essay conclusion on volcanoes

Volcanic Eruptions and Their Repose, Unrest, Precursors, and Timing (2017)

Chapter: summary.

Volcanoes are a key part of the Earth system, and open a window into the inner workings of the planet. More than a dozen volcanoes are usually erupting on Earth at any given time. Some of these eruptions are devastating, killing people, damaging homes and infrastructure, altering landscapes, and even disrupting climate. Fortunately, many eruptions are preceded by signs of unrest (precursors) that can be used to anticipate eruptions and support disaster planning.

Accurate forecasts of the likelihood and magnitude of an eruption in a specified timeframe are rooted in a scientific understanding of the processes that govern the storage, ascent, and eruption of magma. Yet our understanding of volcanic systems is incomplete and biased by the limited number of volcanoes and eruption styles observed with advanced instrumentation. Eruption behaviors are diverse (e.g., violently explosive or gently effusive, intermittent or sustained, last hours or decades) and may change over time at a volcano. More accurate and societally useful forecasts of eruptions and their hazards are possible by using new observations and models of volcanic processes.

At the request of managers at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the National Science Foundation (NSF), and the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine established a committee to undertake the following tasks:

• Summarize current understanding of how magma is stored, ascends, and erupts.
• Discuss new disciplinary and interdisciplinary research on volcanic processes and precursors that could lead to forecasts of the type, size, and timing of volcanic eruptions.
• Describe new observations or instrument deployment strategies that could improve quantification of volcanic eruption processes and precursors.
• Identify priority research and observations needed to improve understanding of volcanic eruptions and to inform monitoring and early warning efforts.

These four tasks are closely related. Improved understanding of volcanic processes guides monitoring efforts and improves forecasts. In turn, improved monitoring provides the insights and constraints to better understand volcanic processes. This report identifies key science questions, research and observation priorities, and approaches for building a volcano science community capable of tackling them. The discussion below first summarizes common themes among these science questions and priorities, and then describes ambitious goals (grand challenges) for making major advances in volcano science.

KEY QUESTIONS AND RESEARCH AND OBSERVATION PRIORITIES

Many fundamental aspects of volcanoes are understood conceptually and often quantitatively. Plate tectonics and mantle convection explain where volcanoes occur. We understand how magma is initially created in Earth’s mantle, how it rises toward the surface, that it can be stored and evolve in magma chambers within the crust, and that a number of processes initiate eruptions. We understand in general terms why some magmas erupt explosively and others do not, and why some volcanoes erupt more often than others. High-resolution observations and models combined provide a detailed and quantitative picture of eruptions once they begin.

Our understanding is incomplete, however, especially those aspects of volcano behavior that define the timing, duration, style, size, and consequences of eruptions. Additional questions relate to our ability to forecast eruptions. What processes produce commonly observed geophysical and geochemical precursors? What factors determine if and when unrest will be followed by eruption? How rapidly do magmas mobilize prior to eruption? Which volcanoes are most likely to erupt in coming years and decades? And we are only beginning to decipher the impacts of large volcanic eruptions on Earth’s climate and biosphere.

Our understanding of the entire life cycle and diversity of volcanoes—from their conception in the mantle to their periods of repose, unrest, and eruption to their eventual demise—is poised for major advances over the next decades. Exciting advances in our ability to observe volcanoes—including satellite measurements of ground deformation and gas emissions, drone observations, advanced seismic monitoring, and real-time, high-speed acquisition of data during eruptions—await broad application to volcanic systems. Parallel advances in analytical capabilities to decipher the history of magmas, and in conceptual, experimental, and numerical models of magmatic and volcanic phenomena, both below and above ground, will provide new insights on the processes that govern the generation and eruption of magma and greatly improve the quality of short-term, months to minutes, forecasts. The time is ripe to test these models with observations from new instrumentation, data collected on fine temporal and spatial scales, and multidisciplinary synthesis.

Four common themes emerged from the research priorities detailed in the following chapters:

• Develop multiscale models that capture critical processes, feedbacks, and thresholds to advance understanding of volcanic processes and the consequences of eruptions on Earth systems.

Advances will come from measurements of physical and chemical properties of magmas and erupted materials, deciphering the history of magmas (before and during eruption) recorded in their crystals and bubbles, and developing new models that account for the numerous interacting processes and vast range of scales, from microscopic ash particles and crystals, to eruption columns that extend to the stratosphere.

• Collect high-resolution measurements at more volcanoes and throughout their life cycle to overcome observational bias.

Few volcanoes have a long record of monitoring data. New and expanded networks of ground, submarine, airborne, and satellite sensors that characterize deformation, gases, and fluids are needed to document volcanic processes during decade-long periods of repose and unrest. High-rate, near-real-time measurements are needed to capture eruptions as they occur, and efficient dissemination of information is needed to formulate a response. Both rapid response and sustained monitoring are required to document the life cycle of volcanoes. Monitoring and understanding volcanic processes go hand-in-hand: Different types of volcanoes have different life cycles and behaviors, and hence merit different monitoring strategies.

• Synthesize a broad range of observations, from the subsurface to space, to interpret unrest and forecast eruption size, style, and duration.

Physics-based models promise to improve forecasts by assimilating monitoring data and observations. Progress in forecasting also requires theoretical and experimental advances in understanding eruption processes, characterization of the thermal and mechanical properties of magmas and their host rocks, and model validation and verification. Critical to eruption forecast-

ing is reproducing with models and documenting with measurements the emergent precursory phenomena in the run-up to eruption.

• Obtain better chronologies and rates of volcanic processes.

Long-term forecasts rely on understanding the geologic record of eruptions preserved in volcanic deposits on land, in marine and lake sediments, and in ice cores. Secondary hazards that are not part of the eruption itself, such as mud flows and floods, need to be better studied, as they can have more devastating consequences than the eruption. Understanding the effects of eruptions on other Earth systems, including climate, the oceans, and landscapes, will take coordinated efforts across disciplines. Progress in long-term forecasts, years to decades, requires open-access databases that document the full life cycle of volcanoes.

GRAND CHALLENGES

The key science questions, research and observation priorities, and new approaches highlighted in this report can be summarized by three overarching grand challenges. These challenges are grand because they are large in scope and would substantially advance the field, and they are challenges because great effort will be needed. Figure S.1 illustrates these challenges using the example of the 2016 eruption of Pavlof volcano, Alaska. The volcanic hazards and eruption history of Pavlof are summarized by Waythomas et al. (2006) .

