

Lunlin Chen

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

YL, XZ and DC conceived and designed the experiments. YL, CW, HC, GD, QC, WS, CT, LG, LC, CG and BZ analyzed the data. YL, XZ and CT wrote the manuscript. All authors approved the manuscript and consent to publication this manuscript.

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Xueli Zhang or Chen Tan .

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate.

This study including the collection on plants material complies with relevant institutional, national, and international guidelines and legislation.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary Information

Supplementary material 1., supplementary material 2., supplementary material 3., supplementary material 4., supplementary material 5., supplementary material 6., supplementary material 7., supplementary material 8., supplementary material 9., rights and permissions.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ . The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver ( http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ ) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Liu, Y., Wang, C., Chen, H. et al. Comparative transcriptome analysis reveals transcriptional regulation of anthocyanin biosynthesis in purple radish ( Raphanus sativus L.). BMC Genomics 25 , 624 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12864-024-10519-4

Download citation

Received : 27 November 2023

Accepted : 13 June 2024

Published : 20 June 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12864-024-10519-4

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Anthocyanin
• Transcriptome

BMC Genomics

ISSN: 1471-2164

• Submission enquiries: [email protected]
• General enquiries: [email protected]

NIH Statement on Preliminary Efficacy Results of Twice-Yearly Lenacapavir for HIV Prevention in Cisgender Women

June 26, 2024

Transmission electron micrograph of HIV-1 virus particles (colorized orange/yellow) replicating from an HIV-infected H9 T-cell (green). Image captured at the NIAID Integrated Research Facility (IRF) in Fort Detrick, Maryland.

The injectable antiretroviral drug lenacapavir was safe and 100% effective as long-acting HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) among cisgender women in a Phase 3 clinical trial, according to top-line findings released by Gilead Sciences, Inc., the study sponsor. Lenacapavir is administered every six months, making it the most durable HIV prevention method to have shown efficacy in this population. NIAID applauds the study sponsor, investigators, study staff, and—most importantly—the participants in South Africa and Uganda, for contributing to this scientific advance for cisgender women, a population for whom biomedical HIV prevention evidence has been limited to date. We look forward to the release of additional data from this pivotal study, as well as the outcomes of companion studies of lenacapavir in other populations, to inform regulatory decisions on this novel PrEP method. 

The Phase 3 findings build on decades of discovery and translational research and collaboration between public and private sector to steer promising concepts from the laboratory to the clinic. The National Institutes of Health’s National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) and its grantees have collaborated with Gilead scientists to provide instrumental evidence on the structure of HIV, contributing to the development of lenacapavir. NIAID-funded scientists continue to study the activity of lenacapavir in the body, characterize resistance to lenacapavir’s drug class, and work to develop a method for analyzing lenacapavir drug levels, among other efforts. This research will inform future drug development and clinical research. In addition, the NIH-funded HIV Prevention Trials Network is implementing two Gilead-sponsored studies in the United States of lenacapavir in cisgender women and people who inject drugs . NIAID is coordinating with Gilead and other partners to consider the implications, if any, of the Phase 3 findings for ongoing studies in similar populations.

Long-acting PrEP formulations are an important option for people who experience barriers to daily pill-taking, and a twice-annual injection could dramatically improve the feasibility of PrEP for many people who stand to benefit from its use.  Long-acting cabotegravir, administered once every two months , already is used in the United States and is increasingly available in low- and middle-income countries. The  controlled-release monthly dapivirine vaginal ring is approved for HIV PrEP in cisgender women in several African countries. Equitable access is essential for realizing the benefits of long-acting PrEP, particularly in geographic areas and among populations experiencing steady or increasing HIV incidence. We continue to learn more about all forms of PrEP and new information helps public health agencies and services reach the people who stand to benefit most from PrEP with safe and effective options that best meet their needs. 

For more information about these studies, please visit ClinicalTrials.gov using the identifiers  NCT04994509 ,  NCT06101329  and  NCT06101342 . 

Submit a Media Request

Contact the NIAID News & Science Writing Branch.

301-402-1663 [email protected] All Media Contacts

Office of the Dean for Research

Myhrvold lab: Finding what ails thee - a new technology for fast, easy diagnosis of viral infections

SHINE diagnostic technology creators, in alphabetical order (clockwise from top left), Jon Arizti-Sanz, Sabeti lab; A’Doriann Bradley, Sabeti lab; Yujia Huang, Myhrvold lab; Tinna-Sólveig Kosoko-Thoroddsen, Sabeti lab; Cameron Myhrvold, Assistant Professor of Molecular Biology, Princeton; Pardis C. Sabeti, Member of the Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard; and Yibin B. Zhang, Sabeti lab. Photo collage by C. Todd Reichart.

