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• How to Write a Results Section | Tips & Examples

How to Write a Results Section | Tips & Examples

Published on August 30, 2022 by Tegan George . Revised on July 18, 2023.

A results section is where you report the main findings of the data collection and analysis you conducted for your thesis or dissertation . You should report all relevant results concisely and objectively, in a logical order. Don’t include subjective interpretations of why you found these results or what they mean—any evaluation should be saved for the discussion section .

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Table of contents

How to write a results section, reporting quantitative research results, reporting qualitative research results, results vs. discussion vs. conclusion, checklist: research results, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about results sections.

When conducting research, it’s important to report the results of your study prior to discussing your interpretations of it. This gives your reader a clear idea of exactly what you found and keeps the data itself separate from your subjective analysis.

Here are a few best practices:

• Your results should always be written in the past tense.
• While the length of this section depends on how much data you collected and analyzed, it should be written as concisely as possible.
• Only include results that are directly relevant to answering your research questions . Avoid speculative or interpretative words like “appears” or “implies.”
• If you have other results you’d like to include, consider adding them to an appendix or footnotes.
• Always start out with your broadest results first, and then flow into your more granular (but still relevant) ones. Think of it like a shoe store: first discuss the shoes as a whole, then the sneakers, boots, sandals, etc.

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If you conducted quantitative research , you’ll likely be working with the results of some sort of statistical analysis .

Your results section should report the results of any statistical tests you used to compare groups or assess relationships between variables . It should also state whether or not each hypothesis was supported.

The most logical way to structure quantitative results is to frame them around your research questions or hypotheses. For each question or hypothesis, share:

• A reminder of the type of analysis you used (e.g., a two-sample t test or simple linear regression ). A more detailed description of your analysis should go in your methodology section.
• A concise summary of each relevant result, both positive and negative. This can include any relevant descriptive statistics (e.g., means and standard deviations ) as well as inferential statistics (e.g., t scores, degrees of freedom , and p values ). Remember, these numbers are often placed in parentheses.
• A brief statement of how each result relates to the question, or whether the hypothesis was supported. You can briefly mention any results that didn’t fit with your expectations and assumptions, but save any speculation on their meaning or consequences for your discussion  and conclusion.

A note on tables and figures

In quantitative research, it’s often helpful to include visual elements such as graphs, charts, and tables , but only if they are directly relevant to your results. Give these elements clear, descriptive titles and labels so that your reader can easily understand what is being shown. If you want to include any other visual elements that are more tangential in nature, consider adding a figure and table list .

As a rule of thumb:

• Tables are used to communicate exact values, giving a concise overview of various results
• Graphs and charts are used to visualize trends and relationships, giving an at-a-glance illustration of key findings

Don’t forget to also mention any tables and figures you used within the text of your results section. Summarize or elaborate on specific aspects you think your reader should know about rather than merely restating the same numbers already shown.

A two-sample t test was used to test the hypothesis that higher social distance from environmental problems would reduce the intent to donate to environmental organizations, with donation intention (recorded as a score from 1 to 10) as the outcome variable and social distance (categorized as either a low or high level of social distance) as the predictor variable.Social distance was found to be positively correlated with donation intention, t (98) = 12.19, p < .001, with the donation intention of the high social distance group 0.28 points higher, on average, than the low social distance group (see figure 1). This contradicts the initial hypothesis that social distance would decrease donation intention, and in fact suggests a small effect in the opposite direction.

Figure 1: Intention to donate to environmental organizations based on social distance from impact of environmental damage.

In qualitative research , your results might not all be directly related to specific hypotheses. In this case, you can structure your results section around key themes or topics that emerged from your analysis of the data.

For each theme, start with general observations about what the data showed. You can mention:

• Recurring points of agreement or disagreement
• Patterns and trends
• Particularly significant snippets from individual responses

Next, clarify and support these points with direct quotations. Be sure to report any relevant demographic information about participants. Further information (such as full transcripts , if appropriate) can be included in an appendix .

When asked about video games as a form of art, the respondents tended to believe that video games themselves are not an art form, but agreed that creativity is involved in their production. The criteria used to identify artistic video games included design, story, music, and creative teams.One respondent (male, 24) noted a difference in creativity between popular video game genres:

“I think that in role-playing games, there’s more attention to character design, to world design, because the whole story is important and more attention is paid to certain game elements […] so that perhaps you do need bigger teams of creative experts than in an average shooter or something.”

Responses suggest that video game consumers consider some types of games to have more artistic potential than others.

Your results section should objectively report your findings, presenting only brief observations in relation to each question, hypothesis, or theme.

It should not  speculate about the meaning of the results or attempt to answer your main research question . Detailed interpretation of your results is more suitable for your discussion section , while synthesis of your results into an overall answer to your main research question is best left for your conclusion .

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I have completed my data collection and analyzed the results.

I have included all results that are relevant to my research questions.

I have concisely and objectively reported each result, including relevant descriptive statistics and inferential statistics .

I have stated whether each hypothesis was supported or refuted.

I have used tables and figures to illustrate my results where appropriate.

All tables and figures are correctly labelled and referred to in the text.

There is no subjective interpretation or speculation on the meaning of the results.

You've finished writing up your results! Use the other checklists to further improve your thesis.

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The results chapter of a thesis or dissertation presents your research results concisely and objectively.

In quantitative research , for each question or hypothesis , state:

• The type of analysis used
• Relevant results in the form of descriptive and inferential statistics
• Whether or not the alternative hypothesis was supported

In qualitative research , for each question or theme, describe:

• Recurring patterns
• Significant or representative individual responses
• Relevant quotations from the data

Don’t interpret or speculate in the results chapter.

Results are usually written in the past tense , because they are describing the outcome of completed actions.

The results chapter or section simply and objectively reports what you found, without speculating on why you found these results. The discussion interprets the meaning of the results, puts them in context, and explains why they matter.

In qualitative research , results and discussion are sometimes combined. But in quantitative research , it’s considered important to separate the objective results from your interpretation of them.

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Dissertations and research projects

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Developing a theoretical framework

Reflecting on your position, extended literature reviews, presenting qualitative data.

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What is a theoretical framework?

Developing a theoretical framework for your dissertation is one of the key elements of a qualitative research project. Through writing your literature review, you are likely to have identified either a problem that need ‘fixing’ or a gap that your research may begin to fill.

The theoretical framework is your toolbox . In the toolbox are your handy tools: a set of theories, concepts, ideas and hypotheses that you will use to build a solution to the research problem or gap you have identified.

The methodology is the instruction manual: the procedure and steps you have taken, using your chosen tools, to tackle the research problem.

Why do I need a theoretical framework?

Developing a theoretical framework shows that you have thought critically about the different ways to approach your topic, and that you have made a well-reasoned and evidenced decision about which approach will work best. theoretical frameworks are also necessary for solving complex problems or issues from the literature, showing that you have the skills to think creatively and improvise to answer your research questions. they also allow researchers to establish new theories and approaches, that future research may go on to develop., how do i create a theoretical framework for my dissertation.

First, select your tools. You are likely to need a variety of tools in qualitative research – different theories, models or concepts – to help you tackle different parts of your research question.  

When deciding what tools would be best for the job of answering your research questions or problem, explore what existing research in your area has used. You may find that there is a ‘standard toolbox’ for qualitative research in your field that you can borrow from or apply to your own research.

You will need to justify why your chosen tools are best for the job of answering your research questions, at what stage they are most relevant, and how they relate to each other. Some theories or models will neatly fit together and appear in the toolboxes of other researchers. However, you may wish to incorporate a model or idea that is not typical for your research area – the ‘odd one out’ in your toolbox. If this is the case, make sure you justify and account for why it is useful to you, and look for ways that it can be used in partnership with the other tools you are using.

You should also be honest about limitations, or where you need to improvise (for example, if the ‘right’ tool or approach doesn’t exist in your area).

This video from the Skills Centre includes an overview and example of how you might create a theoretical framework for your dissertation:

How do I choose the 'right' approach?

When designing your framework and choosing what to include, it can often be difficult to know if you’ve chosen the ‘right’ approach for your research questions. One way to check this is to look for consistency between your objectives, the literature in your framework, and your overall ethos for the research. This means ensuring that the literature you have used not only contributes to answering your research objectives, but that you also use theories and models that are true to your beliefs as a researcher.

Reflecting on your values and your overall ambition for the project can be a helpful step in making these decisions, as it can help you to fully connect your methodology and methods to your research aims.

Should I reflect on my position as a researcher?

If you feel your position as a researcher has influenced your choice of methods or procedure in any way, the methodology is a good place to reflect on this.  Positionality  acknowledges that no researcher is entirely objective: we are all, to some extent, influenced by prior learning, experiences, knowledge, and personal biases. This is particularly true in qualitative research or practice-based research, where the student is acting as a researcher in their own workplace, where they are otherwise considered a practitioner/professional. It's also important to reflect on your positionality if you belong to the same community as your participants where this is the grounds for their involvement in the research (ie. you are a mature student interviewing other mature learners about their experences in higher education). 

The following questions can help you to reflect on your positionality and gauge whether this is an important section to include in your dissertation (for some people, this section isn’t necessary or relevant):

• How might my personal history influence how I approach the topic?
• How am I positioned in relation to this knowledge? Am I being influenced by prior learning or knowledge from outside of this course?
• How does my gender/social class/ ethnicity/ culture influence my positioning in relation to this topic?
• Do I share any attributes with my participants? Are we part of a s hared community? How might this have influenced our relationship and my role in interviews/observations?
• Am I invested in the outcomes on a personal level? Who is this research for and who will feel the benefits?

One option for qualitative projects is to write an extended literature review. This type of project does not require you to collect any new data. Instead, you should focus on synthesising a broad range of literature to offer a new perspective on a research problem or question.  

The main difference between an extended literature review and a dissertation where primary data is collected, is in the presentation of the methodology, results and discussion sections. This is because extended literature reviews do not actively involve participants or primary data collection, so there is no need to outline a procedure for data collection (the methodology) or to present and interpret ‘data’ (in the form of interview transcripts, numerical data, observations etc.) You will have much more freedom to decide which sections of the dissertation should be combined, and whether new chapters or sections should be added.

Here is an overview of a common structure for an extended literature review:

Introduction

• Provide background information and context to set the ‘backdrop’ for your project.
• Explain the value and relevance of your research in this context. Outline what do you hope to contribute with your dissertation.
• Clarify a specific area of focus.
• Introduce your research aims (or problem) and objectives.

Literature review

You will need to write a short, overview literature review to introduce the main theories, concepts and key research areas that you will explore in your dissertation. This set of texts – which may be theoretical, research-based, practice-based or policies – form your theoretical framework. In other words, by bringing these texts together in the literature review, you are creating a lens that you can then apply to more focused examples or scenarios in your discussion chapters.

Methodology

As you will not be collecting primary data, your methodology will be quite different from a typical dissertation. You will need to set out the process and procedure you used to find and narrow down your literature. This is also known as a search strategy.

Including your search strategy

A search strategy explains how you have narrowed down your literature to identify key studies and areas of focus. This often takes the form of a search strategy table, included as an appendix at the end of the dissertation. If included, this section takes the place of the traditional 'methodology' section.

If you choose to include a search strategy table, you should also give an overview of your reading process in the main body of the dissertation.  Think of this as a chronology of the practical steps you took and your justification for doing so at each stage, such as:

• Your key terms, alternatives and synonyms, and any terms that you chose to exclude.
• Your choice and combination of databases;
• Your inclusion/exclusion criteria, when they were applied and why. This includes filters such as language of publication, date, and country of origin;
• You should also explain which terms you combined to form search phrases and your use of Boolean searching (AND, OR, NOT);
• Your use of citation searching (selecting articles from the bibliography of a chosen journal article to further your search).
• Your use of any search models, such as PICO and SPIDER to help shape your approach.
• Search strategy template A simple template for recording your literature searching. This can be included as an appendix to show your search strategy.

The discussion section of an extended literature review is the most flexible in terms of structure. Think of this section as a series of short case studies or ‘windows’ on your research. In this section you will apply the theoretical framework you formed in the literature review – a combination of theories, models and ideas that explain your approach to the topic – to a series of different examples and scenarios. These are usually presented as separate discussion ‘chapters’ in the dissertation, in an order that you feel best fits your argument.

Think about an order for these discussion sections or chapters that helps to tell the story of your research. One common approach is to structure these sections by common themes or concepts that help to draw your sources together. You might also opt for a chronological structure if your dissertation aims to show change or development over time. Another option is to deliberately show where there is a lack of chronology or narrative across your case studies, by ordering them in a fragmentary order! You will be able to reflect upon the structure of these chapters elsewhere in the dissertation, explaining and defending your decision in the methodology and conclusion.

A summary of your key findings – what you have concluded from your research, and how far you have been able to successfully answer your research questions.

• Recommendations – for improvements to your own study, for future research in the area, and for your field more widely.
• Emphasise your contributions to knowledge and what you have achieved.

Alternative structure

Depending on your research aims, and whether you are working with a case-study type approach (where each section of the dissertation considers a different example or concept through the lens established in your literature review), you might opt for one of the following structures:

Splitting the literature review across different chapters:

This structure allows you to pull apart the traditional literature review, introducing it little by little with each of your themed chapters. This approach works well for dissertations that attempt to show change or difference over time, as the relevant literature for that section or period can be introduced gradually to the reader.

Whichever structure you opt for, remember to explain and justify your approach. A marker will be interested in why you decided on your chosen structure, what it allows you to achieve/brings to the project and what alternatives you considered and rejected in the planning process. Here are some example sentence starters:

In qualitative studies, your results are often presented alongside the discussion, as it is difficult to include this data in a meaningful way without explanation and interpretation. In the dsicussion section, aim to structure your work thematically, moving through the key concepts or ideas that have emerged from your qualitative data. Use extracts from your data collection - interviews, focus groups, observations - to illustrate where these themes are most prominent, and refer back to the sources from your literature review to help draw conclusions. 

Here's an example of how your data could be presented in paragraph format in this section:

Example from  'Reporting and discussing your findings ', Monash University .

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Tips for a qualitative dissertation

Veronika Williams

17 October 2017

Tips for students

This blog is part of a series for Evidence-Based Health Care MSc students undertaking their dissertations.

Undertaking an MSc dissertation in Evidence-Based Health Care (EBHC) may be your first hands-on experience of doing qualitative research. I chatted to Dr. Veronika Williams, an experienced qualitative researcher, and tutor on the EBHC programme, to find out her top tips for producing a high-quality qualitative EBHC thesis.

1) Make the switch from a quantitative to a qualitative mindset

It’s not just about replacing numbers with words. Doing qualitative research requires you to adopt a different way of seeing and interpreting the world around you. Veronika asks her students to reflect on positivist and interpretivist approaches: If you come from a scientific or medical background, positivism is often the unacknowledged status quo. Be open to considering there are alternative ways to generate and understand knowledge.

2) Reflect on your role

Quantitative research strives to produce “clean” data unbiased by the context in which it was generated.  With qualitative methods, this is neither possible nor desirable.  Students should reflect on how their background and personal views shape the way they collect and analyse their data. This will not only add to the transparency of your work but will also help you interpret your findings.

3)  Don’t forget the theory

Qualitative researchers use theories as a lens through which they understand the world around them. Veronika suggests that students consider the theoretical underpinning to their own research at the earliest stages. You can read an article about why theories are useful in qualitative research  here.

4) Think about depth rather than breadth

Qualitative research is all about developing a deep and insightful understanding of the phenomenon/ concept you are studying. Be realistic about what you can achieve given the time constraints of an MSc.  Veronika suggests that collecting and analysing a smaller dataset well is preferable to producing a superficial, rushed analysis of a larger dataset.

5) Blur the boundaries between data collection, analysis and writing up

Veronika strongly recommends keeping a research diary or using memos to jot down your ideas as your research progresses. Not only do these add to your audit trail, these entries will help contribute to your first draft and the process of moving towards theoretical thinking. Qualitative researchers move back and forward between their dataset and manuscript as their ideas develop. This enriches their understanding and allows emerging theories to be explored.

6) Move beyond the descriptive

When analysing interviews, for example, it can be tempting to think that having coded your transcripts you are nearly there. This is not the case!  You need to move beyond the descriptive codes to conceptual themes and theoretical thinking in order to produce a high-quality thesis.  Veronika warns against falling into the pitfall of thinking writing up is, “Two interviews said this whilst three interviewees said that”.

7) It’s not just about the average experience

When analysing your data, consider the outliers or negative cases, for example, those that found the intervention unacceptable.  Although in the minority, these respondents will often provide more meaningful insight into the phenomenon or concept you are trying to study.

8) Bounce ideas

Veronika recommends sharing your emerging ideas and findings with someone else, maybe with a different background or perspective. This isn’t about getting to the “right answer” rather it offers you the chance to refine your thinking.  Be sure, though, to fully acknowledge their contribution in your thesis.

9) Be selective

In can be a challenge to meet the dissertation word limit.  It won’t be possible to present all the themes generated by your dataset so focus! Use quotes from across your dataset that best encapsulate the themes you are presenting.  Display additional data in the appendix.  For example, Veronika suggests illustrating how you moved from your coding framework to your themes.