A principal goal of volcano science is to reduce the adverse impacts of volcanism on humanity, which requires accurate forecasts. Most current eruption forecasts use pattern recognition in monitoring and geologic data. Such approaches have led to notable forecasts in some cases, but their use is limited because volcanoes evolve over time, there is a great diversity of volcano behavior, and we have no experience with many of the potentially most dangerous volcanoes. A major challenge is to develop forecasting models based instead on physical and chemical processes, informed by monitoring. This approach is used in weather forecasting. Addressing this challenge requires an understanding of the basic processes of magma storage and ascent as well as thresholds of eruption initiation. This understanding and new discoveries will emerge from new observations, experimental measurements, and modeling approaches. Models are important because they capture our conceptual and quantitative understanding. Experiments test our understanding. Relating models to observations requires multiple types of complementary data collected over an extended period of time.

Determining the life cycle of volcanoes is key for interpreting precursors and unrest, revealing the processes that govern the initiation and duration of eruptions, and understanding how volcanoes evolve between eruptions. Our understanding is biased by an emphasis over the last few decades of observation with modern instruments, and most of these well-studied eruptions have been small events that may not scale to the largest and most devastating eruptions. Strategic deployment of instruments on volcanoes with different characteristics would help build the requisite knowledge and confidence to make useful forecasts. For every volcano in the United States, a realistic goal is to have at least one seismometer to record the small earthquakes that accompany magma movement. Even in the United States, less than half of potentially active volcanoes have a seismometer, and less than 2 percent have continuous gas measurements. Global and daily satellite images of deformation, and the ability to measure passive CO 2 degassing from space would fill critical observational gaps. Geologic and geophysical studies are required to extend understanding of the life cycle of volcanoes to longer periods of time. On shorter time scales, satellite measurements, emerging technologies such as drones, and expansion of ground-based monitoring networks promise to document processes that remain poorly understood.

The volcano science community needs to be prepared to capitalize on the data and insights gained from eruptions as they happen. This will come from effective integration of the complementary research and monitoring roles by universities, the USGS, and other government agencies. Volcano science is fundamentally interdisciplinary and the necessary expertise is spread across these institutions. The science is also international, because every volcano provides insights on processes that drive eruptions. Volcanic eruptions can have global impacts and so demand international collaboration and cooperation. New vehicles are needed to support interdisciplinary research and training, including community collaboration and education at all levels. Examples of similar successful programs in other fields include NSF’s Cooperative Studies of the Earth’s Deep Interior program for interdisciplinary research and National Earthquake Hazards Reduction

Program for federal government agency–academic partnerships.

Results of the above investments in science will be most evident to the public in improved planning and warning and, ideally, a deeper appreciation of this amazing natural phenomenon.

Volcanic eruptions are common, with more than 50 volcanic eruptions in the United States alone in the past 31 years. These eruptions can have devastating economic and social consequences, even at great distances from the volcano. Fortunately many eruptions are preceded by unrest that can be detected using ground, airborne, and spaceborne instruments. Data from these instruments, combined with basic understanding of how volcanoes work, form the basis for forecasting eruptions—where, when, how big, how long, and the consequences.

Accurate forecasts of the likelihood and magnitude of an eruption in a specified timeframe are rooted in a scientific understanding of the processes that govern the storage, ascent, and eruption of magma. Yet our understanding of volcanic systems is incomplete and biased by the limited number of volcanoes and eruption styles observed with advanced instrumentation. Volcanic Eruptions and Their Repose, Unrest, Precursors, and Timing identifies key science questions, research and observation priorities, and approaches for building a volcano science community capable of tackling them. This report presents goals for making major advances in volcano science.

READ FREE ONLINE

Welcome to OpenBook!

You're looking at OpenBook, NAP.edu's online reading room since 1999. Based on feedback from you, our users, we've made some improvements that make it easier than ever to read thousands of publications on our website.

Do you want to take a quick tour of the OpenBook's features?

Show this book's table of contents , where you can jump to any chapter by name.

...or use these buttons to go back to the previous chapter or skip to the next one.

Jump up to the previous page or down to the next one. Also, you can type in a page number and press Enter to go directly to that page in the book.

Switch between the Original Pages , where you can read the report as it appeared in print, and Text Pages for the web version, where you can highlight and search the text.

To search the entire text of this book, type in your search term here and press Enter .

Share a link to this book page on your preferred social network or via email.

View our suggested citation for this chapter.

Ready to take your reading offline? Click here to buy this book in print or download it as a free PDF, if available.

Get Email Updates

Do you enjoy reading reports from the Academies online for free ? Sign up for email notifications and we'll let you know about new publications in your areas of interest when they're released.

• Growth & Development
• Play & Activities
• Life Skills
• Play & Learning
• Learning & Education
• Rhymes & Songs
• Preschool Locator

Essay On The Volcano – 10 Lines, Short & Long Essay For Kids

Key Points To Remember When Writing An Essay On The Volcano For Lower Primary Classes

10 lines on the volcano for kids, a paragraph on the volcano for children, short essay on volcano in 200 words for kids, long essay on volcano for children, interesting facts about volcanoes for children, what will your child learn from this essay.

A volcano is a mountain formed through an opening on the Earth’s surface and pushes out lava and rock fragments through that. It is a conical mass that grows large and is found in different sizes. Volcanoes in Hawaiian islands are more than 4000 meters above sea level, and sometimes the total height of a volcano may exceed 9000 meters, depending on the region it is found. Here you will know and learn how to write an essay on a volcano for classes 1, 2 & 3 kids. We will cover writing tips for your essay on a volcano in English and some fun facts about volcanoes in general.

Volcanoes are formed as a result of natural phenomena on the Earth’s surface. There are several types of volcanoes, and each may emit multiple gases. Below are some key points to remember when writing an essay on a volcano:

• Start with an introduction about how volcanoes are formed. How they impact the Earth, what they produce, and things to watch out for.
• Discuss the different types of volcanoes and talk about the differences between them.
• Cover the consequences when volcanoes erupt and the extent of the damage on Earth.
• Write a conclusion paragraph for your essay and summarise it. 