Imagine it’s flu season, and that tickle in the back of your throat has turned into symptoms bad enough to drive you to visit your doctor. Your physician would ideally run some tests to diagnose what pathogen is afflicting you, but unless they are at a large hospital, they may not have access to the complicated, costly tests they need. That’s the conundrum Princeton University researcher Cameron Myhrvold and his collaborators at the Broad Institute, Yibin Zhang, Jon Arizti-Sanz, and Pardis Sabeti, aim to solve in their paper appearing June 18th in The Journal of Molecular Diagnostics .

To treat an illness, a doctor needs an accurate diagnosis. For example, it would be helpful to know whether a patient has flu or if they might instead have one of the myriad other respiratory illnesses. If the patient has flu, is it a seasonal influenza A virus such as H1N1, or could it be a less common influenza B virus that carries a greater risk of hospitalization? Is the patient’s infection resistant to available antiviral medications?

None of these questions have current answers without undertaking expensive and technically demanding molecular tests. But what if doctors or patients could take a simple nasal swab, drop it in a tube, and answer all of these questions without special equipment or training? That’s the promise of SHINE, a new diagnostic technology pioneered by researchers at Princeton University and the Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard.

“Our ultimate goal is to make SHINE as easy to perform as a rapid antigen test, so that it will be easy for people to do self-testing at home,” said Cameron Myhrvold, assistant professor in the Department of Molecular Biology at Princeton.

SHINE, short for Streamlined Highlighting of Infections to Navigate Epidemics, delivers the accuracy and versatility of CRISPR-based diagnostics in a fast and convenient format usable by clinics and medical offices that lack access to well-equipped molecular biology laboratories and the personnel needed to run them. It works using CRISPR-Cas complexes that can accurately zero in on genetic sequences unique to a particular pathogen with the help of “CRISPR RNAs” complementary to those sequences. Upon locating a target sequence, the modified CRISPR-Cas complexes activate an enzyme that produces a fluorescent signal in the test solution or a color change on a strip of paper to flag the presence of the target pathogen in laboratory or clinical samples.

“We originally developed SHINE for SARS-CoV-2 detection,” said Myhrvold.

Later, Myhrvold and colleagues developed a version of SHINE that could accurately distinguish between different SARS-CoV2 Variants of Concern, but the researchers knew they could do even more with SHINE. In their current work, the team developed versions of SHINE that can detect influenza A or influenza B virus infections in clinical samples with accuracy comparable to gold-standard molecular tests but in a fraction of the time. The team also generated SHINE tests that can discern between the common H1N1 and H3N2 subtypes of seasonal influenza virus, as well as a version that can determine whether the virus has a mutation that confers resistance to the drug Oseltamivir (better known as Tamiflu). Knowing that a drug-resistant strain is present would let physicians change treatments.

SHINE achieves all this in a convenient format; the test is easy to use, with multiple samples processed in under 20 minutes. Larger organizations that frequently conduct several tests can evaluate many SHINE tests at once using an inexpensive machine to monitor color changes in the test solution. For smaller clinics, doctors’ offices, or home users, the researchers developed a version of that test that delivers results on a paper strip (similar to at-home COVID tests) and is storable at room temperature for long periods. Having already demonstrated several applications for SHINE, Myhrvold and his collaborators are now working to turn it into an even more versatile diagnostic platform. 

“We are developing assays for avian and swine flu strains, such as H5N1,” said Myhrvold. This virus has been making headlines and causing consternation among scientists and doctors due to its extreme contagiousness, lethality in animal populations, and fears that it could someday spread to humans.

“[We are also] developing assays for additional flu mutations so that we can track the virus as it evolves,” said Myhrvold. The benefits of rapid, inexpensive, and easy-to-use diagnostics cannot be overstated, especially as new pathogens emerge to assail us.

Citation: Yibin B. Zhang, Jon Arizti-Sanz, A’Doriann Bradley, Yujia Huang, Tinna-Solveig F. Kosoko-Thoroddsen, Pardis C. Sabeti, and Cameron Myhrvold. CRISPR-based assays for point of need detection and subtyping of influenza. Journal of Molecular Diagnostics. 2020. DOI: 10.1016/j.jmoldx.2024.04.004

Funding:  Support for the work described in this story was provided by   the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (D18AC00006); the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (75D30122C15113); the Flu Laboratory;  the ELMA Foundation; MacKenzie Scott; Skoll Foundation; Open Philanthropy; and the Merck KGaA Future Insight Prize. 

Grant Numbers: D18AC00006, 75D30122C15113

Funders: Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Flu Laboratory, ELMA Foundation, MacKenzie Scott, Skoll Foundation, Open Philanthropy, Merck KGaA Future Insight Prize