10) Don’t panic!

There will be a stage during analysis and write up when it seems undoable.  Unlike quantitative researchers who begin analysis with a clear plan, qualitative research is more of a journey. Everything will fall into place by the end.  Be sure, though, to allow yourself enough time to make sense of the rich data qualitative research generates.

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Completing Your Qualitative Dissertation: A Road Map from Beginning to End

Student resources, 101 qualitative dissertation questions.

These questions and answers correlate to pages in Completing Your Qualitative Dissertation: A Road Map from Beginning to End, Third Edition , which you have purchased.

As teachers of qualitative research and advisors of doctoral students, we have witnessed and experienced many of the frustrations of students confronted with the academic challenge of writing a dissertation. The questions below have been raised time and again in conversations with students and research colleagues. The intent of including these questions in the companion website for Completing Your Qualitative Dissertation: A Road Map From Beginning to End is that they will hopefully stimulate critical thinking, reflection, and dialogue, thereby motivating doctoral students or prospective doctoral students to seek and consult additional relevant texts and resources in order to delve deeper into the many issues raised. These questions might also be used to prompt discussion between doctoral students and their advisors.

One caveat in compiling this list of questions is to demystify the dissertation process but not to sacrifice intellectual rigor for the sake of simplification. Completing a qualitative dissertation indeed is a rigorous and demanding process, and understanding the process means grasping many complex and interrelated issues.  As a second caveat, one must remember that while most institutions will approach the dissertation in common ways, at the same time there are differences in terms of the organization and presentation, as well as distinct differences in terms of what and how qualitative language and terminology are used. This book presents information as guidelines that are meant to be flexible per institutional expectations and requirements, and subject to modification depending on your institution, department, and program. As such, students should always consult with their advisors and committee members to ascertain specific or particular institutional or departmental requirements.

The questions and answers correspond to the book’s structure and are divided into eight parts:

Parts 1–2 cover conceptual information; that is, the thinking and planning aspects of the dissertation. Parts 3–6 cover the practical aspects involved in preparing to actually write the dissertation. Part 7 includes the detailed requirements related to each of the chapters that compose the dissertation. Part 8 provides the information that one needs regarding the various activities that occur after writing the dissertation. 

• Part 1: Planning and Gearing Up
• Part 2: Choosing an Appropriate Qualitative Approach
• Part 3: Preparing and Writing the Proposal

Part 4: Conducting the Research: Data Collection

Part 5: conducting the research: data analysis, part 6: conducting the research: interpretation and synthesis.

• Part 7: Writing Up and Presenting the Research

Part 8: Planning for the Dissertation Defense and Beyond

Part 9: preparing for the defense, part 1: planning and gearing up.

1. How does qualitative research and quantitative research differ, and what are the defining features of qualitative research? 

Rather than determine cause and effect, or predict or describe the distribution of an attribute among a population, qualitative researchers are interested in understanding how people interpret their experiences and how they construct their worlds. The two paradigms or orientations that inform qualitative research, namely Interpretivism and Critical Theory, place emphasis on seeking understanding of the meanings of human actions and experiences, and on generating accounts of meaning from the viewpoints of those involved. Both paradigms assume that reality is socially constructed and that there is no single observable reality, but rather multiple realities or interpretations. For more information regarding the key defining features of qualitative research, see pages 37–44; 53–55 .

2. What is implied by “rigor” in qualitative research, and what does it mean to conduct a “rigorous” qualitative study?

Sound research requires a systematic and rigorous approach to the design and implementation of the study, the collection and analysis of data, and the interpretation and reporting of findings. Central to the rigor of qualitative research is whether participants’ perspectives have been authentically represented in the research process, and whether the findings are coherent in the sense that they “fit” the data and social context from which they were derived. Because rigor is about being very transparent, evaluating the quality of qualitative research includes criteria that are concerned with good practice in the conduct of the research (methodological rigor), as well as criteria related to the trustworthiness of interpretations made (interpretive rigor). For more information regarding rigor vis-à-vis qualitative research, refer to pages 162–164; 240–242 .

3. Writing a qualitative dissertation is a long and iterative process. What exactly is this “process,” and what should a student expect?

Writing a dissertation is a process but not one that is neat and linear. This work is intellectually rigorous—requiring intensive thinking, preparation, and planning—and is very much a matter of having tenacity, perseverance, and patience. For most people, conducting research and writing a document such as this is a first-time endeavor, an undertaking for which there is little experience. For a broad overview of the qualitative dissertation process, see page 3 .

4. How does one manage data in the most efficient and practical manner throughout the dissertation process?

As you proceed with your research, you will begin to gather and accumulate a diverse array of material that has potential relevance. You certainly do not want to lose any of your material, nor do you want to drown in it. Organizing and managing dissertation-related “stuff” right from the beginning is essential to getting on track and staying focused. For more information regarding data management strategies, see pages 19–20; 65–66 .

5. How can I start thinking about planning my time and resources?

The ability to focus, problem-solve, and make informed decisions at every step of the way will bring your study to completion. Because the time commitment required is substantial, you will need to pace yourself from the beginning. For some practical strategies, suggestions, and tips, see pages 20–23.

6. What would be a realistic timeline in which to complete my dissertation, and how can I remain practical about this?

If you work on your dissertation only when you feel like it, the project will most likely never be completed. Scheduling your time allows you to develop a plan for writing, and also helps reduce the pressure associated with deadlines, as well as the tendency to procrastinate. Moreover, setting a schedule also helps integrate your writing into the rest of your life. There are some basic principles for developing an effective writing schedule, and these can be found on pages 35–36.

7. Journaling is said to be an integral aspect of the qualitative dissertation process. Why is this necessary?   Aside from keeping track of information, you also need to keep track of your thinking. One way to ensure that you preserve your reasoning and thinking and are able to spell out the development of your ideas, is to keep a research journal. The rationale for recording your thinking is explained on page 23.  

8. What is the actual starting point of any qualitative dissertation?

The starting point for any research project, and indeed the first major challenge in conducting research, involves identifying and developing a sound topic. How to go about selecting a worthy and researchable topic and considering potential options is described on page 24.

 9. Does my selected topic need to be original or unique?

A dissertation should be an original piece of research and should make a significant contribution to the field. However, it is important to remember that making an original contribution does not imply that there need be an enormous “breakthrough.” In social science research, the discovery of new facts is rarely an important or even challenging criterion. Rather, research is a process of searching or re-searching for new insights; it is about advancing knowledge or understanding of a practice or phenomenon. More information on going about selecting a topic is provided on page 27.

10.  Once I have decided on an area of interest, how do I go about developing and refining a researchable topic? 

Once you have identified a general area of interest, you will need to begin narrowing your topic. The process of developing a researchable topic is a process of idea generation—the movement from a general interest “out there” toward a more clearly refined idea around a researchable problem. More about this “narrowing” process is discussed on pages 28–30.

Part 2: Choosing an Appropriate Qualitative Approach 

11. What are the most common traditions or genres of qualitative research, and what are the key differences between them? 

There are numerous qualitative traditions or genres, each of which has ways of defining a research topic, critically engaging the literature on that topic, identifying significant research problems, designing the study, and collecting, analyzing, and presenting the data so that it will be most relevant and meaningful. Understanding the logic behind a research approach allows your study to be appropriately positioned within an inquiry tradition and also lays the foundation for supporting your study’s findings. Pages 44–45 offer a descriptive and critical overview of some of the most current qualitative traditions.  

12. What are the key characteristics of Case Study methodology, and how do I conduct a case study?

As a form of qualitative research methodology, case study is an intensive description and analysis of a bounded social phenomenon (or multiple bounded phenomena)—be this a social unit or a system such as a program, institution, process, event, or concept. Case study is at the same time both a methodology (a type of design in qualitative inquiry) and an object of study. Case study is an exploratory form of inquiry that affords significant interaction with research participants, providing an in-depth picture of the unit of study. More information can be found on pages 46–47.

13. What is Ethnography and how is an ethnographic study conducted?

Ethnography, as both a method and a product, has multiple intellectual traditions located in diverse disciplines. The researcher studies a cultural or social group in its natural setting, closely examining customs and ways of life, with the aim of describing and interpreting cultural patterns of behavior, values, and practices. Rooted in cultural anthropology, ethnography involves extended observations of the group, most often through the researcher as a participant observer becoming immersed in the day-to-day lives of the participants. More information can be found on pages 47–48.

14. What is Phenomenology, and what are the characteristics of a phenomenological study?

Phenomenology is both a philosophy and a method, the purpose of which is to investigate the meaning of the lived experience of people to identify the core essence of human experience or phenomena as described by research participants. Phenomenology does not endeavor to develop a theory to explain the world; rather, the aim is to facilitate deeper insight to help us maintain greater contact within the world. Phenomenologists focus on describing what all participants have in common, the basic purpose of research being to reduce individual experiences with a phenomenon to a description of the universal essence. More information can be found on pages 48–49.

15. What is Grounded Theory, and what does a grounded theory study look like?

The purpose of grounded theory is to inductively generate theory that is grounded in, or emerges from, the data. A core component of grounded theory is to move beyond description and to have the researcher generate or discover a theory that is “grounded” in data from the field—especially in actions, interactions, and social processes. Research involves multiple recurrent stages of data collection and the refinement of abstract categories of information. More information can be found on pages 49–50.

16. What is Narrative Inquiry, and how does one go about conducting this type of research?

Narrative research has many forms, incorporates a variety of practices and applications, and is rooted in different social disciplines. As a method, narrative research begins with the experiences as expressed in lived and told stories of individuals or cultures. In this form of research, the researcher studies the lives of one or more individuals through the telling of stories, including poetry, play, or performance. Paramount to all narrative work is the centrality of relationship in the research process and recognition of the sacredness of the stories that participants share and trust within the research environment. Uncertainty and tension guide the work, and rather than produce conclusive findings, the process is intended to offer understanding and meaning. More information can be found on pages 50–51.

17. What is Action Research, and what is an action research study?

Action research is a systematic orientation toward inquiry that seeks effective solutions to complex problems that people confront in their communities and organizations. Especially valuable to those involved in professional, organizational, and community research, action research focuses on specific situations that people encounter by engaging them in collaborative relationships and working on developing localized solutions. Action research, being about collaborative and democratic practices, makes it essentially political because it aims to influence processes of change. Action research is an intervention because it promotes actual change. More information can be found on pages 51–52.

18. What are Postmodernism, Poststructuralism, and Critical Theory Research?

In the past two decades, a critical turn has taken place in the social sciences, humanities, and applied fields, with scholars challenging the historical assumptions of neutrality in inquiry, asserting that all research is fundamentally political. It is increasingly argued that research involves issues of power and that traditionally conducted social science research has silenced, marginalized, and oppressed groups in society by making them the passive objects of inquiry. Postmodernism views the world as complex and reality as transitional. In recognition of the socially constructed nature of the world, meaning rather than knowledge is sought because knowledge is seen as constrained by the discourses that were developed to protect powerful interests. Poststructuralism, with its emphasis on language, forms a subset of postmodernism. More information on these genres can be found on pages 52–53.

19. With all the different options available, how do I go about choosing an appropriate qualitative research approach for my study?

The choice of research approach is directly tied to one’s research problem and purpose. A research problem should not be modified to fit a particular research approach; nor can you assume a particular qualitative approach regardless of your research problem. Having decided on a qualitative research approach, you will proceed to appropriately design your study within the framework of one of the traditions or genres of qualitative inquiry. Thus, the components of the design process (e.g., the theoretical framework, research purpose, and methods of data collection and data analysis) reflect the principles and features that characterize that tradition. More information can be found on pages 55–56.

Part 3: Preparing and Writing the Proposal 

20. What exactly is the dissertation proposal, and what is its function and purpose?

The proposal is an integral and very distinct segment of the dissertation process. It is a well-thought-out written action plan that identifies a narrowly defined problem; a purpose that describes how the problem will be addressed; research questions that are tied to the purpose and, when answered, will shed light on the problem; a review of the literature and relevant research to determine what is already known about the topic; and data collection and data analysis methods. More information regarding the content and process of the dissertation proposal can be found on pages 61–62.

21. How do I go about developing my proposal, and what are the key components of a qualitative dissertation proposal?

As mentioned at the outset of this book, and as you will be reminded throughout, while most institutions approach the proposal and dissertation in common ways, at the same time there are differences in terms of the organization and presentation, and distinct differences in terms of what and how qualitative language and terminology are used. This book presents information as guidelines that are meant to be flexible per institutional expectations and requirements, and subject to modification depending on your institution, department, and program. You will no doubt have to attend carefully to the variations that reflect the expectations and requirements of your particular institution. More information pertaining to the core elements of a qualitative proposal (introduction, literature review, and methodology) can be found on pages 63–65.

22. What are some additional elements that I should be aware of when preparing my proposal?

In addition to the three key parts of the proposal (introduction, literature review, methodology), there are some other elements that you will need to address, and information regarding these elements can be found on pages 65–66.

23. What is an elevator speech?

You may have heard the term "elevator speech." This refers to your ability to clearly and concisely answer the question "what is your study about?" A few points about an elevator speech and its relationship vis-a-vis your proposal are presented on page 66.

24. The idea of a “literature review” really scares me! There seems to be so much that is required! How do I even begin to think about it? 

Literature review is a distinct form of academic writing, a skill that doctoral candidates must master to demonstrate knowledge of the literature landscape that surrounds any given dissertation research problem. Right from the beginning, the literature review is an essential, integral, and ongoing part of the research process. Producing good reviews is a test of your ability to manage the relevant texts and materials, analytically interpret ideas, and integrate and synthesize ideas and data with existing knowledge. Guidelines and suggestions regarding undertaking, managing, and operationalizing literature reviews are provided on pages 105–108.

25. What are some of the most important guidelines regarding academic writing?

A dissertation demonstrates your ability to write a coherent volume of intellectually demanding work. It involves the combination of performing research and writing about your research to describe and explain it. As a researcher/writer, knowing how to best express your ideas in written form to convey them to the reader becomes an essential skill. The dissertation requires a high level of scholarly writing, and as such you will have to get into the mode of writing for a particular audience, that is, the academic community. Further information regarding academic writing requirements is presented on pages 66–68.

26. What are the general format and style requirements for a qualitative dissertation?

A research report must consistently follow a selected system for format and style. Format refers to the general pattern of organization and arrangement of the report. Style refers to appropriate writing conventions and includes rules of grammar, spelling, capitalization, and punctuation to be followed in preparing the report. Most colleges and universities require the use of a specific style—either their own or that in a published style manual. You will need to make inquiries regarding your particular department’s recommended style preference. Regardless of which style manual you use, you are expected to adhere to its rules meticulously. Further information regarding format and style is presented on pages 68–70.

27. What are some of the most important aspects of academic integrity, and what constitutes plagiarism?

The strength of your writing rests on your ability to refer to and incorporate the work of others. It is imperative, however, that you attribute recognition to all and any sources of information that you use. Integrity matters! There are few intellectual offenses more serious than plagiarism in academic and professional contexts. A charge of plagiarism can have severe consequences, including expulsion from a university or loss of a job, not to mention a writer’s loss of credibility and professional standing. Further information regarding academic integrity and strategies for avoiding plagiarism is presented on pages 71–73.

28. What is Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval, and why is it necessary?

Any research designed to research human subjects, interact with human subjects, provide interventions for human subjects, obtain identifiable information about living subjects, or observe and record private behavior of human subjects, must come under the jurisdiction of the governing board of Institutional Research. Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) have emerged in accredited academic institutions of higher education as bureaucratic entities responsible for the regulation, governance, and enforcement of significant research ethics. While there are some variations across disciplines and national boundaries, IRB approval is a stamp of credibility backed by a legitimate academic institution. This credibility is valuable both for the researcher and for the research participants. Further information regarding application for IRB approval is discussed on pages 74–75.

29. What are the differences between “methodology” and “research methods”?

Methodology determines how the researcher thinks about a study, how decisions about the study are made, and how researchers position themselves to engage firstly with participants and then with the data that are generated. The term methods commonly denote specific techniques, procedures, or tools used by the researcher to generate and analyze data. The methods that a qualitative researcher chooses are informed by both the research design and the research methodology so that there is a conceptual fit across all levels. More about methodology and methods, and the interrelationship between them, can be found on page 157 .

30. What is meant by “methodological congruence”?

As the researcher, you actively create the link among problem, purpose, and approach through a process of reflecting on problem and purpose, focusing on researchable questions and considering how to best address these questions. Thinking along these lines affords a research study “methodological congruence.” In essence, the position of the researcher is the bridge between philosophy, methodology, and the application of methods. Thus, the alignment between the research question, chosen methodology and personal philosophy, and the ability of the researcher to be reflexive in relation to the research is critical to ensure congruence in the study that will be manifested in the products of the research. More information regarding the notion of methodological congruence can be found on pages 153–154.

31. What are the most commonly used methods of data collection in qualitative research?

Based on the research questions, specific data collection methods are chosen to gather the required information in the most appropriate and meaningful way. A solid rationale for the choice of methods used is crucial, as this indicates methodological congruence, and illustrates that the choice of methods is grounded in the study’s overall research design. Details pertaining to some of the most commonly used methods of data collection (e.g., interviews, focus groups, observation, critical incidents, surveys, and document review) can be found on pages 154–157.