When writing a few lines on a volcano, it’s crucial to state interesting facts that children will remember. Below are 10 lines on volcanoes for an essay for classes 1 & 2 kids.

• Some volcanoes erupt in explosions, and then some release magma quietly.
• Lava is hot and molten red in colour and cools down to become black in colour. 
• Hot gases trapped inside the Earth are released when a volcano erupts.
• A circle of volcanoes is referred to as the ‘Ring of Fire.’
• Volcano formations are known as seismic activities.
• Active volcanoes are spread all across the earth. 
• Volcanoes can remain inactive for thousands of years and suddenly erupt.
• Most volcanic eruptions occur underwater and result from plates diverging from the margins.
• Volcanic hazards happen in the form of ashes, lava flows, ballistics, etc.
• Volcanic regions have turned into tourist attractions such as the ones in Hawaii.

Volcanoes can be spotted at the meeting points of tectonic plates. Like this, there are tons of interesting facts your kids can learn about volcanoes. Here is a short paragraph on a volcano for children:

A volcano can be defined as an opening in a planet through which lava, gases, and molten rock come out. Earthquake activity around a volcano can give plenty of insight into when it will erupt. The liquid inside a volcano is called magma (lava), which can harden. The Roman word for the volcano is ‘vulcan,’ which means God of Fire. Earth is not the only planet in the solar system with volcanoes; there is one on Mars called the Olympus Mons. There are mainly three types of volcanoes: active, dormant, and extinct. Some eruptions are explosive, and some happen as slow-flowing lava.

Small changes occur in volcanoes, determining if the magma is rising or not flowing enough. One of the common ways to forecast eruptions is by analysing the summit and slopes of these formations. Below is a short essay for classes 1, 2, & 3:

As a student, I have always been curious about volcanoes, and I recently studied a lot about them. Do you know? Krakatoa is a volcano that made an enormous sound when it exploded. Maleo birds seek refuge in the soil found near volcanoes, and they also bury their eggs in these lands as it keeps the eggs warm. Lava salt is a popular condiment used for cooking and extracted from volcanic rocks. And it is famous for its health benefits and is considered superior to other forms of rock or sea salts. Changes in natural gas composition in volcanoes can predict how explosive an eruption can be. A volcano is labelled active if it constantly generates seismic activity and releases magma, and it is considered dormant if it has not exploded for a long time. Gas bubbles can form inside volcanoes and blow up to 1000 times their original size!

Volcanic eruptions can happen through small cracks on the Earth’s surface, fissures, and new landforms. Poisonous gases and debris get mixed with the lava released during these explosions. Here is a long essay for class 3 kids on volcanoes:

Lava can come in different forms, and this is what makes volcanoes unique. Volcanic eruptions can be dangerous and may lead to loss of life, damaging the environment. Lava ejected from a volcano can be fluid, viscous, and may take up different shapes. 

When pressure builds up below the Earth’s crust due to natural gases accumulating, that’s when a volcanic explosion happens. Lava and rocks are shot out from the surface to make room on the seafloor. Volcanic eruptions can lead to landslides, ash formations, and lava flows, called natural disasters. Active volcanoes frequently erupt, while the dormant ones are unpredictable. Thousands of years can pass until dormant volcanoes erupt, making their eruption unpredictable. Extinct volcanoes are those that have never erupted in history.

The Earth is not the only planet in the solar system with volcanoes. Many volcanoes exist on several other planets, such as Mars, Venus, etc. Venus is the one planet with the most volcanoes in our solar system. Extremely high temperatures and pressure cause rocks in the volcano to melt and become liquid. This is referred to as magma, and when magma reaches the Earth’s surface, it gets called lava. On Earth, seafloors and common mountains were born from volcanic eruptions in the past.

What Is A Volcano And How Is It Formed?

A volcano is an opening on the Earth’s crust from where molten lava, rocks, and natural gases come out. It is formed when tectonic plates shift or when the ocean plate sinks. Volcano shapes are formed when molten rock, ash, and lava are released from the Earth’s surface and solidify.

Types Of Volcanoes

Given below various types of volcanoes –

1. Shield Volcano

It has gentle sliding slopes and ejects basaltic lava. These are created by the low-viscosity lava eruption that can reach a great distance from a vent.

2. Composite Volcano (Strato)

A composite volcano can stand thousands of meters tall and feature mudflow and pyroclastic deposits.

3. Caldera Volcano

When a volcano explodes and collapses, a large depression is formed, which is called the Caldera.

4. Cinder Cone Volcano

It’s a steep conical hill formed from hardened lava, tephra, and ash deposits.

Causes Of Volcano Eruptions

Following are the most common causes of volcano eruptions:

1. Shifting Of Tectonic Plates

When tectonic plates slide below one another, water is trapped, and pressure builds up by squeezing the plates. This produces enough heat, and gases rise in the chambers, leading to an explosion from underwater to the surface.

2. Environmental Conditions

Sometimes drastic changes in natural environments can lead to volcanoes becoming active again.

3. Natural Phenomena

We all understand that the Earth’s mantle is very hot. So, the rock present in it melts due to high temperature. This thin lava travels to the crust as it can float easily. As the area’s density is compromised, the magma gets to the surface and explodes.

How Does Volcano Affect Human Life?

Active volcanoes threaten human life since they often erupt and affect the environment. It forces people to migrate far away as the amount of heat and poisonous gases it emits cannot be tolerated by humans.

Here are some interesting facts:

• The lava is extremely hot!
• The liquid inside a volcano is known as magma. The liquid outside is called it is lava.
• The largest volcano in the solar system is found on Mars.
• Mauna Loa in Hawaii is the largest volcano on Earth.
• Volcanoes are found where tectonic plates meet and move.

Your child will learn a lot about how Earth works and why volcanoes are classified as natural disasters, what are their types and how they are formed.

Now that you know enough about volcanoes, you can start writing the essay. For more information on volcanoes, be sure to read and explore more.

Tsunami Essay for Kids Essay on Earthquake in English for Children How to Write An Essay On Environmental Pollution for Kids

• Essays for Class 1
• Essays for Class 2
• Essays for Class 3

5 Recommended Books To Add To Your Child’s Reading List and Why

5 absolute must-watch movies and shows for kids, 15 indoor toys that have multiple uses and benefits, leave a reply cancel reply.

Log in to leave a comment

Most Popular

The best toys for newborns according to developmental paediatricians, the best toys for three-month-old baby brain development, recent comments.

FirstCry Intelli Education is an Early Learning brand, with products and services designed by educators with decades of experience, to equip children with skills that will help them succeed in the world of tomorrow.

The FirstCry Intellikit `Learn With Stories` kits for ages 2-6 brings home classic children`s stories, as well as fun activities, specially created by our Early Learning Educators.

For children 6 years and up, explore a world of STEAM learning, while engaging in project-based play to keep growing minds busy!

Build a love for reading through engaging book sets and get the latest in brain-boosting toys, recommended by the educators at FirstCry Intellitots.

Our Comprehensive 2-year Baby Brain Development Program brings to you doctor-approved toys for your baby`s developing brain.

Our Preschool Chain offers the best in education across India, for children ages 2 and up.

©2024 All rights reserved

• Privacy Policy
• Terms of Use

Welcome to the world of Intelli!

We have some FREE Activity E-books waiting for you. Fill in your details below so we can send you tailor- made activities for you and your little one.

Parent/Guardian's Name

Child's DOB

What would you like to receive other than your Free E-book? I would like information, discounts and offers on toys, books and products I want to find a FirstCry Intellitots Preschool near me I want access to resources for my child's development and/or education

Welcome to the world of intelli!

FREE guides and worksheets coming your way on whatsapp. Subscribe Below !!

THANK YOU!!!

Here are your free guides and worksheets.

Essays About Volcanoes: Top 5 Examples and 10 Prompts

Do you need to write essays about volcanoes but don’t know where to start? Check out our top essay examples and prompts to help you write a high-quality essay.

Considered the planet’s geologic architects, volcanoes are responsible for more than 80% of the Earth’s surface . The mountains, craters, and fertile soil from these eruptions give way to the very foundation of life itself, making it possible for humans to survive and thrive.  

Aside from the numerous ocean floor volcanoes, there are 161 active volcanoes in the US . However, these beautiful and unique landforms can instantly turn into a nightmare, like Mt. Tambora in Indonesia, which killed 92,000 people in 1815 .

Various writings are critical to understanding these openings in the Earth’s crust, especially for students studying volcanoes. It can be tricky to write this topic and will require a lot of research to ensure all the information gathered is accurate. 

To help you, read on to see our top essay examples and writing prompts to help you begin writing.

Top 5 Essay Examples

1. short essay on volcanoes by prasad nanda , 2. types of volcanoes by reena a , 3. shield volcano, one of the volcano types by anonymous on gradesfixer.com, 4. benefits and problems caused by volcanoes by anonymous on newyorkessays.com, 5. volcanoes paper by vanessa strickland, 1. volcanoes and their classifications, 2. a dormant volcano’s eruption, 3. volcanic eruptions in the movies, 4. the supervolcano: what is it, 5. the word’s ring of fire, 6. what is a lahar, 7. why does a volcano erupt, 8. my experience with volcanic eruptions, 9. effects of volcanic eruptions, 10. what to do during volcanic disasters.

“The name, “volcano” originates from the name Vulcan, a god of fire in Roman mythology.”

Nanda briefly defines volcanoes, stating they help release hot pressure that builds up deep within the planet. Then, he discusses each volcano classification, including lava and magma’s roles during a volcanic eruption. Besides interesting facts about volcanoes (like the Ojos del Salado as the world’s tallest volcano), Nanda talks about volcanic eruptions’ havoc. However, he also lays down their benefits, such as cooled magma turning to rich soil for crop cultivation.

“The size, style, and frequency of eruptions can differ greatly but all these elements are correlated to the shape of a volcano.”

In this essay, Reena identifies the three main types of volcanoes and compares them by shape, eruption style, and magma type and temperature. A shield volcano is a broad, flat domelike volcano with basaltic magma and gentle eruptions. The strato or composite volcano is the most violent because its explosive eruption results in a lava flow, pyroclastic flows, and lahar. Reena shares that a caldera volcano is rare and has sticky and cool lava, but it’s the most dangerous type. To make it easier for the readers to understand her essay, she adds figures describing the process of volcanic eruptions.

“All in all, shield volcanoes are the nicest of the three but don’t be fooled, it can still do damage.”

As the essay’s title suggests, the author focuses on the most prominent type of volcano with shallow slopes – the shield volcano. Countries like Iceland, New Zealand, and the US have this type of volcano, but it’s usually in the oceans, like the Mauna Loa in the Hawaiian Islands. Also, apart from its shape and magma type, a shield volcano has regular but calmer eruptions until water enters its vents.

“Volcanic eruptions bring both positive and negative impacts to man.”

The essay delves into the different conditions of volcanic eruptions, including their effects on a country and its people. Besides destroying crops, animals, and lives, they damage the economy and environment. However, these misfortunes also leave behind treasures, such as fertile soil from ash, minerals like copper, gold, and silver from magma, and clean and unlimited geothermal energy. After these incidents, a place’s historic eruptions also boost its tourism.

“Beautiful and powerful, awe-inspiring and deadly, they are spectacular reminders of the dynamic forces that shape our planet.”

Strickland’s essay centers on volcanic formations, types, and studies, specifically Krakatoa’s eruption in 1883. She explains that when two plates hit each other, the Earth melts rocks into magma and gases, forming a volcano. Strickland also mentions the pros and cons of living near a volcanic island. For example, even though a tsunami is possible, these islands are rich in marine life, giving fishermen a good living.

Are you looking for more topics like this? Check out our round-up of essay topics about nature .

10 Writing Prompts For Essays About Volcanoes

Do you need more inspiration for your essay? See our best essay prompts about volcanoes below:

Identify and discuss the three classifications of volcanoes according to how often they erupt: active, dormant or inactive, and extinct. Find the similarities and differences of each variety and give examples. At the end of your essay, tell your readers which volcano is the most dangerous and why.

Volcanoes that have not erupted for a very long time are considered inactive or dormant, but they can erupt anytime in the future. For this essay, look for an inactive volcano that suddenly woke up after years of sleeping. Then, find the cause of its sudden eruption and add the extent of its damage. To make your piece more interesting, include an interview with people living near dormant volcanoes and share their thoughts on the possibility of them exploding anytime.