32. What is meant by “triangulation” of methods, and how important is this?

Triangulation enhances the quality of data from multiple sources (e.g., people, events) in multiple ways (e.g., interviews, observations, document review) with the idea that this will illuminate different facets of situations and experiences, and help portray them in their entirety and complexity. More about triangulation strategies and the significance thereof in qualitative research can be found on page 154.

33. What are some of the most important considerations when writing up the methods section?

To show that you have done a critical reading of the literature, and to acknowledge that data collection methods are not without some advantages, your discussion should be sufficiently detailed. More information pertaining to these necessary details is presented on page 158.

34. The idea of “researcher as instrument” is often portrayed as problematic. How do I best understand this phenomenon, and how can I go about defending this perspective to those who see qualitative research as limited and subjective?

“Researcher as instrument” raises important ethical, accountability, and social justice issues, including inter-subjectivity, power, positioning, and voice. Importantly, the reflexive researcher understands that all research is value-bound and that a reflective stance is therefore imperative; that is, reflexivity implies the explicit self-consciousness on the part of the researcher, including social, political, and value positions. Reflexivity is defined as the researcher’s conscious awareness of her or his cognitive and emotional filters comprising their experiences, world-views, and biases that may influence their interpretation of participants’ perceptions. More information on this key qualitative research issue can be found on pages 54–55; 242–243.

35. What is qualitative data analysis really all about?  

Qualitative data analysis is the process of bringing order, structure, and meaning to the masses of data you have collected. Although there are stages dedicated to formal analysis, analysis is an inherent and ongoing part of the research and writing process. Many students become overwhelmed at this point of the dissertation process, having completed or still being immersed in data collection and faced with mounds and mounds of “stuff” and unsure about what needs to be done first. Indeed, there can be a really vast amount of data that need to be transcribed, organized, and reduced. More on qualitative data analysis can be found on pages 187–189.

36. What advice is there for student researchers to best prepare themselves for the huge task of data analysis?

The data generated by qualitative methods are voluminous, and the sheer quantity of raw data can indeed be quite daunting. The best piece of advice I can offer is that if data are to be thoroughly analyzed, they must be well organized . Attention to detail in managing data is important at every stage of the research process. This notion becomes all too clear when it is time to write up the research. Strategies regarding data management in preparation for data analysis are presented on pages 189–190.

37. What does it mean to develop an “analytic mindset”?

Qualitative research does not purport to be objective nor is this a goal of qualitative research. However, to be rigorous, qualitative research does strive to be transparent, and to openly and clearly document and communicate all decisions taken throughout the research process. This must become an integral part of your thinking and mindset. More about ways of maintaining transparency, and hence ensuring the rigor of your study, is discussed on pages 158–159; 188–189.

38. There are many different ways to go about doing qualitative data analysis. How do I decide on the best approach for my specific study?

Different qualitative research traditions or genres promote specific strategies for data analysis. Whatever approach you choose to use should be suited to the research tradition that you have adopted. In addition, the preference of your advisor and your department will of course need to be taken into consideration. Different analytic strategies are discussed on pages 190–193.

39. What are “codes,” and what are their role and function in the qualitative data analysis process?

Much is made about coding as a fundamental skill for qualitative analysis. Although there is really nothing that mysterious about it, the literature on data analysis and coding in particular is voluminous, and the vast amount of information can certainly be overwhelming. Details pertaining to codes and the overall coding process are provided on pages 197–199.

40. What is the procedure for coding data?

The reason you have spent so much time and energy talking to participants is to find out what their experience is and to endeavor to understand it from their perspective. You, as the researcher, will be exercising judgment as to what you think is significant in each interview transcript. Some passages may stand out because they are striking to you in some way. Others may stand out because they are contradictory and seem inconsistent with your conceptual framework. In this regard, you must be vigilant in not only seeking material that supports your own opinions but also remaining open to the unexpected. All of the aspects of coding your material are presented on pages 201–202.

41. What do you do once you have coded your data?

Once you have coded your material, you are ready to categorize your units of information. What is imperative is that your coding scheme and conceptual framework continue to remain flexible. All aspects of the process of assigning your codes to categories are presented on pages 202–204.

42. What is content analysis, and how does it differ from coding?

In traditional content analysis studies, counting the number of times a particular set of codes occurs is an important measure in assessing the frequency of items or phenomena. However, in the qualitative analysis process, frequency of occurrence is not necessarily an indicator of significance. The analytic approaches for most coding methods do not ask you to count; they ask you to ponder, speculate, assess, integrate, and synthesize. Qualitative analysis therefore goes way beyond simply counting . See pages 199–200 for further discussion on this distinction.

43. There is a lot of talk around computer software analysis programs? What types are available, and are these preferable than conducting a manual “old fashioned” analysis of my data?

If you choose to make use of computer aided software, then searching for the most appropriate program is important so that it directly supports and is usable in terms of your study’s research design and methodology. Information regarding the most common software currently in use, including benefits and limitations, is provided on pages 205–207.

44. How does “data analysis” differ from “interpretation of findings”?

By way of data analysis , you are forming a record of frequently occurring phenomena or patterns of behavior. Once you have established patterns, these patterns need to be explained.  This is where interpretation of findings comes into play. Whereas the chapter of data analysis presents the findings of your research by organizing data from various sources into categories to produce a readable narrative, the purpose of the chapter dealing with interpretation of findings is to provide interpretative insights into your study’s findings. You now have an opportunity to communicate to others what you think your findings mean and integrate your findings with literature, research, and practice. More about this is discussed on pages 233–236.

45. What essentially is “interpretation” in qualitative research? How do I go about interpreting what I have found?

Qualitative research begins with questions, and its ultimate purpose is learning. To inform the questions, the researcher collects data . Data are like building blocks that, when grouped into patterns, become information , which in turn, when applied or used, becomes knowledge . The challenge of qualitative analysis lies in making sense of large amounts of data—reducing raw data, identifying what is significant, and constructing a framework for communicating the meaning of your findings. This is discussed on pages 240–243.

46.  How and in what ways does analysis of findings differ among the various qualitative research traditions?

Analytical approaches are linked to particular forms of data collection and are underpinned by specific conceptual and philosophical traditions. These differences are discussed on page 238.

47. How and in what ways does interpretation of findings differ among the various qualitative research traditions?

Just as there are clear analytic distinctions among traditions or genres demanding that the researcher will have to think about data analysis in a particular way, so are interpretation and representation strategies specific to each tradition. These differences are discussed on page 241.

48. How do I prepare myself for analysis and interpretation?

You might ask yourself what the chapter on interpretation of findings is really all about and what it should constitute. Since findings are not to be taken at face value, how does one go about seeking the deeper meanings behind the findings? What is really involved? And how does one get started? How to begin thinking about your analysis and interpretation is presented on page 236.

 49. How do I begin to go about analyzing and interpreting my findings? 

You are most likely asking yourself what the chapter on analysis of findings is really all about and what it should constitute. How does one get started, and what is really involved? You may want to structure your thinking according to three interrelated activities: (a) Seeking significant patterns and themes among the findings, (b) making use of description and interpretation, and (c) providing some sort of synthesis or integration. More about these activities and how to go about “peeling back” the many layers in order to explain the meaning behind your findings is provided on pages 236–244.

50. What are the limitations of my credibility in the analytic and interpretive process? After all, I bring my own perspectives and experiences, and hence assumptions, subjectivity and biases!

Whereas in quantitative research the role of the researcher is detached with the aim of being as objective as possible, in qualitative research, the researcher is personally involved, believing that research is always value-bound. Factors that enhance the credibility of a qualitative study are discussed on page 244.

51. A lot is made about the notion of “synthesis.” What are the implications of synthesizing findings in qualitative research?

Qualitative research involves moving from a holistic perspective to individual parts (analysis) and then back to a holistic look at the data (synthesis). Whereas the findings chapter splits apart and separates out pieces and chunks of data to tell the “story of the research,” the analysis chapter is an attempt to reconstruct a holistic understanding of your study. Analysis is intended to ultimately depict an integrated picture. More details are presented on pages 243–244.

Part 7: Writing Up and Presenting the Research 

You will notice that the questions in Part 7 below are organized around particular standard dissertation chapters. Please be aware that different institutions have different expectations and requirements with regard to the structure and flow of dissertation chapters. Students will need to consult with their advisors in this regard. 

7.1 Introduction to the Study 

52. What is the overall purpose of Chapter One (the study’s Introduction), and what are the key components of this chapter?

The first chapter of your dissertation is the most critical, and everything that follows hinges on how well this chapter is constructed. The introductory chapter therefore sets the stage for the study; it also makes a case for the significance of the problem, contextualizes the study, and provides an introduction to its basic components—most specifically, directing the reader to the research problem, research purpose, and research questions. This first chapter of the dissertation also forms part of the proposal. The various elements that comprise this chapter are discussed on pages 9–10; 85.

53. How do I move from identifying a research topic to developing and articulating a viable research problem?

The sooner you can begin to narrow your research interests (topic) and identify and develop a topical focus (research problem), the better.  Beginning researchers often confuse a topic with a research problem. A topic refers to a general area of interest. A research problem is more specific; it seeks to understand some aspect of the general topic. More on how to begin narrowing down a research topic and developing a clear research problem is discussed on pages 86–88.

54. What is the research problem, and how does this inform the development of research purpose and research questions?

At the heart of a dissertation is the articulation of the research problem. This is the place where most committee members go first to understand and assess the merits of a proposal or a dissertation. More on the research problem and how it informs the research questions is discussed on pages 88–91.

55. How do I go about developing and honing my research problem statement?

The problem statement serves a foundational role in that it communicates what is the formal reason for engaging in the dissertation in the first place. The problem statement is the discrepancy between what we already know and what we want to know. The problem statement also illustrates why we care; that is, why your study should be conducted. More details about what constitute a viable problem statement, and how to go about assessing viability, is discussed on pages 87–89.

56. What is the purpose statement, and how do I articulate this?

Once you have identified your own narrowly defined topic and concise problem statement, you are ready to formulate your purpose statement. The purpose statement is the major objective or intent of the study ; it enables the reader to understand the central thrust of the research.  More about the purpose statement and how to go about developing this is discussed on pages 88–90.

57. How do I develop and articulate effective and relevant research questions?

The research questions are directly tied to the research purpose. Answering the questions must accomplish the study’s purpose and contribute to shedding light on and addressing the problem. One must be able to trace all the ideas in the research questions back through the purpose statement to the problem statement; this underscores that you must ask relevant and effective questions. Details regarding how to craft research questions are included in pages 90–92.

58. What are some other additional elements that need to be included in the introductory chapter?

The first chapter of your dissertation (and of your proposal) introduces and describes the critical components that set in place a research study: problem, purpose, and research questions. In addition, there are some other associated elements or subsections. It should be noted that there may be some variations in required subheadings depending on individual programs and/or universities, and you should be sure to check for this. An outline of typical subheadings that compose Chapter One is presented on pages 92–94.

7.2 The Literature Review Chapter

59. What is the function and purpose of the literature review chapter in the qualitative dissertation?

The literature review is a sophisticated form of research in its own right that requires a great deal of research skill and insight. You are expected to identify appropriate topics or issues, justify why these are the appropriate choice for addressing the research problem, search for and retrieve the appropriate literature, analyze and critique the literature, create new understandings of the topic through synthesis, and develop a conceptual framework that will provide the underlying structure for your study. More on the function and purpose of the literature review chapter is presented on pages 104–105.

60. What is the scope of the literature review chapter in the dissertation? In other words, how extensive is the review meant to be?

The major purpose of reviewing the literature is to determine what has already been done that relates to your topic. This knowledge not only prevents you from unintentionally duplicating research that has already been conducted, but it also affords you the understanding and insight needed to situate your topic within an existing framework. Therefore, a thorough search and reading of related literature is, in a very real sense, part of your own academic development—part of becoming an “expert” in your chosen field of inquiry. Given all of this, you might be asking, “What is the scope of a literature review, and how extensive will this review need to be?” These questions are responded to on pages 105–108.

61. How do I start preparing for the literature review?  

Thinking about the entire literature review may be overwhelming and intimidating. Instead of viewing it as one big whole, try to think of it as a series of steps—and steps within those steps—and prepare to tackle each topic one by one, setting small achievable goals within each topic area. The different stages of the literature review process, and all the key elements involved in digesting scholarly sources, are discussed on pages 108–118.

62. What is the idea of “synthesis” vis-à-vis the literature review? And how is synthesis different from summary?

Synthesis and summary are strategies that are used in reading, review, and research. Both are important skills or techniques in making sense of what one is reading, and each one plays an important role in the qualitative research process. However, they are very different activities. Each has a different purpose, process, and outcome. This is discussed on pages 121–122.

63. What should I know about and be aware of with regard web/online resources?

Although not always scholarly, the Internet will more than likely be your initial starting point for topic ideas and information. However, anyone anywhere can put information on the web, so any information from the Internet should be cited with caution. Remember that using the Internet to find academic information takes a lot of hard work to carefully evaluate and determine if a web resource is a reliable, authoritative, or even a scholarly information resource. Criteria for evaluating the credibility, accuracy, currency, and legitimacy of web resources are discussed on pages 113–114.

64. How do I present my literature review in the dissertation?

Qualitative researchers use existing literature to guide their studies in various ways depending on the type of study being conducted. There are also differences regarding the purpose and process for presenting the review of the literature with respect to each of the research traditions. Guidelines for presenting a literature review are discussed on pages 122–124.

65. So much is made of the conceptual framework. What is it, and how can I start thinking about this?

Graduate students often lack a clear understanding of the nature of the conceptual framework; what it is, its purpose, where it is derived from, how it is developed, how it is used, and what effect it has on research. Thus, they find themselves at a loss in the process of developing a conceptual framework. Moreover, oftentimes experienced researchers and advisors encounter challenges in guiding candidates as to what constitutes a rigorous and meaningful conceptual framework. As such, the structure and function of a conceptual framework continues to mystify and frustrate. More information on this is presented on pages 124–127.

66. What are the role, function, and application of the conceptual framework in the dissertation?

The conceptual framework plays a central role throughout the entire research process, and, most important, in the final analysis. A well-conceived conceptual framework is influenced by and at the same time influences the research process at all levels and at all stages. There are a set of distinct roles and functions of the conceptual framework in a qualitative dissertation, and these are discussed on pages 127–128.

67. What is the essential value of the dissertation’s conceptual framework? And are there any limitations associated with a conceptual framework?

The conceptual or theoretical framework strengthens your study in many ways, and there are also some caveats to be aware of. The value and limitations are explained on pages 128–130.

68. How do I go about developing and presenting my study’s conceptual framework? Does this have to be an elaborate diagram?

In acknowledging the conceptual framework as an integral element of the research process, as a qualitative researcher, you need to know how to develop and create a conceptual or theoretical framework and where to introduce this in the dissertation. The term is somewhat an abstract notion, conjuring up a “model” or “diagram” of some sort. Moreover, there is no uniform and consistent definition, and discussions in the literature around conceptual frameworks are not clear or precise. Strategies for developing the conceptual framework and ideas for presenting it in the dissertation are discussed on pages 130–132. 

7.3 The Methodology Chapter

69. What is the purpose of the Methodology chapter?

The Methodology chapter of the dissertation presents the research design and the specific procedures used in conducting your study. In this chapter, you will show the reader that you understand the methodological implications of the choices you have made and, in particular, that you have thought carefully about the linkages between your study’s purpose and research questions, and the research approach and research methods that you have selected. More details regarding the purpose of this chapter are presented on pages 143–145.

70. What are the key components of the Methodology chapter?

The dissertation’s methodology chapter covers a lot of ground. In this chapter, you will document each step that you have taken in designing and conducting the study. This chapter situates the study within a particular methodological tradition and provides a detailed description of all aspects of the design and procedures of the study. While your headings and subheadings in this chapter are contingent on your particular university’s requirements, make sure your sections are in a logical sequence and what you write is comprehensive, clear, precise, and sufficiently detailed. An overview of the elements that would constitute a comprehensive and sound methodology chapter is presented on pages 11–12; 146–147.

71. What is the research sample, and how is this different from the research population?

The research sample is a subset of the population. Identifying your research sample, and the method you used to select that sample, provides the reader with some sense of the scope of your study. In addition, your study’s credibility relies on the quality of procedures you have used to select the research participants. Further information regarding qualitative research samples is provided on page 147.

72. How do I go about selecting my research sample, and how large does it need to be?

In qualitative research, selection of the research sample is purposeful . The logic of purposeful sampling lies in selecting information-rich cases, with the objective of yielding insight and understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. This method is in contrast to the random sampling procedures that characterize quantitative research, which is based on statistical probability theory. Further information regarding purposeful sampling and sample size is discussed on pages 148–149.

73. What kinds of information am I going to need from the research site and research sample?

Four areas of information are typically needed for most qualitative studies: contextual, perceptual, demographic, and theoretical. Additional details regarding the types of information needed, and how to go about collecting that information, are discussed on pages 149–151.