Choose an on-screen depiction of how volcanoes work, like the documentary “ Krakatoa: Volcano of Destruction .” Next, briefly summarize the movie, then comment on how realistic the film’s effects, scenes, and dialogues are. Finally, conclude your essay by debating the characters’ decisions to save themselves.

The Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) criteria interpret danger based on intensity and magnitude. Explain how this scale recognizes a supervolcano. Talk about the world’s supervolcanoes, which are active, dormant, and extinct. Add the latest report on a supervolcano’s eruption and its destruction.

Identify the 15 countries in the Circum-Pacific belt and explore each territory’s risks to being a part of The Ring of Fire. Explain why it’s called The Ring of Fire and write its importance. You can also discuss the most dangerous volcano within the ring.

If talking about volcanoes as a whole seems too generic, focus on one aspect of it. Lahar is a mixture of water, pyroclastic materials, and rocky debris that rapidly flows down from the slopes of a volcano. First, briefly define a lahar in your essay and focus on how it forms. Then, consider its dangers to living things. You should also add lahar warning signs and the best way to escape it.

Use this prompt to learn and write the entire process of a volcanic eruption. Find out the equipment or operations professionals use to detect magma’s movement inside a volcano to signal that it’s about to blow up. Make your essay informative, and use data from reliable sources and documentaries to ensure you only present correct details.

If you don’t have any personal experience with volcanic eruptions, you can interview someone who does. To ensure you can collect all the critical points you need, create a questionnaire beforehand. Take care to ask about their feelings and thoughts on the situation.

Write about the common effects of volcanic eruptions at the beginning of your essay. Next, focus on discussing its psychological effects on the victims, such as those who have lost loved ones, livelihoods, and properties.

Help your readers prepare for disasters in an informative essay. List what should be done before, during, and after a volcanic eruption. Include relevant tips such as being observant to know where possible emergency shelters are. You can also add any assistance offered by the government to support the victims.Here’s a great tip: Proper grammar is critical for your essays. Grammarly is one of our top grammar checkers. Find out why in this  Grammarly review .

Maria Caballero is a freelance writer who has been writing since high school. She believes that to be a writer doesn't only refer to excellent syntax and semantics but also knowing how to weave words together to communicate to any reader effectively.

View all posts

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

• View all journals
• Explore content
• About the journal
• Publish with us
• Sign up for alerts
• BOOK REVIEW
• 22 April 2024

How volcanoes shaped our planet — and why we need to be ready for the next big eruption

• Heather Handley 0

Heather Handley is an associate professor of volcanic hazards and geoscience communication in the Department of Applied Earth Sciences at the University of Twente in Enschede, the Netherlands.

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Lava erupts from a volcano in Iceland, part of a series of eruptions that began last year. Credit: Anton Brink/Anadolu via Getty

Adventures in Volcanoland: What Volcanoes Tell Us About the World and Ourselves Tamsin Mather Abacus (2024)

Access options

Access Nature and 54 other Nature Portfolio journals

Get Nature+, our best-value online-access subscription

24,99 € / 30 days

cancel any time

Subscribe to this journal

Receive 51 print issues and online access

185,98 € per year

only 3,65 € per issue

Rent or buy this article

Prices vary by article type

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Nature 628 , 713-715 (2024)

doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-024-01179-1

Competing Interests

The author declares no competing interests.

Related Articles

• Volcanology
• Solid Earth sciences

The biologist who built a Faraday cage for a crab

News & Views 09 APR 24

Submerged volcano’s eruption was the biggest since the last ice age

Research Highlight 29 FEB 24

Santorini’s volcanic past: underwater clues reveal giant prehistoric eruption

News Feature 06 FEB 24

Found at last: long-lost branch of the Nile that ran by the pyramids

News 16 MAY 24

Did atmospheric weathering help Earth’s earliest continents to survive?

News & Views 08 MAY 24

Subaerial weathering drove stabilization of continents

Article 08 MAY 24

Seismological evidence for a multifault network at the subduction interface

Article 17 APR 24

Taiwan hit by biggest earthquake in 25 years: why scientists weren’t surprised

News 03 APR 24

Melting ice solves leap-second problem — for now

News & Views Forum 27 MAR 24

Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Warmly Welcomes Talents Abroad

“Qiushi” Distinguished Scholar, Zhejiang University, including Professor and Physician

No. 3, Qingchun East Road, Hangzhou, Zhejiang (CN)

Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital Affiliated with Zhejiang University School of Medicine

Associate Editor, Nature Briefing

Associate Editor, Nature Briefing Permanent, full time Location: London, UK Closing date: 10th June 2024   Nature, the world’s most authoritative s...

London (Central), London (Greater) (GB)

Springer Nature Ltd

Professor, Division Director, Translational and Clinical Pharmacology

Cincinnati Children’s seeks a director of the Division of Translational and Clinical Pharmacology.

Cincinnati, Ohio

Cincinnati Children's Hospital & Medical Center

Data Analyst for Gene Regulation as an Academic Functional Specialist

The Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn is an international research university with a broad spectrum of subjects. With 200 years of his...

53113, Bonn (DE)

Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität

Recruitment of Global Talent at the Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences (IOZ, CAS)

The Institute of Zoology (IOZ), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), is seeking global talents around the world.

Beijing, China

Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences (IOZ, CAS)

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.

Quick links

• Explore articles by subject
• Guide to authors
• Editorial policies

ENCYCLOPEDIC ENTRY

A volcano is an opening in a planet or moon’s crust through which molten rock and gases trapped under the surface erupt, often forming a hill or mountain.

Volcanic eruption

Volcanic eruptions can create colorful and dramatic displays, such as this eruption of this volcano in the Virunga Moutains of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

Photograph by Chris Johns

A volcano is an opening in a planet or moon’s crust through which molten rock, hot gases, and other materials erupt . Volcanoes often form a hill or mountain as layers of rock and ash build up from repeated eruptions .

Volcanoes are classified as active, dormant, or extinct. Active volcanoes have a recent history of eruptions ; they are likely to erupt again. Dormant volcanoes have not erupted for a very long time but may erupt at a future time. Extinct volcanoes are not expected to erupt in the future.

Inside an active volcano is a chamber in which molten rock, called magma , collects. Pressure builds up inside the magma chamber, causing the magma to move through channels in the rock and escape onto the planet’s surface. Once it flows onto the surface the magma is known as lava .