74. What is “research design,” and what are the implications of the choice of research design for my study?

Engaging in research involves choosing a study design that corresponds with your study’s problem, purpose, research questions, choice of site, and research sample. This calls to the fore the concept of methodological congruence, whereby all the study’s components are interconnected and interrelated so that the study itself is a cohesive whole rather than the sum of fragmented or isolated parts. You will also need to consider whether the design is a comfortable match with your worldview and your skills. How to go about developing the research design of your study and the criteria to take into consideration in doing so are presented on pages 151–152.

75. What are the key ethical considerations in conducting qualitative research?

In any research study, ethical issues relating to the protection of the participants are of vital concern. As researchers, we are morally bound to conduct our research in a manner that minimizes potential harm to those involved in the study. For the most part, issues of ethics focus on establishing safeguards that will protect the rights of participants and include informed consent, on protecting participants from harm, and on ensuring confidentiality. As a qualitative researcher, you need to remain attentive throughout your study to the researcher–participant relationship, which is determined by roles, status, and cultural norms. Central issues with regard to ethics in qualitative research are discussed on pages 161–162.

76.  How do I best understand issues of “trustworthiness” or “legitimation” regarding qualitative research?

Qualitative research is based to a large degree on reflection and interpretation. The researcher as instrument brings her or his experience and perspective to the table. Qualitative research does not purport to be objective, nor is this a goal of qualitative research. However, to be rigorous, qualitative research does strive to be transparent and to openly, legitimately, and clearly document and communicate all decisions taken throughout the research process. Issues of trustworthiness in qualitative research (credibility, dependability, and confirmability) and how these compare with quantitative research criteria are discussed on pages 162–163.

77. How can I better understand conflicting reports about the generalizability of qualitative research?

Although generalizability is not the intended goal of qualitative research, what must be addressed is the issue of transferability ; that is, the ways in which your reader determines whether and to what extent some of the elements of your study can be used as a way to understand similar elements of another context. Exactly what transferability implies and how to account for transferability in your qualitative study are discussed on page 164.

78. What is meant by “limitations” and “delimitations” in a qualitative research study, and what is the difference between these two concepts?

Limitations of the study are the characteristics of design or methodology that expose the conditions that may weaken the study. Delimitations refer to the initial choices made about the broader, overall design of your study and are those characteristics that define and clarify the conceptual boundaries of your research . More about limitations and delimitations and how to account for these in your study is discussed on pages 164–166.

7.4. Analyzing Data and Reporting Findings 

79. What constitutes the dissertation’s findings analysis chapter?

In this chapter, you present the analysis of your raw data, which are your findings. You have now moved beyond data to information . The challenge of qualitative analysis lies in making sense of large amounts of data, identifying what is significant, and constructing a framework for communicating the essence of what the data reveal. This chapter lays the foundation for the analysis, conclusions, and recommendations that will appear in subsequent chapters. Factors to take into consideration when preparing and writing this chapter, as well as a suggested outline, are provided on pages 13; 187–189.

80. What is the procedure involved in qualitative data analysis, and what is the role of the conceptual framework?

Data analysis demands a heightened awareness of the data and an open mind to recurring and common threads, some of which may be subtle. The process can be repetitious, tedious, and time consuming. While there is a somewhat systematic and stepwise procedure to prepare and analyze the data, the interrelationship among these steps is not necessarily linear. The phases involved in data analysis and the integral function of your conceptual framework are presented on pages 193–197.

81. How are research findings to be presented in a qualitative dissertation?

As the researcher, your goal is to tell a story that should be vivid and interesting, while also accurate and credible. In your report, the events, the people, and their words and actions are made explicit so that readers can experience the situation in a similar way to the researcher, as well as experience the world of the research participants.

Qualitative analysis is a creative and ongoing process that requires thoughtful judgments about what is significant and meaningful in the data. General guidelines for presenting this chapter are presented on pages 207–208.

82. What does this mean to present findings by way of quotation categories, and how do I go about doing this?

In qualitative research, interviewing is usually the major source of the data needed for understanding the phenomenon under study. The findings of qualitative research are typically reported in a narrative manner. Reports of qualitative studies usually include extensive samples of quotations from participants, and these provide the detail and substantiate the story that you are telling. An overwhelming question facing any researcher embarking on the write-up of the research report is, “Where do I begin to tell my story?” The various steps involved in this process are discussed on pages 208–212.

83. What is meant by thematic presentation of findings?

While the standard form of presenting quotes in qualitative research is to weave the quotes into your narrative, this is not the only form. Quotes can also be presented within charts, tables, or figures, with the overall goal to convey the story-line of your research according to the most predominant themes. More about this way of presenting findings can be found on pages 212–213.

7.5 Analysis and Interpretation of Findings 

84. What is the role and function of the analysis and synthesis chapter?

The previous chapter of the dissertation involved the analysis of data to produce the study’s findings. Organizing, preparing, and presenting the findings of your research is a somewhat objective exercise; the researcher is, in this instance, a reporter of information. This chapter involves the analysis, interpretation, and synthesis of those findings . Both chapters involve analytic decisions, and these two chapters together should convince a reader that you, the researcher, are sufficiently knowledgeable about the interlocking analytic processes that constitute qualitative research. Further details pertaining to this chapter’s place in the dissertation are provided in pages 13–14; 233–236.

85. What does it mean to seek patterns and themes?

Qualitative analysis is essentially about searching for patterns and themes; that is, the trends that you see emerging from among your findings. Now again, when you are analyzing your findings, you look for themes once again—this time not in raw data but in the findings that have emerged. Bear in mind that analytical approaches are linked to particular forms of data collection and are underpinned by specific conceptual and philosophical traditions. Each tradition provides a perspective on reality that is specific to that tradition. More on this is discussed on pages 238–240.

86. Once I have established patterns and themes, how do I go on to describe and interpret my study’s findings?

A qualitative dissertation should not only provide sufficient description to allow the reader to understand the basis for an interpretation but also provide meaningful interpretation to allow the reader to appreciate the description. An interpretive reading of your data involves constructing a version of what you think the findings mean or represent or what you think you can infer from the findings . Interpretation, in effect, moves the whole analytic process to a higher level. Guidelines for interpreting your material are presented on pages 240–243.

7.6 Conclusions and Recommendations Chapter

87. Formulating the study’s conclusions and recommendations constitute the final chapter of the dissertation. What should I be aware of regarding this chapter?

The final chapter of the dissertation presents a set of concluding statements and recommendations. By way of the conclusions, the story of your research is wrapped up , bringing it to its logical finale. Recommendations are the application of those conclusions. Writing conclusions and providing recommendations will draw on your ability to be a critical and, at the same time, creative thinker. Characteristics of worthy conclusions and recommendations are presented on pages 15; 269–270.

 88. How do I begin thinking about developing trustworthy conclusions?

When you were developing the study’s key findings, you engaged in critical thinking and reflection about all the potential deeper meanings behind these findings. As such, you were able to brainstorm a number of possible interpretations that explained your findings. In generating conclusions, you now need to go back to your findings and interpretations. A process to stimulate thinking about developing conclusions and making sure that your findings, interpretations, and conclusions are all aligned is presented on pages 270–271.

89. How do I write up my study’s conclusions?

As a general rule of thumb, you should provide at least one conclusion for each finding. However, the process is not altogether linear, and so it is possible that one conclusion can (but does not always) cut across more than one finding. It is important to bear in mind when thinking about and formulating each of your conclusions that they must be logically tied to one another . More about writing conclusions, as well as a tool for generating conclusions, is presented on pages 271–272.

90. How can I go about I developing actionable recommendations?

Recommendations follow your findings and conclusions. They are the application of those conclusions. A tool for generating the study’s recommendations is presented on pages 272–273.

91. How do I write up my recommendations?

You make recommendations based on your own experiences in conducting the research, as well as in any other professional capacity. Recommendations can have implications for policy and practice, as well as for further research. Further details pertaining to providing recommendations are presented on page 273.

92.     Will I have an opportunity to reflect on my research and findings?

Most certainly! As you near the end of your study, you may want to pause and reflect on the long qualitative journey you have undertaken. You may include this reflection in the last chapter, following your conclusions and recommendations. Suggestions about this piece of the dissertation are provided on pages 273–274.

93. Why is alignment such an important component to consider, and why should this be revisited as I near completion of the dissertation?  

You will have known throughout your research about the importance of alignment among the first three core critical elements: problem, purpose, and research questions. As you reach the final stages of writing your dissertation, it is crucial that you once again make certain that all the necessary elements that constitute your dissertation are aligned with one another. This will ensure that your study is tight and that you have taken an important step in ensuring methodological integrity ; this is extremely important for the defense when, among other things, the methodological integrity of your research is finely scrutinized. More about alignment is presented on pages 283–284.

 94. How do I craft my study’s title?

The title of your dissertation should catch the readers’ attention while at the same time properly informing them of the main focus of your study. Crafting an effective title is an iterative and ongoing exercise. A title has many uses. Most important, it should accurately reflect your work. More details about the title are provided on pages 284–285.

95. How do I prepare an Abstract?

Writing a good abstract requires that you explain what you did and what you found in simple, direct language. The abstract needs to be dense with information but also readable, well organized, concise and specific, focused, and coherent.  Abstracts can differ in terms of style and word count. It is suggested that you consult with your advisor, departmental regulations, and the relevant style manual regarding abstract requirements. More about the abstract is provided on pages 285–289.

96. What is the essential purpose of the dissertation defense?

The defense, in effect, moves your dissertation from the private domain into the arena of public discourse, providing you with some sense of closure. Actual procedures for conducting the meeting and the formalities involved are discussed on pages 302–303.

97. What is the process for selecting a defense committee?

Be aware that each university or college has a different system regarding dissertation committee structure and the process of preparing for that structure. Each institution has its own way of going about setting up the defense meeting, and it is recommended that you consult with your institution’s office of doctoral studies with regard to the correct procedures and protocol. Some general guidelines are provided on pages 300–301.

98. How can I best prepare myself for this milestone event, and what are some beneficial pre-defense strategies that I should know about?

Because this is the culminating aspect of a rigorous, traditional, and long-standing ritual, you are likely to approach the defense with some sense of anxiety. This is certainly understandable! Therefore, the more you can frame the defense as an opportunity to present your research publicly and the more you take a proactive position, the better the experience is likely to be. Guidelines toward this end are provided on pages 302–306.

99. Following the defense and all necessary revisions to my dissertation, what opportunities can I pursue regarding publishing my research?  

The dissertation process comes to a definitive end when the final document is submitted and the doctoral degree is awarded. At this juncture, you might consider looking beyond the dissertation and think of how you can share what you have researched with a broader audience than the academic community. Publishing your findings is a way to contribute to the ongoing knowledge base and work toward advancing your professional career. Details regarding publishing your research are provided on pages 308–309.

100. Following the defense and all necessary revisions to my dissertation, what opportunities can I pursue regarding presenting my research?

In addition to publications, completion of the dissertation provides you with  opportunities to present your study in other academic settings and research forums, such as graduate seminars and professional associations. Details regarding presenting your research are provided on page 310.

101. It is sometimes said that “the best dissertation is a DONE dissertation.”  However, how does one actually evaluate the quality of a qualitative dissertation?

I have no doubt that you will ask yourself whether there are key criteria or pointers that can help you determine the quality of your work as you navigate this long and intense journey. The short answer to this question is yes!  Once you have some idea of the core elements that are required for the various sections of your dissertation, an evaluation rubric is included for your convenience on pages 316–325 . Please be sure to use this rubric as a broad set of guidelines only in checking your work at different points along the way and in assessing or evaluating the quality of your work overall once completed. Hopefully this tool will be useful to you in determining where limitations may lie and where improvements can be made. 

How To Write The Discussion Chapter

A Simple Explainer With Examples + Free Template

By: Jenna Crossley (PhD) | Reviewed By: Dr. Eunice Rautenbach | August 2021

If you’re reading this, chances are you’ve reached the discussion chapter of your thesis or dissertation and are looking for a bit of guidance. Well, you’ve come to the right place ! In this post, we’ll unpack and demystify the typical discussion chapter in straightforward, easy to understand language, with loads of examples .

Overview: The Discussion Chapter

• What  the discussion chapter is
• What to include in your discussion
• How to write up your discussion
• A few tips and tricks to help you along the way
• Free discussion template

What (exactly) is the discussion chapter?

The discussion chapter is where you interpret and explain your results within your thesis or dissertation. This contrasts with the results chapter, where you merely present and describe the analysis findings (whether qualitative or quantitative ). In the discussion chapter, you elaborate on and evaluate your research findings, and discuss the significance and implications of your results .

In this chapter, you’ll situate your research findings in terms of your research questions or hypotheses and tie them back to previous studies and literature (which you would have covered in your literature review chapter). You’ll also have a look at how relevant and/or significant your findings are to your field of research, and you’ll argue for the conclusions that you draw from your analysis. Simply put, the discussion chapter is there for you to interact with and explain your research findings in a thorough and coherent manner.

What should I include in the discussion chapter?

First things first: in some studies, the results and discussion chapter are combined into one chapter .  This depends on the type of study you conducted (i.e., the nature of the study and methodology adopted), as well as the standards set by the university.  So, check in with your university regarding their norms and expectations before getting started. In this post, we’ll treat the two chapters as separate, as this is most common.

Basically, your discussion chapter should analyse , explore the meaning and identify the importance of the data you presented in your results chapter. In the discussion chapter, you’ll give your results some form of meaning by evaluating and interpreting them. This will help answer your research questions, achieve your research aims and support your overall conclusion (s). Therefore, you discussion chapter should focus on findings that are directly connected to your research aims and questions. Don’t waste precious time and word count on findings that are not central to the purpose of your research project.

As this chapter is a reflection of your results chapter, it’s vital that you don’t report any new findings . In other words, you can’t present claims here if you didn’t present the relevant data in the results chapter first.  So, make sure that for every discussion point you raise in this chapter, you’ve covered the respective data analysis in the results chapter. If you haven’t, you’ll need to go back and adjust your results chapter accordingly.

If you’re struggling to get started, try writing down a bullet point list everything you found in your results chapter. From this, you can make a list of everything you need to cover in your discussion chapter. Also, make sure you revisit your research questions or hypotheses and incorporate the relevant discussion to address these.  This will also help you to see how you can structure your chapter logically.

Need a helping hand?

How to write the discussion chapter

Now that you’ve got a clear idea of what the discussion chapter is and what it needs to include, let’s look at how you can go about structuring this critically important chapter. Broadly speaking, there are six core components that need to be included, and these can be treated as steps in the chapter writing process.

Step 1: Restate your research problem and research questions

The first step in writing up your discussion chapter is to remind your reader of your research problem , as well as your research aim(s) and research questions . If you have hypotheses, you can also briefly mention these. This “reminder” is very important because, after reading dozens of pages, the reader may have forgotten the original point of your research or been swayed in another direction. It’s also likely that some readers skip straight to your discussion chapter from the introduction chapter , so make sure that your research aims and research questions are clear.

Step 2: Summarise your key findings

Next, you’ll want to summarise your key findings from your results chapter. This may look different for qualitative and quantitative research , where qualitative research may report on themes and relationships, whereas quantitative research may touch on correlations and causal relationships. Regardless of the methodology, in this section you need to highlight the overall key findings in relation to your research questions.

Typically, this section only requires one or two paragraphs , depending on how many research questions you have. Aim to be concise here, as you will unpack these findings in more detail later in the chapter. For now, a few lines that directly address your research questions are all that you need.

Some examples of the kind of language you’d use here include:

• The data suggest that…
• The data support/oppose the theory that…
• The analysis identifies…

These are purely examples. What you present here will be completely dependent on your original research questions, so make sure that you are led by them .

Step 3: Interpret your results

Once you’ve restated your research problem and research question(s) and briefly presented your key findings, you can unpack your findings by interpreting your results. Remember: only include what you reported in your results section – don’t introduce new information.

From a structural perspective, it can be a wise approach to follow a similar structure in this chapter as you did in your results chapter. This would help improve readability and make it easier for your reader to follow your arguments. For example, if you structured you results discussion by qualitative themes, it may make sense to do the same here.

Alternatively, you may structure this chapter by research questions, or based on an overarching theoretical framework that your study revolved around. Every study is different, so you’ll need to assess what structure works best for you.

When interpreting your results, you’ll want to assess how your findings compare to those of the existing research (from your literature review chapter). Even if your findings contrast with the existing research, you need to include these in your discussion. In fact, those contrasts are often the most interesting findings . In this case, you’d want to think about why you didn’t find what you were expecting in your data and what the significance of this contrast is.

Here are a few questions to help guide your discussion:

• How do your results relate with those of previous studies ?
• If you get results that differ from those of previous studies, why may this be the case?
• What do your results contribute to your field of research?
• What other explanations could there be for your findings?

When interpreting your findings, be careful not to draw conclusions that aren’t substantiated . Every claim you make needs to be backed up with evidence or findings from the data (and that data needs to be presented in the previous chapter – results). This can look different for different studies; qualitative data may require quotes as evidence, whereas quantitative data would use statistical methods and tests. Whatever the case, every claim you make needs to be strongly backed up.

Step 4: Acknowledge the limitations of your study

The fourth step in writing up your discussion chapter is to acknowledge the limitations of the study. These limitations can cover any part of your study , from the scope or theoretical basis to the analysis method(s) or sample. For example, you may find that you collected data from a very small sample with unique characteristics, which would mean that you are unable to generalise your results to the broader population.

For some students, discussing the limitations of their work can feel a little bit self-defeating . This is a misconception, as a core indicator of high-quality research is its ability to accurately identify its weaknesses. In other words, accurately stating the limitations of your work is a strength, not a weakness . All that said, be careful not to undermine your own research. Tell the reader what limitations exist and what improvements could be made, but also remind them of the value of your study despite its limitations.

Step 5: Make recommendations for implementation and future research

Now that you’ve unpacked your findings and acknowledge the limitations thereof, the next thing you’ll need to do is reflect on your study in terms of two factors:

• The practical application of your findings
• Suggestions for future research

The first thing to discuss is how your findings can be used in the real world – in other words, what contribution can they make to the field or industry? Where are these contributions applicable, how and why? For example, if your research is on communication in health settings, in what ways can your findings be applied to the context of a hospital or medical clinic? Make sure that you spell this out for your reader in practical terms, but also be realistic and make sure that any applications are feasible.

The next discussion point is the opportunity for future research . In other words, how can other studies build on what you’ve found and also improve the findings by overcoming some of the limitations in your study (which you discussed a little earlier). In doing this, you’ll want to investigate whether your results fit in with findings of previous research, and if not, why this may be the case. For example, are there any factors that you didn’t consider in your study? What future research can be done to remedy this? When you write up your suggestions, make sure that you don’t just say that more research is needed on the topic, also comment on how the research can build on your study.

Step 6: Provide a concluding summary

Finally, you’ve reached your final stretch. In this section, you’ll want to provide a brief recap of the key findings – in other words, the findings that directly address your research questions . Basically, your conclusion should tell the reader what your study has found, and what they need to take away from reading your report.

When writing up your concluding summary, bear in mind that some readers may skip straight to this section from the beginning of the chapter.  So, make sure that this section flows well from and has a strong connection to the opening section of the chapter.

Tips and tricks for an A-grade discussion chapter

Now that you know what the discussion chapter is , what to include and exclude , and how to structure it , here are some tips and suggestions to help you craft a quality discussion chapter.

• When you write up your discussion chapter, make sure that you keep it consistent with your introduction chapter , as some readers will skip from the introduction chapter directly to the discussion chapter. Your discussion should use the same tense as your introduction, and it should also make use of the same key terms.
• Don’t make assumptions about your readers. As a writer, you have hands-on experience with the data and so it can be easy to present it in an over-simplified manner. Make sure that you spell out your findings and interpretations for the intelligent layman.
• Have a look at other theses and dissertations from your institution, especially the discussion sections. This will help you to understand the standards and conventions of your university, and you’ll also get a good idea of how others have structured their discussion chapters. You can also check out our chapter template .
• Avoid using absolute terms such as “These results prove that…”, rather make use of terms such as “suggest” or “indicate”, where you could say, “These results suggest that…” or “These results indicate…”. It is highly unlikely that a dissertation or thesis will scientifically prove something (due to a variety of resource constraints), so be humble in your language.
• Use well-structured and consistently formatted headings to ensure that your reader can easily navigate between sections, and so that your chapter flows logically and coherently.

If you have any questions or thoughts regarding this post, feel free to leave a comment below. Also, if you’re looking for one-on-one help with your discussion chapter (or thesis in general), consider booking a free consultation with one of our highly experienced Grad Coaches to discuss how we can help you.

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36 Comments

Thank you this is helpful!

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This has been very helpful indeed. Thank you.

This is actually really helpful, I just stumbled upon it. Very happy that I found it, thank you.

Me too! I was kinda lost on how to approach my discussion chapter. How helpful! Thanks a lot!

This is really good and explicit. Thanks

Thank you, this blog has been such a help.

Thank you. This is very helpful.

Dear sir/madame

Thanks a lot for this helpful blog. Really, it supported me in writing my discussion chapter while I was totally unaware about its structure and method of writing.

With regards

Syed Firoz Ahmad PhD, Research Scholar

I agree so much. This blog was god sent. It assisted me so much while I was totally clueless about the context and the know-how. Now I am fully aware of what I am to do and how I am to do it.

Thanks! This is helpful!

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Dear Sir/Madam,

Truly, your article was much benefited when i structured my discussion chapter.

Thank you very much!!!

This is helpful for me in writing my research discussion component. I have to copy this text on Microsoft word cause of my weakness that I cannot be able to read the text on screen a long time. So many thanks for this articles.

This was helpful

Thanks Jenna, well explained.

Thank you! This is super helpful.

Thanks very much. I have appreciated the six steps on writing the Discussion chapter which are (i) Restating the research problem and questions (ii) Summarising the key findings (iii) Interpreting the results linked to relating to previous results in positive and negative ways; explaining whay different or same and contribution to field of research and expalnation of findings (iv) Acknowledgeing limitations (v) Recommendations for implementation and future resaerch and finally (vi) Providing a conscluding summary

My two questions are: 1. On step 1 and 2 can it be the overall or you restate and sumamrise on each findings based on the reaerch question? 2. On 4 and 5 do you do the acknowlledgement , recommendations on each research finding or overall. This is not clear from your expalanattion.

Please respond.

This post is very useful. I’m wondering whether practical implications must be introduced in the Discussion section or in the Conclusion section?

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Thanks alot.., I have gained much

This piece is very helpful on how to go about my discussion section. I can always recommend GradCoach research guides for colleagues.

Many thanks for this resource. It has been very helpful to me. I was finding it hard to even write the first sentence. Much appreciated.

Thanks so much. Very helpful to know what is included in the discussion section

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Wow! Just wow! God bless the day I stumbled upon you guys’ YouTube videos! It’s been truly life changing and anxiety about my report that is due in less than a month has subsided significantly!

Simplified explanation. Well done.

The presentation is enlightening. Thank you very much.

Thanks for the support and guidance

This has been a great help to me and thank you do much

I second that “it is highly unlikely that a dissertation or thesis will scientifically prove something”; although, could you enlighten us on that comment and elaborate more please?

Sure, no problem.

Scientific proof is generally considered a very strong assertion that something is definitively and universally true. In most scientific disciplines, especially within the realms of natural and social sciences, absolute proof is very rare. Instead, researchers aim to provide evidence that supports or rejects hypotheses. This evidence increases or decreases the likelihood that a particular theory is correct, but it rarely proves something in the absolute sense.

Dissertations and theses, as substantial as they are, typically focus on exploring a specific question or problem within a larger field of study. They contribute to a broader conversation and body of knowledge. The aim is often to provide detailed insight, extend understanding, and suggest directions for further research rather than to offer definitive proof. These academic works are part of a cumulative process of knowledge building where each piece of research connects with others to gradually enhance our understanding of complex phenomena.

Furthermore, the rigorous nature of scientific inquiry involves continuous testing, validation, and potential refutation of ideas. What might be considered a “proof” at one point can later be challenged by new evidence or alternative interpretations. Therefore, the language of “proof” is cautiously used in academic circles to maintain scientific integrity and humility.

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How to Write a Dissertation Conclusion? | Tips & Examples

What is PhD Thesis Writing? | Beginner’s Guide

A data analysis dissertation is a complex and challenging project requiring significant time, effort, and expertise. Fortunately, it is possible to successfully complete a data analysis dissertation with careful planning and execution.

As a student, you must know how important it is to have a strong and well-written dissertation, especially regarding data analysis. Proper data analysis is crucial to the success of your research and can often make or break your dissertation.

To get a better understanding, you may review the data analysis dissertation examples listed below;

• Impact of Leadership Style on the Job Satisfaction of Nurses
• Effect of Brand Love on Consumer Buying Behaviour in Dietary Supplement Sector
• An Insight Into Alternative Dispute Resolution
• An Investigation of Cyberbullying and its Impact on Adolescent Mental Health in UK

3-Step  Dissertation Process!

Get 3+ Topics

Dissertation Proposal

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Types of data analysis for dissertation.

The various types of data Analysis in a Dissertation are as follows;

1.   Qualitative Data Analysis

Qualitative data analysis is a type of data analysis that involves analyzing data that cannot be measured numerically. This data type includes interviews, focus groups, and open-ended surveys. Qualitative data analysis can be used to identify patterns and themes in the data.

2.   Quantitative Data Analysis

Quantitative data analysis is a type of data analysis that involves analyzing data that can be measured numerically. This data type includes test scores, income levels, and crime rates. Quantitative data analysis can be used to test hypotheses and to look for relationships between variables.

3.   Descriptive Data Analysis

Descriptive data analysis is a type of data analysis that involves describing the characteristics of a dataset. This type of data analysis summarizes the main features of a dataset.

4.   Inferential Data Analysis

Inferential data analysis is a type of data analysis that involves making predictions based on a dataset. This type of data analysis can be used to test hypotheses and make predictions about future events.

5.   Exploratory Data Analysis

Exploratory data analysis is a type of data analysis that involves exploring a data set to understand it better. This type of data analysis can identify patterns and relationships in the data.

Time Period to Plan and Complete a Data Analysis Dissertation?

When planning dissertation data analysis, it is important to consider the dissertation methodology structure and time series analysis as they will give you an understanding of how long each stage will take. For example, using a qualitative research method, your data analysis will involve coding and categorizing your data.

This can be time-consuming, so allowing enough time in your schedule is important. Once you have coded and categorized your data, you will need to write up your findings. Again, this can take some time, so factor this into your schedule.

Finally, you will need to proofread and edit your dissertation before submitting it. All told, a data analysis dissertation can take anywhere from several weeks to several months to complete, depending on the project’s complexity. Therefore, starting planning early and allowing enough time in your schedule to complete the task is important.

Essential Strategies for Data Analysis Dissertation

A.   Planning

The first step in any dissertation is planning. You must decide what you want to write about and how you want to structure your argument. This planning will involve deciding what data you want to analyze and what methods you will use for a data analysis dissertation.

B.   Prototyping

Once you have a plan for your dissertation, it’s time to start writing. However, creating a prototype is important before diving head-first into writing your dissertation. A prototype is a rough draft of your argument that allows you to get feedback from your advisor and committee members. This feedback will help you fine-tune your argument before you start writing the final version of your dissertation.

C.   Executing

After you have created a plan and prototype for your data analysis dissertation, it’s time to start writing the final version. This process will involve collecting and analyzing data and writing up your results. You will also need to create a conclusion section that ties everything together.

D.   Presenting

The final step in acing your data analysis dissertation is presenting it to your committee. This presentation should be well-organized and professionally presented. During the presentation, you’ll also need to be ready to respond to questions concerning your dissertation.

Data Analysis Tools

Numerous suggestive tools are employed to assess the data and deduce pertinent findings for the discussion section. The tools used to analyze data and get a scientific conclusion are as follows:

a.     Excel

Excel is a spreadsheet program part of the Microsoft Office productivity software suite. Excel is a powerful tool that can be used for various data analysis tasks, such as creating charts and graphs, performing mathematical calculations, and sorting and filtering data.

b.     Google Sheets

Google Sheets is a free online spreadsheet application that is part of the Google Drive suite of productivity software. Google Sheets is similar to Excel in terms of functionality, but it also has some unique features, such as the ability to collaborate with other users in real-time.

c.     SPSS

SPSS is a statistical analysis software program commonly used in the social sciences. SPSS can be used for various data analysis tasks, such as hypothesis testing, factor analysis, and regression analysis.

d.     STATA

STATA is a statistical analysis software program commonly used in the sciences and economics. STATA can be used for data management, statistical modelling, descriptive statistics analysis, and data visualization tasks.

SAS is a commercial statistical analysis software program used by businesses and organizations worldwide. SAS can be used for predictive modelling, market research, and fraud detection.

R is a free, open-source statistical programming language popular among statisticians and data scientists. R can be used for tasks such as data wrangling, machine learning, and creating complex visualizations.

g.     Python

A variety of applications may be used using the distinctive programming language Python, including web development, scientific computing, and artificial intelligence. Python also has a number of modules and libraries that can be used for data analysis tasks, such as numerical computing, statistical modelling, and data visualization.

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Tips to Compose a Successful Data Analysis Dissertation

a.   Choose a Topic You’re Passionate About

The first step to writing a successful data analysis dissertation is to choose a topic you’re passionate about. Not only will this make the research and writing process more enjoyable, but it will also ensure that you produce a high-quality paper.

Choose a topic that is particular enough to be covered in your paper’s scope but not so specific that it will be challenging to obtain enough evidence to substantiate your arguments.

b.   Do Your Research

data analysis in research is an important part of academic writing. Once you’ve selected a topic, it’s time to begin your research. Be sure to consult with your advisor or supervisor frequently during this stage to ensure that you are on the right track. In addition to secondary sources such as books, journal articles, and reports, you should also consider conducting primary research through surveys or interviews. This will give you first-hand insights into your topic that can be invaluable when writing your paper.

c.   Develop a Strong Thesis Statement

After you’ve done your research, it’s time to start developing your thesis statement. It is arguably the most crucial part of your entire paper, so take care to craft a clear and concise statement that encapsulates the main argument of your paper.

Remember that your thesis statement should be arguable—that is, it should be capable of being disputed by someone who disagrees with your point of view. If your thesis statement is not arguable, it will be difficult to write a convincing paper.

d.   Write a Detailed Outline

Once you have developed a strong thesis statement, the next step is to write a detailed outline of your paper. This will offer you a direction to write in and guarantee that your paper makes sense from beginning to end.

Your outline should include an introduction, in which you state your thesis statement; several body paragraphs, each devoted to a different aspect of your argument; and a conclusion, in which you restate your thesis and summarize the main points of your paper.

e.   Write Your First Draft

With your outline in hand, it’s finally time to start writing your first draft. At this stage, don’t worry about perfecting your grammar or making sure every sentence is exactly right—focus on getting all of your ideas down on paper (or onto the screen). Once you have completed your first draft, you can revise it for style and clarity.

And there you have it! Following these simple tips can increase your chances of success when writing your data analysis dissertation. Just remember to start early, give yourself plenty of time to research and revise, and consult with your supervisor frequently throughout the process.

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Studying the above examples gives you valuable insight into the structure and content that should be included in your own data analysis dissertation. You can also learn how to effectively analyze and present your data and make a lasting impact on your readers.

In addition to being a useful resource for completing your dissertation, these examples can also serve as a valuable reference for future academic writing projects. By following these examples and understanding their principles, you can improve your data analysis skills and increase your chances of success in your academic career.

You may also contact Premier Dissertations to develop your data analysis dissertation.

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Top 4 Steps of Qualitative Data Analysis for Dissertation

Welcome to our blog on qualitative data analysis for dissertation. We’re here to guide you through the essential steps, demystifying the methods of qualitative data analysis in dissertation. In simple terms, we’ll break down the importance of qualitative data analysis in a dissertation. Think of it as a roadmap to help you navigate and understand each step easily. 

Qualitative data analysis is the process of examining non-numerical information, such as text, images, or audio, to uncover patterns, themes, and insights. In the world of dissertation research, qualitative analysis plays a crucial role in exploring the depth and nuances of human experiences, opinions, and behaviors. 

Unlike quantitative methods that deal with measurable data, qualitative analysis offers a rich and contextual understanding, making it particularly valuable in social sciences, humanities, and other fields where the focus is on the quality rather than quantity of information. It allows researchers to delve into the intricacies of their subjects, providing a holistic view that goes beyond statistical figures. 

We’ll also provide an example of qualitative data analysis to make things clearer. By the end, you’ll see how these steps are like puzzle pieces that come together to tell the story of your dissertation. Let’s dive in and make qualitative data analysis less daunting and more understandable for your academic journey.

Methods of Qualitative Data Analysis in Dissertation

1. thematic analysis:.

– Identify and analyze recurring themes or patterns within the data.

– Organize these themes to capture the essence of your findings.

2. Content Analysis:

– Examine the content of your data for specific words, phrases, or themes.

– Categorize and quantify these elements to draw meaningful insights.

3. Grounded Theory:

– Develop theories from the data rather than applying pre-existing ones.

– Constantly compare data, allowing emerging theories to guide the analysis.

4. Narrative Analysis:

– Focus on the stories within the data.

– Explore the structure and content of these narratives to extract meaningful information.

5. Case Study Analysis:

– In-depth examination of a specific case or cases.

– Explore the details and context to understand the broader implications.

Step 1: Pre-Analysis Meditation

Importance of this step: .

Understanding the Significance: Pre-analysis meditation serves as a mental reset, helping researchers clear preconceived notions and biases. By fostering a reflective mindset, researchers approach the data with openness, encouraging unbiased exploration.

How PhD Researchers Can Implement Pre-Analysis Meditation:

Schedule Mindful Moments: Dedicate a few minutes before each analysis session for mindfulness. Incorporate deep-breathing exercises to ease into a focused state.

Step 2: Metaphorical Mapping

Unlocking creative insights:.

– Visual Representation: Metaphorical mapping allows for a visual interpretation of complex data, aiding in comprehension.