Some volcanic eruptions are explosive, while others occur as a slow lava flow. Eruptions can occur through a main opening at the top of the volcano or through vents that form on the sides. The rate and intensity of eruptions, as well as the composition of the magma, determine the shape of the volcano.

Volcanoes are found on both land and the ocean floor. When volcanoes erupt on the ocean floor, they often create underwater mountains and mountain ranges as the released lava cools and hardens. Volcanoes on the ocean floor become islands when the mountains become so large they rise above the surface of the ocean.

Media Credits

The audio, illustrations, photos, and videos are credited beneath the media asset, except for promotional images, which generally link to another page that contains the media credit. The Rights Holder for media is the person or group credited.

Production Managers

Program specialists, last updated.

October 19, 2023

User Permissions

For information on user permissions, please read our Terms of Service. If you have questions about how to cite anything on our website in your project or classroom presentation, please contact your teacher. They will best know the preferred format. When you reach out to them, you will need the page title, URL, and the date you accessed the resource.

If a media asset is downloadable, a download button appears in the corner of the media viewer. If no button appears, you cannot download or save the media.

Text on this page is printable and can be used according to our Terms of Service .

Interactives

Any interactives on this page can only be played while you are visiting our website. You cannot download interactives.

Related Resources

Volcanoes, explained

These fiery peaks have belched up molten rock, hot ash, and gas since Earth formed billions of years ago.

Volcanoes are Earth's geologic architects. They've created more than 80 percent of our planet's surface, laying the foundation that has allowed life to thrive. Their explosive force crafts mountains as well as craters. Lava rivers spread into bleak landscapes. But as time ticks by, the elements break down these volcanic rocks, liberating nutrients from their stony prisons and creating remarkably fertile soils that have allowed civilizations to flourish.

There are volcanoes on every continent, even Antarctica. Some 1,500 volcanoes are still considered potentially active around the world today; 161 of those—over 10 percent—sit within the boundaries of the United States .

But each volcano is different. Some burst to life in explosive eruptions, like the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo , and others burp rivers of lava in what's known as an effusive eruption, like the 2018 activity of Hawaii's Kilauea volcano. These differences are all thanks to the chemistry driving the molten activity. Effusive eruptions are more common when the magma is less viscous, or runny, which allows gas to escape and the magma to flow down the volcano's slopes. Explosive eruptions, however, happen when viscous molten rock traps the gasses, building pressure until it violently breaks free.

How do volcanoes form?

The majority of volcanoes in the world form along the boundaries of Earth's tectonic plates—massive expanses of our planet's lithosphere that continually shift, bumping into one another. When tectonic plates collide, one often plunges deep below the other in what's known as a subduction zone .

As the descending landmass sinks deep into the Earth, temperatures and pressures climb, releasing water from the rocks. The water slightly reduces the melting point of the overlying rock, forming magma that can work its way to the surface—the spark of life to reawaken a slumbering volcano.

Not all volcanoes are related to subduction, however. Another way volcanoes can form is what's known as hotspot volcanism. In this situation, a zone of magmatic activity —or a hotspot—in the middle of a tectonic plate can push up through the crust to form a volcano. Although the hotspot itself is thought to be largely stationary, the tectonic plates continue their slow march, building a line of volcanoes or islands on the surface. This mechanism is thought to be behind the Hawaii volcanic chain .

Where are all these volcanoes?

Some 75 percent of the world's active volcanoes are positioned around the ring of fire , a 25,000-mile long, horseshoe-shaped zone that stretches from the southern tip of South America across the West Coast of North America, through the Bering Sea to Japan, and on to New Zealand.

For Hungry Minds

This region is where the edges of the Pacific and Nazca plates butt up against an array of other tectonic plates. Importantly, however, the volcanoes of the ring aren't geologically connected . In other words, a volcanic eruption in Indonesia is not related to one in Alaska, and it could not stir the infamous Yellowstone supervolcano .

What are some of the dangers from a volcano?

Volcanic eruptions pose many dangers aside from lava flows. It's important to heed local authorities' advice during active eruptions and evacuate regions when necessary.

You May Also Like

These crystal lava shards are ‘four dimensional videos’ of a volcano’s underworld

Scientists found life in a volcano’s ‘lava tubes’—life on other planets could be next

Iceland's latest eruption is quieting down—but the explosive upheaval isn't over yet

One particular danger is pyroclastic flows, avalanches of hot rocks, ash, and toxic gas that race down slopes at speeds as high as 450 miles an hour . Such an event was responsible for wiping out the people of Pompeii and Herculaneum after Mount Vesuvius erupted in A.D. 79 .

Similarly, volcanic mudflows called lahars can be very destructive. These fast-flowing waves of mud and debris can race down a volcano's flanks, burying entire towns.

Ash is another volcanic danger. Unlike the soft, fluffy bits of charred wood left after a campfire, volcanic ash is made of sharp fragments of rocks and volcanic glass each less than two millimeters across. The ash forms as the gasses within rising magma expand, shattering the cooling rocks as they burst from the volcano's mouth. It's not only dangerous to inhale , it's heavy and builds up quickly. Volcanic ash can collapse weak structures, cause power outages, and is a challenge to shovel away post-eruption.

Can we predict volcanic eruptions?

Volcanoes give some warning of pending eruption, making it vital for scientists to closely monitor any volcanoes near large population centers. Warning signs include small earthquakes, swelling or bulging of the volcano's sides, and increased emission of gasses from its vents. None of those signs necessarily mean an eruption is imminent, but they can help scientists evaluate the state of the volcano when magma is building.

However, it's impossible to say exactly when, or even if, any given volcano will erupt. Volcanoes don't run on a timetable like a train. This means it's impossible for one to be “overdue” for eruption —no matter what news headlines say.

What is the largest eruption in history?

The deadliest eruption in recorded history was the 1815 explosion of Mount Tabora in Indonesia. The blast was one of the most powerful ever documented and created a caldera —essentially a crater—4 miles across and more than 3,600 feet deep. A superheated plume of hot ash and gas shot 28 miles into the sky, producing numerous pyroclastic flows when it collapsed.

The eruption and its immediate dangers killed around 10,000 people. But that wasn't its only impact. The volcanic ash and gas injected into the atmosphere obscured the sun and increased the reflectivity of Earth, cooling its surface and causing what's known as the year without a summer. Starvation and disease during this time killed some 82,000 more people, and the gloomy conditions are often credited as the inspiration for gothic horror tales, such as Mary Shelley's Frankenstein .

Although there have been several big eruptions in recorded history, volcanic eruptions today are no more frequent than there were a decade or even a century ago. At least a dozen volcanoes erupt on any given day. As monitoring capacity for—and interest in—volcanic eruptions increases, coverage of the activity more frequently appears in the news and on social media. As Erik Klemetti, associate professor of geosciences at Denison University, writes in The Washington Post : “The world is not more volcanically active, we’re just more volcanically aware.”

Related Topics

• VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS

Volcanoes don’t just erupt on schedule—but they have been in Iceland

Why Iceland's latest eruption may be the most dangerous in recent history

Startling volcanic activity has town in Iceland bracing for crisis

A huge volcano near Naples has been convulsing. What does it mean?

Mysteries lurk below Iceland's restless volcanoes

• Paid Content
• Environment
• Photography
• Perpetual Planet

History & Culture

• History & Culture
• History Magazine
• Mind, Body, Wonder
• World Heritage
• Terms of Use
• Privacy Policy
• Your US State Privacy Rights
• Children's Online Privacy Policy
• Interest-Based Ads
• About Nielsen Measurement
• Do Not Sell or Share My Personal Information
• Nat Geo Home
• Attend a Live Event
• Book a Trip
• Inspire Your Kids
• Shop Nat Geo
• Visit the D.C. Museum
• Learn About Our Impact
• Support Our Mission
• Advertise With Us
• Customer Service
• Renew Subscription
• Manage Your Subscription
• Work at Nat Geo
• Sign Up for Our Newsletters
• Contribute to Protect the Planet

Copyright © 1996-2015 National Geographic Society Copyright © 2015-2024 National Geographic Partners, LLC. All rights reserved

Essay on Volcano

Students are often asked to write an essay on Volcano in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Volcano

What is a volcano.

A volcano is a crack in the Earth’s surface. Through this crack, melted rock, ash, and gases can escape from deep inside the Earth. Think of it like a soda bottle. If you shake it and then open the top, everything rushes out. That’s similar to what happens during a volcanic eruption.

Types of Volcanoes

There are mainly three types: shield, cone, and composite. Shield volcanoes are broad and flat. Cone volcanoes are steep and pointy. Composite volcanoes are tall and can be very explosive. Each type acts differently when it erupts.

Why Do Volcanoes Erupt?

Deep inside the Earth, it’s so hot that rocks melt into liquid called magma. When magma is lighter than the rock around it, it moves up. If it reaches the Earth’s surface, it erupts. This can happen because of the Earth’s plates moving and creating pressure.

Living with Volcanoes

People live near volcanoes for the fertile soil, which is good for farming. But, living close to a volcano can be dangerous. Scientists help by monitoring volcanoes to predict eruptions and keep people safe.

Also check:

• 10 Lines on Volcano
• Paragraph on Volcano

250 Words Essay on Volcano

A volcano is a crack in the Earth’s surface where molten rock, ash, and gases from deep inside the Earth come out. Think of it like a soda bottle that’s been shaken up. When you open the cap, everything rushes out because of the pressure. In the same way, when a volcano erupts, it releases pressure from beneath the Earth’s crust.

There are different kinds of volcanoes, mainly based on their shape and how often they erupt. Some are called shield volcanoes because they’re broad and low, like a warrior’s shield. Others are called stratovolcanoes, which are tall and steep. They usually have more explosive eruptions. Then there are cinder cone volcanoes, which are smaller and made of bits of rock and ash.

Volcanoes erupt because of the movement of tectonic plates, which are big pieces of the Earth’s surface. When these plates move, they can cause magma from deep inside the Earth to push its way up to the surface. This magma then becomes lava when it comes out of the volcano.

The Impact of Volcanoes

Volcanoes can be dangerous, destroying homes and forests with their lava flows and ash. But they also create new land and bring important nutrients to the soil, which can help plants grow. Plus, the gases they release into the atmosphere can affect the Earth’s climate.

Understanding volcanoes helps us prepare for their eruptions and appreciate the powerful forces that shape our planet.

500 Words Essay on Volcano

Volcanoes: nature’s fiery breath.

Volcanoes are fascinating natural wonders that capture our imaginations. These colossal mountains showcase the immense power of nature, capable of awe-inspiring eruptions and destruction. Let’s explore the world of volcanoes and delve into some of their most intriguing aspects.

A Peek Inside a Volcano

Imagine a giant underground chamber filled with molten rock, known as magma. This magma is incredibly hot, and it’s constantly pushing against the Earth’s crust. When the pressure becomes too intense, it finds a way to escape, and that’s when a volcano erupts.

Types of Volcanic Eruptions

There are various types of volcanic eruptions, each with its own characteristics. Some eruptions are explosive, sending ash and lava soaring high into the air. Others are more gentle, with lava flowing slowly out of the volcano. Some eruptions produce glowing clouds of ash, called pyroclastic flows, which can race down the volcano’s slopes at high speeds.

Volcanic Hazards

While volcanoes can be a sight to behold, they also pose potential hazards. Lava flows can destroy entire villages and forests, and ash clouds can disrupt air travel. Volcanic eruptions can also trigger earthquakes, landslides, and tsunamis.

Predicting Volcanic Eruptions

Scientists are constantly studying volcanoes to better understand their behavior and predict when they might erupt. They use various instruments to monitor seismic activity, gas emissions, and ground deformation. By gathering this data, scientists can often provide warnings before an eruption occurs, giving people time to evacuate.

Volcanoes and the Environment

Volcanic eruptions can have both positive and negative impacts on the environment. On the one hand, they can release harmful gases and ash into the atmosphere, which can affect air quality and climate. On the other hand, volcanic eruptions can create new landforms, provide fertile soil for agriculture, and support unique ecosystems.

Conclusion: The Majestic Force of Nature

Volcanoes are a powerful reminder of the Earth’s dynamic nature. They can be both destructive and awe-inspiring, showcasing the incredible forces that shape our planet. By studying volcanoes, we can better understand the Earth’s processes and prepare for potential hazards, while still appreciating their majestic beauty.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

If you’re looking for more, here are essays on other interesting topics:

• Essay on Vitamins
• Essay on Visit To A Strange Place
• Essay on Visit To A Beach

Apart from these, you can look at all the essays by clicking here .