– Stimulates Creativity: Translating findings into metaphors encourages creative thinking, unveiling nuanced insights not immediately apparent in the raw data.

Enhancing Communication:

– Facilitates Explanation: Metaphors serve as powerful tools for conveying complex ideas, making it easier to communicate findings to a broader audience.

– Captures Essence: Mapping metaphors captures the essence of data, providing a holistic perspective that goes beyond literal interpretation.

How PhD Researchers Can Implement Metaphorical Mapping:

– Pinpoint central themes or concepts within the data.

– Select metaphors that resonate with the essence of these concepts.

– Create a visual map connecting metaphors to corresponding data points.

– Explore the relationships and interplay between different metaphors.

– Refine metaphors iteratively as analysis progresses.

– Allow the metaphorical map to evolve, reflecting deeper insights gained during analysis.

Step 3: Parallel Universe Probing

Importance of this step:, encouraging diverse perspectives:.

Promotes Critical Thinking: Parallel universe probing encourages researchers to explore diverse analytical angles, fostering critical thinking.

Challenges Assumptions: By envisioning alternative interpretations, researchers challenge preconceived notions, ensuring a more robust analysis.

Enhancing Analytical Rigor:

Strengthens Validity: Considering multiple perspectives strengthens the validity of findings, ensuring a comprehensive and well-rounded analysis.

Minimizes Bias: Actively engaging in parallel universe probing minimizes confirmation bias, promoting a more objective evaluation of the data.

How PhD Researchers Can Implement Parallel Universe Probing:

1. imagine alternative scenarios:.

Envision different ways the data could be interpreted.

Challenge assumptions by exploring contrasting analytical pathways.

2. Seek Diverse Opinions:

Collaborate with peers or mentors to gain diverse perspectives.

Discuss alternative interpretations to broaden the analytical scope.

3. Document Comparative Analysis:

Record and compare the outcomes of parallel universe probing.

Consider the advantages and disadvantages of every viewpoint.

Step 4: Multisensory Synthesis

– Expands Interpretation Horizons: Multisensory synthesis encourages researchers to go beyond reading, engaging various senses for a more holistic understanding of the data.

– Taps into Intuition: Incorporating multiple senses, including visual, auditory, and tactile, taps into intuitive insights, enriching the analytical experience.

– Enhances Data Connection: Multisensory exploration strengthens the connection with data, allowing for a more immersive and empathetic analysis.

– Facilitates Creative Expression: Engaging different senses facilitates creative expression, providing alternative avenues for expressing complex findings.

How PhD Researchers Can Implement Multisensory Synthesis:

Explore visual representations, auditory descriptions, or tactile expressions of data. Experiment with alternative formats to capture the essence of the findings. Discuss multisensory interpretations with peers or mentors. Gain insights from diverse perspectives on how different senses can contribute to a richer analysis. Recognize individual sensory strengths and preferences. Tailor the multisensory approach to align with personal modes of perception.

Final Thoughts

In summing up our journey through the top 4 steps of analyzing qualitative data for dissertations, we’ve explored important methods of qualitative data analysis in dissertation. Qualitative data analysis for dissertations, done through steps like thematic analysis and grounded theory, is like crafting a narrative that adds depth to the data. It’s not just about going through the motions; it’s about revealing valuable insights. 

Understanding the importance of qualitative data analysis in a dissertation is like realizing how these steps build the strong foundation of your research. They act like a guide, ensuring your dissertation not only makes sense but also captures the essence of what you’ve studied. To put it simply, these example of qualitative data analysis empower researchers, showing them how to unravel the complexities and tell a compelling academic story in their dissertations.

Dissertationcanada.com is a Canadian-based company that provides comprehensive dissertation assistance to PhD and Master’s students. They offer a range of services, including writing, editing, statistics, peer review, and formatting for research work. The company has a team of 7 writers, 12 editors, and 3 statisticians who are based in Canada. They provide custom PhD and Master’s dissertation assistance in Canada for conducting research and writing qualitative data analysis for dissertation. Doctorate applicants receive consultations with writing, editing, and research design as well as statistical support. 

The company doesn’t merely advise but gets involved in your dissertation through collaborative pedagogy of their support service. They offer services such as dissertation editing, data analysis, methodology, literature review, and concept paper assistance. Their comprehensive package for dissertation help is value for money. They have in-depth knowledge and provide 24X7 services.  

FAQ Questions

1. what are the three important steps in qualitative data analysis.

Data coding, theme identification, and constant comparison.

2. What is the aim of qualitative research?

To investigate and comprehend underlying viewpoints, experiences, and meanings.

3. What is the main advantage of using Qualitative data analysis in a dissertation?

Provides in-depth insights and context, enriching the research narrative.

4. How do you ensure credibility in qualitative research?

Through methods like member checking, peer debriefing, and triangulation.

• DOI: 10.1002/ceas.12316
• Corpus ID: 270621267

A pragmatic guide to generic qualitative research in counselor education

• Phillip L. Waalkes , D. DeCino , +3 authors Joe LeBlanc
• Published in Counselor Education and… 19 June 2024
• Education, Psychology

18 References

Generic qualitative dissertations in counselor education: a content analysis, a content analysis of qualitative dissertations in counselor education, intersectionality in research: call for inclusive, decolonized, and culturally sensitive research designs in counselor education, best practice guidelines for publishing rigorous research in counseling, black feminism in qualitative inquiry, toward praxis, promise, and futures of intersectionality in multimethod counseling research, reconsidering the value assigned to counseling research paradigms and outcomes, methodological rigor in journal of counseling & development qualitative research articles: a 15-year review, generic qualitative approaches: pitfalls and benefits of methodological mixology, what's in a name qualitative description revisited., related papers.

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For researchers who desire to work with smaller samples and use textual data to uncover the rich information needed to really understand the heartbeat of a phenomenon, a qualitative method may be the ticket.

Over the years, I’ve consulted with many clients who were scared to select a qualitative method and design because the processes of data collection and analysis seemed too daunting. Qualitative analysis is labor intensive, but findings from this type of research can be incredibly valuable.

I’ll help you determine if a qualitative method aligns with your research topic and direction. I guide my clients through the data collection process and remain hands-on through the analysis. From start to finish, I’ll make data collection and analysis simple and (dare I say) exciting. This is original research, folks! It is exciting!

I offer full service assistance with qualitative results chapters, as well as consulting at $150/hour. Feel free to contact me or  schedule a free consult  to discuss your analysis needs.

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• Help setting up data collection for questionnaires (online or traditional)
• Coaching to ensure your facilitation of interviews or focus group produces quality data
• Transcription of interview or focus group data  
• Manual coding to generate high-quality analysis 
• Checking for saturation to improve trustworthiness of your data
• Thematic analysis to create themes and subthemes in alignment with your RQs and framework
• Development of written narrative of results

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Your committe will vigorously attack your analysis to find loopholes in your analysis. The way your analysis is initiated can make or break your entire study.

When it comes to data analysis , Dissertation Genius is an industry leader and this includes qualitative & mixed methods analysis, which bring their own unique sets of challenges.

Although we provide comprehensive consultation with all stages of a dissertation , we have also helped and tutored hundreds of doctoral students from all around the world with conducting comprehensive data analysis.

Dissertation Genius specializes in coaching and consultation for just about every aspect of qualitative analysis. Including:

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• Preparing focus groups/interviews
• Transcribing interview data
• Properly structuring the analysis section

Our highly-specialized consultants specifically help you with:

• Evaluating & constructing your analysis plan – We will evaluate your data analysis approach to ensure alignment; if it is not aligned we will make suggestions for changes. We can also review your raw data with you and help you determine which analysis approach is appropriate for your study.
• Digitally-transcribing your qualitative data – All transcriptions are conducted by fully-certified transcriptionists thus safeguarding the reliability of your data and ensuring complete accuracy.
• Coding & classifying your data – We assist you with properly coding and analyzing your qualitative data to help maximize its reliability and accurately prepare it for a full analysis implementation.
• Implementing qualitative analysis with cutting-edge software – Our highly-experienced staff is extremely well-versed in using qualitative analysis software (Atlas.ti, NVivo, etc.) ensuring you precise & accurate results. Many students would like to learn how to use data analytic computer software and we offer tutoring in this area.
• Using the appropriate analysis for your chosen methodology – We help you conduct your analysis for any type of methodology (e.g., ethnography, phenomenology, grounded theory, microanalysis, thematic analysis, narrative analysis, and much more).
• Putting together your analysis narrative – We provide comprehensive consultation to help you summarize and organize your qualitative results narrative. This includes gudiance with regard to the proper structure of tables, charts, etc. as well as application of all your university’s requirements.
• Interpreting your results – After completing the analysis, we help you interpret and understand the results of your analysis to create a stellar results section.

Let the highly-specialized staff at Dissertation Genius guide you through your qualitative analysis and minimize your committee’s potential attacks.

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How to Analyse Secondary Data for a Dissertation

Secondary data refers to data that has already been collected by another researcher. For researchers (and students!) with limited time and resources, secondary data, whether qualitative or quantitative can be a highly viable source of data.  In addition, with the advances in technology and access to peer reviewed journals and studies provided by the internet, it is increasingly popular as a form of data collection.  The question that frequently arises amongst students however, is: how is secondary data best analysed?

The process of data analysis in secondary research

Secondary analysis (i.e., the use of existing data) is a systematic methodological approach that has some clear steps that need to be followed for the process to be effective.  In simple terms there are three steps:

• Step One: Development of Research Questions
• Step Two: Identification of dataset
• Step Three: Evaluation of the dataset.

Let’s look at each of these in more detail:

Step One: Development of research questions

Using secondary data means you need to apply theoretical knowledge and conceptual skills to be able to use the dataset to answer research questions.  Clearly therefore, the first step is thus to clearly define and develop your research questions so that you know the areas of interest that you need to explore for location of the most appropriate secondary data.

Step Two: Identification of Dataset

This stage should start with identification, through investigation, of what is currently known in the subject area and where there are gaps, and thus what data is available to address these gaps.  Sources can be academic from prior studies that have used quantitative or qualitative data, and which can then be gathered together and collated to produce a new secondary dataset.  In addition, other more informal or “grey” literature can also be incorporated, including consumer report, commercial studies or similar.  One of the values of using secondary research is that original survey works often do not use all the data collected which means this unused information can be applied to different settings or perspectives.

Key point: Effective use of secondary data means identifying how the data can be used to deliver meaningful and relevant answers to the research questions.  In other words that the data used is a good fit for the study and research questions.

Step Three: Evaluation of the dataset for effectiveness/fit

A good tip is to use a reflective approach for data evaluation.  In other words, for each piece of secondary data to be utilised, it is sensible to identify the purpose of the work, the credentials of the authors (i.e., credibility, what data is provided in the original work and how long ago it was collected).  In addition, the methods used and the level of consistency that exists compared to other works. This is important because understanding the primary method of data collection will impact on the overall evaluation and analysis when it is used as secondary source. In essence, if there is no understanding of the coding used in qualitative data analysis to identify key themes then there will be a mismatch with interpretations when the data is used for secondary purposes.  Furthermore, having multiple sources which draw similar conclusions ensures a higher level of validity than relying on only one or two secondary sources.

A useful framework provides a flow chart of decision making, as shown in the figure below.

Following this process ensures that only those that are most appropriate for your research questions are included in the final dataset, but also demonstrates to your readers that you have been thorough in identifying the right works to use.

Writing up the Analysis

Once you have your dataset, writing up the analysis will depend on the process used.  If the data is qualitative in nature, then you should follow the following process.

Pre-Planning

• Read and re-read all sources, identifying initial observations, correlations, and relationships between themes and how they apply to your research questions.
• Once initial themes are identified, it is sensible to explore further and identify sub-themes which lead on from the core themes and correlations in the dataset, which encourages identification of new insights and contributes to the originality of your own work.

Structure of the Analysis Presentation

Introduction.

The introduction should commence with an overview of all your sources. It is good practice to present these in a table, listed chronologically so that your work has an orderly and consistent flow. The introduction should also incorporate a brief (2-3 sentences) overview of the key outcomes and results identified.

The body text for secondary data, irrespective of whether quantitative or qualitative data is used, should be broken up into sub-sections for each argument or theme presented. In the case of qualitative data, depending on whether content, narrative or discourse analysis is used, this means presenting the key papers in the area, their conclusions and how these answer, or not, your research questions. Each source should be clearly cited and referenced at the end of the work. In the case of qualitative data, any figures or tables should be reproduced with the correct citations to their original source. In both cases, it is good practice to give a main heading of a key theme, with sub-headings for each of the sub themes identified in the analysis.

Do not use direct quotes from secondary data unless they are:

• properly referenced, and
• are key to underlining a point or conclusion that you have drawn from the data.

All results sections, regardless of whether primary or secondary data has been used should refer back to the research questions and prior works. This is because, regardless of whether the results back up or contradict previous research, including previous works shows a wider level of reading and understanding of the topic being researched and gives a greater depth to your own work.

Summary of results

The summary of the results section of a secondary data dissertation should deliver a summing up of key findings, and if appropriate a conceptual framework that clearly illustrates the findings of the work. This shows that you have understood your secondary data, how it has answered your research questions, and furthermore that your interpretation has led to some firm outcomes.

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Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

Church attraction through uncertainty reduction: a qualitative content analysis of local church content communication on facebook and instagram.

Kailey Spilger , Liberty University Follow

School of Communication and the Arts

Doctor of Philosophy in Communication (PhD)

Wesley Hartley

Church Communication, Content Communication, Church Social Media, Uncertainty Reduction Theory, Attraction, Social Media Strategy, Qualitative Content Analysis, Marketing, Socio-psychological Tradition, Planning, Social Media Engagement, Congregation, Local Church, Small Church

Disciplines

Communication

Recommended Citation

Spilger, Kailey, "Church Attraction Through Uncertainty Reduction: A Qualitative Content Analysis of Local Church Content Communication on Facebook and Instagram" (2024). Doctoral Dissertations and Projects . 5716. https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/doctoral/5716

For the first time since the founding of America, less than 50% of U.S. adults claim to attend church (Jones, 2021). With the transition from traditional marketing methods to digital marketing methods post-COVID-19, church leaders admit that using social media would help them reach new people, but less than 40% have a strategy (Hodøl, 2021). The purpose of this study is to understand current content themes of local churches on social media in order to inform future social media strategies. Guided by the uncertainty reduction theory, this study considers how social media content can reduce uncertainty and promote attraction and liking. The qualitative content analysis resulted in the coding of 2,800 social media posts and the discovering of 25 most-commonly used content themes. Findings also discovered four church groupings drawn from the type of content themes most commonly posted by various churches including the bulletin board church, the photo album church, the Bible study church, and the holistic church. This study also extends the work of Brubaker and Haigh (2017) who discovered the primary reasons people search for and engage with religious content on social media. This study sought to discover whether churches are currently satisfying the information-seeking strategies of people on social media by posting content themes that match what people are looking for. Posts were also coded according to their level of uncertainty reduction. Findings suggest that churches should focus on creating high uncertainty-reducing content to answer questions an individual may have before visiting the church. This analysis provides valuable insights for church communication professionals, church leaders, and church social media managers seeking to create or improve their social media content strategy.

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• Published: 22 June 2024

A qualitative exploration of experts’ views about multi-dimensional aspects of hookah smoking control in Iran

• Sara Dadipoor 1 ,
• Azin Alavi 2 ,
• Hadi Eshaghi Sani Kakhaki 1 ,
• Nahid Shahabi 1 &
• Zainab Kader 3  

BMC Public Health volume  24 , Article number:  1665 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

124 Accesses

Metrics details

The related literature has primarily addressed cigarette smoking control. It seems that researchers have failed to explore the determinants of hookah smoking (HS) control. In an attempt to fill this gap, the present study explores experts’ views about aspects of HS control in Bandar Abbas, a city in the south of Iran.

The present qualitative study, conducted in 2022 and 2023, used a content analysis. To this aim, 30 experts in tobacco prevention and control were invited to participate in the research. Twenty seven accepted the invitation. In-depth, semi-structured, and face-to-face interviews were held with the experts. A purposive sampling was used and the data collection continued until data saturation. The interviews lasted between 18 and 65 min. MAXQDA 10.0 was used for data management and analysis.

The expert interviewees had a mean age of 44.77 ± 6.57 years and a mean work experience of 18.6 ± 6.8 years. A total number of six main categories were extracted from the data, including usin influential figures to control HS, controlling HS by alternative activities, changing beliefs and attitudes toward HS, taking administrative and regulatory measures, and facilitating HS cessation.

This qualitative study explored the multifaceted ways people adopt to quit HS. Using influential figures to control hookah smoking, promoting alternative activities as a means of control, changing beliefs and attitudes, enforcing administrative regulations, and facilitating quit attempts all play an important role in tackling the prevalence of hookah smoking. These findings emphasize the importance of a comprehensive and multifaceted approach to integrate various interventions to effectively address hookah smoking behavior.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

Hookah is a smoking device used in many countries and is also known as waterpipe, argileh, shisha, goza and narghile. In this device, smoke passes through water in a bowl, where it is cooled and filtered before being inhaled. Hookah is a traditional device for tobacco consumption [ 1 ], originating from the Middle East. Today, it is globally popular particularly among young adults and women [ 2 , 3 ]. In the world, flavored tobacco and the absence of regulatory policies have led to the increased rate of hookah smoking (HS) [ 4 ]. As recently reported by WHO, tobacco consumption would account for 8 million cases of mortality worldwide on an annual basis [ 5 ]. As the research by Le et al. showed, current hookah smokers (HSs) had a 37% higher odds of mortality from all causes than non-smokers, while former HSs had a 39% higher odds of mortality from any cause than non-smokers [ 6 ].

According to a review article, most studies showed an increasing rate of HS between 2009 and 2016. This increase has ranged between 0.4 and 2.9% annually in East Mediterranean area and between 0.3% and 1% in Europe [ 7 ]. The prevalence of HS varies significantly across gender and region in the Middle East. In 2019, the prevalence among males and females was estimated to be 32.7% and 46.2%, respectively, in Lebanon, 13.4% and 7.8% in Jordan, and 18.0% and 7.9% in Palestine [ 8 ]. HS, especially among women, is becoming more and more socially acceptable as a normative behavior in the region [ 9 ]. In Iran, it is estimated that 82% of women who smoke tobacco use hookahs [ 10 ]. The overall prevalence of HS among Iranian women is reported to be 3.8–6.3% [ 11 , 12 ]. However, there are large regional variations in HS in Iran. The prevalence of HS in women in the southern provinces such as Hormozgan is 9–10 times as high as other provinces [ 13 ]. In Bandar Abbas in Hormozgan, the prevalence is 15.1%, which is higher among women than men [ 14 , 15 ]. The high prevalence of HS in Hormozgan can be due to the local culture, underestimated HS health risks, variety of jobs found in hookah cafes, and the lack of any tobacco control measures [ 16 , 17 ].

As a complicated behavior, HS is influenced by many internal and external factors. Some are personal, yet others are interpersonal, social, political and organizational. Among these factors are positive attitude, underestimated health risks of HS, psychological and social gaps, physical and mental attachment to hookah, family issues, media advertisement, ease of access (availability) and the absence of prohibitory rules and poor monitoring and management [ 16 , 18 , 19 ]. Family support, social and psychological needs, family norms, control of external stimuli and political factors have been among the major factors involved in hookah cessation [ 20 ].

Although the control of effective factors in HS or hookah cessation can, to some extent, help prevent this unhealthy behavior, exploring the determinants of HS control can be particularly useful. The related literature has focused more on controlling cigarette smoking and attended less to all aspects of cigarette smoking prevention and control. Each study in the literature has only addressed one aspect of the matter [ 21 , 22 , 23 ]. Researchers have largely neglected the exploration of determinants of HS control. To the best of the present researchers’ knowledge, few qualitative or quantitative studies have been conducted on tobacco control strategies, especially about HS. Thus, it is essential to fill this gap in literature. The field experts’ comments need to be solicited. The present study explores the experts’ views of the aspects of HS control in Bandar Abbas, a city in the south of Iran.

Materials and methods

Study design.

The present study employed a qualitative approach, and held in-depth, semi-structured, face to face interviews in Bandar Abbas, a city in the south of Iran in August 2022-June 2023.

Of note is that, in Bandar Abbas city in Hormozgan, HS has cultural-historical roots. Tobacco use has run in this city for long. More particularly, hookahs have passed down from older generations to the younger. Hookahs are commonly used to entertain guests in ceremonies of joy and sorrow.

The prevailing culture in Bandar Abbas normalizes HS more than cigarette smoking. HS is very common in women’s get-togethers [ 24 ]. Also, the weather conditions and facilities of the city have made HS a recreational activity for the public, especially during seasonal economic recessions when people have more spare time [ 16 ]. Moreover, the influence of stakeholders in tobacco industry has further spread HS in Bandar Abbas and southern Iran [ 16 ].

Participants

Initially, 30 experts in tobacco prevention and control were invited to participate in the study. Twenty-sevel experts accepted the invitation to participate. They had at least 5 years of work experience in controlling and preventing tobacco consumption. They had at least a bachelor’s degree of science to be included in the study.

Inclusion criteria

having academic qualification in the topic of interest.

Exclusion criterion

unwillingness to participate in the research.

The interview guide contained two parts, one enquiring about demographic information such as age, and place of residence, and the other concerning the participants’ overt and covert beliefs about the HS. The interview guide was checked by a panel of five experts in smoking control and qualitative research methodology to decide wether it was appropriate for the study. Adaptations (based on participants’ feedback) were made to the guide after the first five interviews. Once the interview guide was adapted and finalized, the final version was used as the basis of all remaining interviews. The interviews lasted between 18 and 65 min.

Each interview began with four main questions in the interview guide. As the interview continued, follow-up questions were asked to get more details. Probe questions were asked when further exploration was needed. Table  1 contains a list of questions that were asked during the interview.

Data collection

The interviews were conducted by two researchers. Each interview took approximately one hour. The interviews were conducted at a time and place convenient for the participants. All interviews were held in a quiet place such as the expert’s work office, a private room at the research center, or a place preferred by the participant such as a park or coffee shop. The sampling method was purposive and snowball. After each interview, the interviewee was asked to suggest the next participant. The anti-tobacco consumption organization in Hormozgan Province was visited to find the first expert to interview. After making an appointment with the first expert, the time and place of the interview were set as the interviewee preferred. When the interview was done, the interviewee was asked to suggest a colleague for the next interview. Therefore, purposive and snowball sampling were used to include the experts. The data collection continued until data saturation.

The following attempts were made to increase the rigor of findings: (1) Sufficient time was spent on data collection (August 2022-June 2023); (2) To make sure of the accuracy of researchers’ interpretation of expert comments, the findings were made available to eight participants via random sampling. After receiving their feedback, minor changes were made to the data; (3). The data were provided to the 2nd and 4th authors who were expert in qualitative research. Their comments helped define and revise the categories and sub-categories. To ensure the confidentiality of findings, the categories, sub-categories and a sample coding were provided to two external experts with a robust confidentiality agreement. Comments made by these experts and the present researchers were in some cases contradictory. These contradictions were resolved through discussion and in reference to the initial interviews. Initially, a total of 7 main categories were identified from the data. Among these categories, there was a contradiction in the number of two classes. Following discussion and decision-making by the authors, two classes were merged into a single category named “Using influential figures to control HS.” Additionally, there was a discrepancy in naming the 3 sub-categories within the categories.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

As for ethical considerations in this study, the procedure was approved by the Hormozgan University of Medical Sciences (#IR.HUMS.REC.1400.369). The purpose of study was revealed to all participants and they were ensured of the confidentiality of information they provided. All participants were required to sign an informed consent and were assured they could withdraw in any phase of research. All the research procedure was accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations of research ethics.

Data analysis

All interviews were audio-recorded and then transcribed. After a detailed initial textual analysis of each interview, the next interview was made. The interviews were reviewed independently line by line with an open coding approach to identify the underlying concepts in participants’ statements. When the analysis went on, the code and category extraction followed. The similarities and differences were found and distinguished from each other in terms of inherent features and dimensions. Finally, through comparing the categories, some sub-categories were merged and the main categories were finally formed. Researchers reviewed all the extracted codes in a meeting and discussed the categories and subcategories. They agreed on the majority of categories and subcategories, and only disagreed on a few cases, later solved by referring to the initial interviews and re-examining the codes. The extracted codes were processed in MAXQDA10.

Among the 30 experts in tobacco consumption invited to participate in the study, 27 entered the study. One refused to participate due to work obligations. The mean age of the expert interviewees was 44.77 ± 6.57 years. Their work experience ranged between 5 and 28 years with a mean value of 18.6 ± 6.8. Table  2 summarizes other relevant information.

Totally, six categories and 20 sub-categories emerged from the data analysis. The amount of data was very large, so we decided to focus only on determinants that had been less addressed in the literature. “Changing beliefs and attitudes toward HS” is not discussed, and only five categories and 17 subcategories are dicussed here (Table  3 ).

The frequency and proportion of experts commenting on each subcategory are shown in Table  4 . The subcategories are listed in descending order. Family support, with the frequency of 88.89%, is the most frequqnetly discussed topic by experts in the interviews.

Using influential figures to control HS

“Using influential figures” showed to be a key determinant of HS control. This main category had several distinct sub-categories as addressed here.

Non-governmental organizations’ (NGOs) participation

As the majority of participants agreed, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) can bring many innovative ideas and potentials, and can significantly help prevent, control and cease HS if used besides executive governmental organizations. More public reliance on and better reception of NGOs can be one reason why NGOs should be involved in making the required preventive measures by the government. Below are some comments that the participants made on this category:

“Trying to incorporate NGOs can have dramatic effects because NGOs are created by people themselves. That is why the public trust them more, because they are seen as the link between people and the government. NGOs communic ate well with ordinary people”. (Female, 22 years of experience)

“NGOs have a great potential to help. If the government grants them a budget, they can manage it wisely. If NGOs have a well-defined goal, people welcome them and cooperate with them more”. (Female, 18 years of experience)

Family support

As the participants opined, family support and supervision can be a strong barrier to detrimental behaviors such as HS. Inadequate support can lead to deviation and improper decisions including one’s tendency towards HS.

“All factors affecting HS can be summarized as family support. If someone is both psychologically and spiritually supported by the family, s/he will hardly ever tend to smoke hookahs”. (Male, 20 years of experience)

Mass Media and social network activities

As the majority of participants agreed, forbidding any form of advertisement, direct or indirect, for hookahs in mass media can be an effective strategy to control and prevent HS. Introducing HS extensively as a health-threatening behavior in mass media can tremendously influence public belief and attitude. This is due to the trust people put in mass media. Below are some extracts from the participants’ accounts:

“Mass media has succeeded in annihilating certain unhealthy behaviors such as crack consumption. They highlighted the adverse effects and managed to create a deep fear of the drug in the public. Finally, the drug abuse was under control. HS can also be controlled in the same way”. (Female, 20 years of experience)

Peer education

Peer education was perceived by many participants as an effective strategy to control HS. Here is a sample extract from the interviews.

“I think if instructions are provided by peers, they are more effective because those emotions, attitudes and norms are better expressed. Teenagers listen carefully to peers and communicate with them better”. (Male, 5 years of experience)

Popular figures and celebrities

Many participants noted that the information provided or the kind of advice given by popular figures can significantly affect attitude to HS. These reliable sources can include family members, celebrities or popular football players among youngsters as well as clergymen who can talk against HS and discourage the negative behavior.

“If a celebrity begins to advertise against HS, that will help. Many followers will never want to smoke hookahs anymore or if they are already users, they may quit”. (Female, 16 years of experience)

Controlling HS by alternative activities to HS market/trade

The majority of experts indicated that appropriate alternative activities to HS market/trade can act as an effective strategy to control HS. Below are several comments by the participants to support this idea.

Innovative and creative entrepreneurship for sellers

Most participants agreed that it was essential to find an alternative job for those who earned a living by selling hookahs. If their job was not replaced with a better one, they would never cease selling hookahs, and many socially adverse effects could follow.

“The government is supposed to use the least budget available to provide hookah sellers an appropriate job. For instance, the government can help them with interest-free loans. Or it can create a market where all these ex-hookah-sellers work and earn a living”. (Female, 18 years of experience)

Controlling HS by alternatives to smoking as a habit/recreational activity

Controlling HS by alternatives to smoking as a habitual/recreational activity was another strategy suggested to control HS. As the interviewees commented, hookah can only be given up if it is replaced by a better choice. This will be explained here along with some extracts from interview content.

Setting up recreational facilities

Most participants agreed that extending recreational activities can significantly help control and reduce the rate of health-threatening behaviors such as HS. Unfortunately, Bandar Abbas is less equipped with recreational facilities than other cities. Thus, there is not a wide range of leisure activities to choose from.

“The more recreational facilities are provided for families, the less the probability of HS. Yet, these are largely absent here. Unfortunately, there is not even one good park or green space here”. (Male, 23 years of experience)

Reconstructing and renovating old urban areas (e.g., parks, gyms, pedestrian walks, biking lanes) which are red-spots for risky behaviors can be an effective strategy to prevent, control and cease HS.

Holding festivals and joyful activities

As most participants suggested, actively employing all existing sources can help prevent, control and cease HS. Instances of promising attempts are investment on young talents in art, music, theatre and the like, joyous celebrations in neighbourhoods, extending celebrations and festivals beyond official, indoor space to outdoor space and more specifically to neighbourhoods which can otherwise become a center for HS, and establishing the anti-hookah culture in such celebrations.

“I think if amusing programs were regularly planned in neighbourhoods, people would attend festivities or get-togethers instead of smoking hookahs. Such joyful events can provide a good chance for reminding people of the adverse effects of HS”. (Female, 23 years of experience)

Taking administrative and regulatory measures

Participants agreed that the development of new rules and regulations was an effective strategy. These new rules should be preventive, controlling and inhibitive. As the interviewees admitted, there was currently no law against HS. If there was any, it was hardly put into practice. The following sub-categories provide more insights into this matter:

Anti-HS legislating and enforcing regulations

As many participants pinpointed, giving heavy fines for HS can, to a great extent, reduce the rate of the unhealthy behavior.

“Though many restaurants and coffee-shops are not allowed to sell hookahs, they break the rules and provide HS services. Immediately after they are fined, they get back to the same old habit. It is because there has been no severe legal prosecution. A minor fine does nothing to stop a high-income restaurant or coffee-shop owner selling hookahs”. (Female, 18 years of experience)

Participatory administration

As recurrently stated by several participants, Mutual cooperation of authoritative organizations can dramatically affect HS prevention, control and cessation.

“All those partly in charge of the program should join and start working together. They are to support each other and there should be a division of labor. Now, it is not the case because each organization is working on its own and not as a team. There is no follow-up. One or two organizations alone cannot do the whole thing”. (Male, 28 years of experience)

Tax policies

As suggested by many participants, putting higher taxes on hookah service providers such as coffee-shops can effectively prevent and control HS in society. They suggested hookah selling shops be divided into two, smoking and non-smoking. The former should pay higher taxes (3 or 4 fold).

“In many European countries, there are higher taxes on cigarettes and tobacco products. The same should go here. Coffee-shops that offer hookahs should pay taxes three times as high as others”. (Female, 23 years of experience)

“Municipal taxes should be 3–4 fold for coffee-shops that sell hookahs. These shops should pay taxes this year as they threaten citizens’ health. The next year, it is their choice whether they will continue selling hookahs or not” (Female, 19 years of experience).

Citizens’ rights

Most participants contended that raising the society’s awareness of citizen rights can largely change public view of HS. Air pollution follows from HS and when the public perceive themselves deprived of their right to have clean air, they learn to complain to those polluting the air. Here is a relevant comment:

“I think awareness of citizen rights can be a great help. We can change the public view. If a family passes by and looks down on me, that will be the end of me. No need to talk anymore! The mere silence means this is our right to enjoy clean air. Certainly, that will help”. (Female, 18 years of experience)

Segregation of HS places

Segregation of specific places for HS was another strategy that many participants suggested to prevent, control and cease HS. This category actually shows the necessity of making strict laws to take away hookahs from public places and confine them to enclosed spaces.

“If anyone who used to freely smoke hookahs at the beach or in parks is now forced to go indoors for smoking and knows s/he cannot smoke hookahs outdoors anymore, s/he might lose interest in smoking hookahs” (Male, 9 years of experience).

Setting limits

Effective strategies could include concentrating all hookah selling centers in one place, forbidding the sale of hookahs to those below 18, forbidding the sale of hookahs for 10 consecutive cases, keeping a distance of at least 100 m from schools, setting certain limits such as no food or drink served besides hookahs, reducing the attraction and facilities of hookah selling places, forbidding music, trees or plants around the area and other similar facilities to control and prevent HS. Others include being strict in giving the required work permissions to applicants.

“Shops that serve hookahs should be at least 100 meters away from schools. If not, they may be tempting to students, especially high school students who may tend to try different flavours when they find a shop nearby”. (Male, 10 years of experience)

“Certain limits should be set. For example, a hookah smoker should not be allowed to do so in parks or greeneries. Then, gradually, we can set stricter rules and say, for example, HSs are not allowed to watch TV and so on. No side dish should be allowed to be served with hookahs. This can tremendously cut down on the original attraction”. (Male, 28 years of experience)

Facilitating HS cessation

Facilitating hookah cessation was another strategy suggested to control this tobacco product. It will be explained here along with extracts from interview content.

Founding HS cessation clinics

Trying to found tobacco cessation centers was mentioned as another back-up service to prevent, control and cease HS. The majority of smokers, when tired of the habit, look for places that can help them cease HS.

“If there are certain clinics exclusively established to help people cease HS, they can really help! People need to be notified at once and be encouraged to visit these clinics. The staff should be supportive experts that can attract people and teach them what to do in an interesting manner”. (Female, 21 years of experience)

“There exists no such a thing as an independent tobacco cessation clinic in our city! If such clinics are established and staffed with psychologists, physical educationalists and physicians, they will be a shekter to those tired of smoking”. (Male, 9 years of experience)

Motivational services

Most participants mentioned encouraging and motivating individuals or a mixture of motivational strategies could be an effective supportive strategy to control HS. Certain services such as travel ticket discount, concert ticket discount and gift cards for those who manage to cease HS can motivate them to continue the healthy behavior and encourage others to cease smoking. Allocating a budget to healthy entertainments such as cinema, concert, library and musical work can be another effective strategy in HS control. In other words, people can be provided with cultural activities at a low cost.

“If there is cultural subsidy for healthy reactions, for example, if they (i.e., the government) pay part of the cost for concerts, cinemas and gyms, everyone can enjoy healthy leisure at a low cost. The reason why almost everyone smokes hookahs is that it is a cheap amusement”. (Female, 17 years of experience)

Participants also believed that hookahs could not be taken away from consumers or salespeople unless they were replaced by appropriate hobbies.

“Obligation is not going to work! There should be some rewards. When something is taken away from someone, it needs to be replaced with something better. If you only think of HS as a hobby, you should begin to think what other hobbies can replace it. Even the salespeople should be provided with an alternative job”. (Female, 19 years of experience)

Mental health consultations

Many participants mentioned that mental health consultation can facilitate HS cessation. Supportive acts can include stress management through regular screening programs for mental health, active education on life skills from early childhood that can help people learn to react appropriately to stress, anger, temptation and learn to reject indecent suggestions made by peers. Another supportive service can be the establishment of centers to provide free face-to-face or on-call psychological services around the day. See the following comment.

“Most people find themselves smoking hookahs to escape stress. So, if such mental problems as stress are controlled from school days and even earlier from pre-school, what later leads to HS may be prevented”. (Male, 21 years of experience)

Concerning free psychological consultations, a participant quoted:

“If distressed families could refer to an advisor for help and be appropriately supported, they would for sure not have to retreat to HS to lower their stress. The advisor needs to be available and ready to help either face to face or on phone. Such advisors need to be supported by the executives” (Male, 26 years of experience).

The present research is pioneering in employing a qualitative content analysis to explore the determinants of HS control.

The interviewees believed that involving NGOs is a key strategy for HS control. Different NGOs, such as the Iranian Anti-Tobacco Association, are actively involved in tobacco control initiatives in Iran, with a focus on public health and environmental protection [ 25 , 26 ]. The Iranian government, through the National Tobacco Control Headquarters supported by the government and monitored by the Ministry of Health and Medical Education, cooperates with relevant ministries, authorities, and NGOs [ 27 ]. The National Tobacco Free Initiative Committee (NTFIC) has actively cooperated and transferred information between the government and NGOs to speed up tobacco control endeavors in Iran [ 28 ]. Thee have been similar efforts in other countries like Romania and Pakistan, where NGOs actively help control tobacco use in joint efforts with national and international parties, and encourage the involvement of different organizations [ 29 , 30 ]. In this regard, one study in India by Mondal et al. revealed that NGOs played a major role in tobacco control measures around the world. They acted effectively in raising the victims’ awareness and rehabilitating them by constantly supporting them in controlling this unhealthy behavior [ 31 ]. Therefore, it is suggested to use the capacity of NGOs in knowledge sharing and extending the culture further and allocating national budgets for its implementation.

Family support and supervision were found as another key strategy for HS control, according to the interviewees. This finding was also confirmed by other studies on family support which found it as an important factor in reducing the rate of HS [ 20 , 32 , 33 ]. Dana et al. studied adolescents in 42 countries and examined the long-term impact of family activities on adolescent smoking behavior in the United States. This study pinpointed the significant role of family support and supervision in reducing the rate of smoking among adolescents [ 34 ]. Family support can play a vital role in shaping attitudes and behaviors that help start and continue hookah use. Family support, especially during adolescence, has a continuous effect on reducing the risk of adolescent smoking [ 35 ]. Family support seems to play an important role in the tendency and desire to quit smoking When facing a challenge or stressor, others’ social support in an informal environment can help the adolescent cope with problems and stress. As a result, s/he will have a greater ability to manage the challenge or stressor, thus promoting supportive and close relationships. Fostering a supportive family environment and involving family members in cessation interventions can significantly contribute to lower rates of smoking and a healthier lifestyle.

The interviewees viewed mass media as another influential strategy to control HS. The use of appropriate health-promoting messages or motivational services is critical in supporting smoking cessation efforts [ 36 ]. It seems that mass media could advertise more effectively to tackle the issue at hand because people tend to trust them more; thus, acquiring information from these reliable sources can deeply influence their belief. Iran Ministry of Health has cooperated with relevant agencies to initiate a wide range of anti-tobacco mass media campaigns. These campaigns have mainly dealt with hookah consumption, youth, and females, and aimed to raise public awareness of the threats of tobacco consumption [ 27 ]. A relevant study among adults in the United States showed that mass media advertisements were positively correlated with the reduced rate of tobacco consumption [ 37 ]. Similarly, another study showed that mass media campaigns were considered a key strategy to reduce the rate of tobacco consumption among youngsters [ 38 ]. Mass media campaigns have been recognized as a powerful means of reducing tobacco consumption, especially among youngsters [ 39 ]. Mass media can be used for effective messaging in public health and for behavior change.

As the experts commented, peer education is another useful strategy for HS control. Peer education involves empowering community members to induce positive health changes within their peer group as a method of health promotion [ 40 ]. In an interventional study in Turkey among high school students, peer education was considered an effective method of changing tobacco smoking behavior [ 41 ]. The interactive nature of peer education makes it an important complement to HS control and other health promotion measures. Support groups, including peers, can play a low-cost but effective role in controlling unhealthy behaviors, such as HS. Peers understand each other better and accept health advice better from friends. Peer support groups also provide an opportunity to share experiences and eliminate the unhealthy behavior.

Information provision by popular figures and celebrities was another factor perceived by the interviewed experts as effective in controlling the above-mentioned unhealthy behavior. A relevant study in Iran among students of University of medical sciences showed that the advice from influential figures is an important factor in quitting smoking and reducing HS [ 42 ]. Celebrities often significantly influence their fans and followers, and their behaviors can shape social norms and perceptions [ 43 ]. This influence can be used to internalize cessation and reduction of smoking. Also, the engagement of celebrities in HS can normalize the behavior and create a perception of social acceptance. Targeting influential figures to promote healthy behaviors and discourage unhealthy behaviors can be an effective strategy to control the spread of HS and other unhealthy habits.

Another strategy suggested by the interviewees was alternative activities to HS market/ trade. One such alternative service was ‘innovative and creative entrepreneurship’ which involved finding an appropriate job to replace hookah sellers’ job. The rate of HS was higher in low- to average-income countries than high-income countries [ 44 ]. It appeared that economic pressures and lack of appropriate job opportunities led people to sell hookahs or offer hookah services. Hookah marketing has been probably considered an employment issue for low-income families with no better job opportunities. Local authorities ares suggested to provide special facilities to sellers to land suitable new jobs and reduce the sale of and access to tobacco products. Providing alternative economic opportunities, particularly through entrepreneurship and job creation programs, could be an effective strategy to control hookah use. To this aim, the underlying economic factors that lead people to hookah-related activities should be considered.

As the interviewed experts believed, another alternative strategy to smoking was the provision of recreational facilities. It seems that adding to the number of gyms and sport facilities in slums can significantly help prevent and control tobacco consumption. Some related Iranian research pointed out the lack of recreational facilities in Iran as an underlying reason for HS [ 45 , 46 ]. Arguably, Bandar Abbas, as the main city in Hormozgan Province, lacks proper public recreational facilities such as amusement parks. In this city, the only public entertainment is spending time on the beach. Since the beach and surrounding areas do not have any entertainment facilities for different age groups, many opportunists seize the chance to sell and rent hookahs, therefore, many people smoke hookahs as a leisure. Authorities are suggested to consider recreation seriously and act effectively to renova te urban space to better control and cease HS.

From the viewpoint of the interviewed experts, Organizing festivals and joyful activitieswas identified as another strategy for controlling HS. This idea was supported by an Iranian study mong high school students that revealed that non-HSs achieved a higher happiness score than HSs [ 47 ]. Using all the existing capacities of the society can increase pleasurable activities of all members of society. Furthermore, it can be assumed that those who often experience a high level of happiness have fewer emotional and behavioral problems. These people would therefore be less likely to orientate towards HS. Festivals and joyful events may provide a social context in which HS is more common and can probably lead to increased consumption. Essentially, there is a need for national policies to create appropriate opportunities for people to show happiness.

There is also a need for ‘formulating regulations’ which can significantly help tackle the problem. One such rule/regulation can be heavy fines. As similar research on youngsters and adolescents showed, fining children and teenagers for carrying any form of tobacco product managed to reduce the rate of tobacco consumption to a large extent [ 48 , 49 ]. Another study on reduced HS in youngsters in the United States showed that the anti-tobacco rule is mainly implemented for cigarettes and no strict rule has been set or implemented for hookahs [ 50 ]. It is noteworthy that while fines have been effective in reducing tobacco consumption, there is a lack of strict rules against HS in some regions. Thus, prohibitory rules and strict regulations, such as heavy fines, can be an effective way to prevent and control tobacco consumption, particularly HS, in Iran.

As the expert interviewees agreed, to control HS effectively, a participatory approach is needed to involve all relevant organizations. If the existing organizations in charge of HS control share duties and cooperate with each other, they can better manage to prevent and control the unhealthy behavior. Some research on proven strategies for smoking cessation showed that to challenge tobacco control, all organizations involved should act cooperatively and interdependently [ 51 ]. Probably, non-cooperative policies that the government makes were actively involved in HS control. Evidently, policymakers do not include the viewpoints of lower-ranking forces in HS control policymaking. If the comments made by lower-ranking forces or even smokers themselves are included, there will be better chances of compliance with rules and plans. Thus, policymakers are strongly recommended to take the advice by lower-ranking forces into account in decision making.

As the experts suggested, increasing tobacco taxes and prices is an effective measure for HS control. Increasing taxes, in a relevant work of research, managed to significantly lower the rate of smoking cigarettes [ 21 ]. A study by Hu, Mao, Shi, and Chen (2016) emphasized that increasing taxes is the easiest and most economical way to control tobacco consumption in China [ 52 ]. Higher taxes are followed by less demand in the market. Arguably, multifold taxation on coffee shops selling hookahs compared to others will reduce the profit of selling hookahs, which will be demotivating for sellers, and can reduce the supply of hookahs. Thus, it is expected that increasing taxes can reduce or correct the pattern of HS.

‘Familiarization of society with citizen rights’ was another effective strategy to control HS.

This factor shows that society’s awareness and understanding of individual rights can affect HS-related behaviors. When citizens get to know their rights and the consequences of HS, it can lead to more responsible and controlled HS behavior. A work of research revealed that a tobacco-free generation corresponds to citizen rights [ 53 ]. Katz (2005) showed that any attempt to control secondary tobacco smoke should be focused on individual rights. If people know it is their right to enjoy clean air, when they see others (HSs) depriving them of this right, they will react. This would not only affect their own belief but also that of the smoker. The latter needs to be more cautious as others can easily begin to complain. Therefore, this factor should not be neglected in controlling this unhealthy behavior.

The factor ‘Segregation of HS places’ was mentioned by the interviewees too as an effective strategy for HS control (HS). This approach involves creating designated areas or spaces specifically for hookah smoking, separate from other public areas. A systematic review revealed that segregating HS places can play a key role in controlling HS [ 19 ]. Another similar study showed that developing an anti-smoking rule in public places and implementing it carefully can lower the mean rate of smoking for about 4–10%. Thus, many people might cease smoking [ 54 ]. If HS is confined to particular places and banned in public space, it can help control HS effectively.

The expert interviewees believed that setting certain limits on the availability and purchase of hookahs can be an innovative rule to prevent, control or cease tobacco altogether. It appears that hookahs are more accessible to the public than other tobacco products. A body of research in Iran and Unites States point to the extensive and facile access to hookahs as a main reason for the high prevalence of HS [ 55 , 56 ]. Overall, tobacco use seems to be significantly lower in cities with strict rules than in cities without any strict restrictive rule and regulation. Making prohibitory rules and eliminating the positive attitude and increasing the socially negative attitude to HS can significantly help reduce access to hookahs.

The interviewed experts suggested that establishing tobacco cessation clinics (TCCs) was another strategy to control HS. A study showed that TCC was capable of satisfying tobacco smokers’ needs and managed to stop hookah cessation. By providing effective educational interventions, these clinics manage to help smokers stop smoking cigarettes [ 57 ]. TCCs can meet the needs of HSs and provide effective educational interventions to help them quit. By providing exclusive cessation services to hookah users, TCCs can be as effective in HS cessation as in cigarette smoking [ 58 , 59 ]. The existence of specialized smoking cessation clinics can point to the seriousness of this matter and encourage people to think about the adverse effects of HS. Therefore, building dedicated smoking cessation clinics for HS can be a great help for people who intend to quit hookahs.

The expert interviewees believed that providing motivational services was a strategy to control HS. A study at a Russian smoking-cessation center showed that individuals who were highly motivated to quit smoking had a success rate four times as high as those with lower motivation levels [ 58 ]. Providing appropriate motivational services, such as financial incentives, to individuals who have quit or intend to quit HS can effectively encourage and support their healthy behavior. A specific motivational service was suggested to be the provision of a cultural subsidy to address the affordability of hookah smoking in social settings. Roskin, Roskin and Aveyard (2009) reported that the low cost of HS among group amusements was a main reason for smoking hookahs [ 59 ]. By submitting a budget for cultural subsidies to increase healthy recreational activities, authorities can take effective measures to control this unhealthy behavior and encourage individuals to show healthier behaviors.

‘Mental health consultation’ was another strategies of HS control, as the interviewees suggested. A study of Armenian population in Tehran showed that a significant proportion of respondents raised the issue of frustration and psychological/spiritual problems at the outset of the unhealthy behavior of drug abuse [ 60 ]. Similarly, psychological needs and gaps were mentioned as the major reasons for HS [ 45 ]. It can be argued that people with insufficient problem-solving skills or failed self-assertion among friends turn to hookahs when feeling unhappy or lonely. Providing mental health counseling can help address the psychological aspects of HS and contribute to effective control measures. It proves the importance of mental health interventions as comprehensive strategies to prevent and reduce HS behaviors.

Strengths, limitations and suggestions for further research

There were certain limitations in the present research. As in all types of qualitative research, the researcher’s own beliefs and perceptions could have affected the procedures from conceptualization to communication with participants and data interpretation [ 61 ]. Though in the present research, exploratory heuristics was used in data analysis to directly extract the categories and subcategorise from the data, it was possible that the interview questions did not cover all effective factors in HS. To compensate for this, the interviews continued until data saturation. Despite the above-mentioned limitations, there were several strengths too. The expert participants were selected from among the most knowledgeable in this area, with the benefit of proving realistic information for HS control. Further research is needed to explore these strategies in more extensive areas and from all demographic groups so that we can have access to comprehensive data about the effective strategies to prevent and cease HS.

Implications

To the present researchers’ best knowledge, no study has been conducted to date to determine effective factors in HS control. The present findings can significantly fill the existing gap in the literature. Also, in future, these findings can form the basis of comparative studies. Finally, the present findings can guide policy makers to develop the necessary standards and guidelines to make effective plans and interventions to better control HS.

This qualitative study explored the multifaceted ways people adopt to quit HS. Using influential figures to control hookah smoking, promoting alternative activities as a means of control, changing beliefs and attitudes, enforcing administrative regulations, and facilitating quit attempts all play an important role in tackling the prevalence of hookah smoking. These findings emphasize the importance of a comprehensive and multifaceted approach to integrate various interventions to effectively address hookah smoking behavior. Moving forward, targeted interventions based on these categories can significantly help reduce the prevalence of hookah smoking and promote healthy lifestyles among individuals.

Data availability

The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Hookah smoking

Hookah smokers

Non-governmental organization

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Hormozgan University of Medical Sciences for their financial support. The authors would also like to express their gratitude to the participants for their sincere cooperation in this study.

This project received a research grant from Hormozgan University of Medical Sciences and National Institute for Medical Research Development Grant No. 983514. The funding body was not involved in the design of study data collection, data analysis, and interpretation of data and in writing the manuscript.

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Sara Dadipoor, Hadi Eshaghi Sani Kakhaki & Nahid Shahabi

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SD contributed to the design and interview with participants, analysis, interpretation and drafting of the research manuscript. NSH and HESK contributed to the inception, design, interpretation and final approval of the manuscript for publication. ZK and ERN contributed to the data analysis, interpretation and editing. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Correspondence to Hadi Eshaghi Sani Kakhaki or Nahid Shahabi .

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This study was approved by the ethics committee of Hormozgan University of Medical Sciences (#IR.HUMS.REC.1400.369). A written informed consent was obtained from each eligible respondent. All research procedure abided by the relevant guidelines and regulations.

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Dadipoor, S., Alavi, A., Eshaghi Sani Kakhaki, H. et al. A qualitative exploration of experts’ views about multi-dimensional aspects of hookah smoking control in Iran. BMC Public Health 24 , 1665 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-19139-9

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Received : 01 October 2023

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Published : 22 June 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-19139-9

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