Happy studying!

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

Deep Sea Volcanoes and their Effects Research Paper

Absorption of carbon dioxide, rising temperatures and melting ice caps, marine life.

The ocean floor is comprised of many hills, mountains, valleys, volcanoes and certain forms of life, easily unimagined to the common man.The entire global ocean floor is approximately 366 million square kilometers and the entire surface area is a volcanic terrain (Fisher, 1998, p. 81). Of the entire ocean floor, there are about a million deep sea volcanoes. Approximately 75,000 of them rise over a kilometer above the ocean floor. The number of active volcanoes is however not determined but it is projected to be in thousands.

Deep sea volcanic eruptions are quite prevalent than is otherwise known. In fact, about 4 cubic kilometers of volcanic lava is erupted annually according to estimations developed from the movement of the earth’s tectonic plates (Fisher, 1998, p. 82). Most of these eruptions are however not seen on the earth’s surface but they are often observed when ridges stretch into dry land.

Oceanographers have in the past carried out research to better understand the ocean’s volcanic terrain. However, their conclusions have not been comprehensive enough; especially with regard to the effects of deep sea volcanic eruptions on the environment. This study therefore explores the relation between deep sea volcanic activities and the environment, with specific reference to existing myths on global warming, an emphasis on marine life, general climatic conditions and topographical effects.

Not all volcanoes are a menace to the environment because of their toxic gases and molten lava. The effects of volcanoes are varied and may even result in the development of lahars. For instance, in September 1996, an undersea volcano with a magnitude of five on the Richter scale shook the Southeastern part of Iceland.

A month later, a deep basin formed on the glacier. Subsequent glaciers were also observed on the same zone (Patricia, 1999, p. 201). This indicated that melting was going on underneath the glacier and generally, the effects of deep sea volcanic activities go beyond toxic gases and molten lava.

The impacts of deep sea volcanoes are therefore varied, and the predictability of a volcano erupting is as difficult as predicting an earthquake (Patricia, 1999, p. 201). However, scientists at present use various parameters and devices to predict volcanic activity such as seismicity (which is also used to predict earthquakes and tremors) and other changes in gravity or electrical impulses.

Also, key in the study of undersea volcanoes is the subsequent earthquakes and tremors that occur after eruptions. Due to the fact that volcanic activities occur close to dry land or deep into the sea; they are bound to affect aquatic life and human life respectively. Their gas emissions also affect the environment. These variables will be categorically analyzed further in the study.

A group of Australian and French scientists have in the past undertaken several studies on the effects of deep sea volcanic eruptions on the environment and established that volcanic activities undersea produce large volumes of iron which plant species known as phytoplankton use to soak up carbon dioxide when they bloom (Fogarty, 2010).

Carbon dioxide being the main greenhouse gas in the world; the studies never focused on the impact of volcanic activity on the environment and especially carbon storage in the Ocean. Deep sea volcanoes are present under deep sea ridges of the ocean floor and the above research has been based on the amount of carbon dioxide that is present in depths of four kilometers on the ocean floor. The studies are therefore shallow.

Carbon is present in small volumes along the ocean floor and this prevents the growth of phytoplankton. However, science has often affirmed that large amounts of carbon often come from wind borne dust. This may be witnessed through sandstorms or iron rich sediments from the ocean which in turn triggers rampant phytoplankton growth (Fogarty, 2010).

At present, research studies have pointed out that deep sea volcanoes constantly produce a significant amount of iron over constant timescales. This has also been identified as the main factor which accounts for about 5%-10% of the total carbon storage in the oceans. Such studies have been observed in the Southern ocean but in other regions, the amount of carbon storage may go up to 30% (Fogarty, 2010).

The implication here is that the iron produced in the ocean and in turn the carbon retention witnessed, can act as a buffer when factors such as sandstorm vary. However, climate change has affected the progression of iron onto the earth’s surface, after deep sea volcanic eruptions. Ocean stratification has also been observed to be another cause of low iron penetration onto the earth’s surface (Fogarty, 2010).

Large amounts of Phytoplankton have been observed at the Antarctica, meaning the region is rich in iron. However, some studies have shown that huge winds will eventually blow the iron onto the ocean surface. In turn, more phytoplankton will grow and capture more carbon dioxide from the air (Fogarty, 2010). A vast network of deep sea volcanoes therefore produce mineral rich water each year soaking up large amounts of carbon dioxide produced by man. This has reduced the acceleration of global warming.

Deep sea volcanoes are known to cause massive landslides because of their massive cones (International Consortium on Landslides. General Assembly, 2005, p. 257). The main cause of landslides for deep sea volcanoes is caused by the very forces that created the volcanoes in the first place.

This is essentially the rise of lava. Every time lava is pushed aside, the surrounding rocks that create ground stability are shoved aside to make room for the molten rock. In turn, internal shear zones are created and this oversteps one or more sides of the cone (US Geological Surveys, 2009).

Normally, the magma that never comes out releases certain volcanic gases that are partially dissolved in the ocean, creating strong hydrothermal systems that further weaken the rock underneath the ocean floor and thereafter burning them to clay (US Geological Surveys, 2009). In addition, the thousands of layers of lava and rock debris often lead to fault lines that weaken the ocean surface. This is often accelerated by the downward pull of the cone by gravitational force.

These factors are especially detrimental when the deep sea volcano is near dry land. This easily triggers a landslide due to a weakened earth surface and also allows part of a volcanic cone to collapse under the pull of gravity into the volcano (US Geological Surveys, 2009).

Certain factors have been observed to accelerate this process including; intrusion of magma into the volcanic surface, deadly earthquakes under the ocean floor, and a saturation of the volcano with large volumes of water; especially preceding an earthquake (US Geological Surveys, 2009).

A Landslide caused by these volcanic activities often destroys everything that stands in its way and also initiates a flurry of activities like explosive eruptions, buried valleys, generation of lahars and a trigger of deadly waves that have even been witnessed in the recent past (like the tsunami) (US Geological Surveys, 2009).

In addition, such landslides may cause varying degrees of topographical effects; ranging from development of hills and closed depressions, created by accumulated debris. Sometimes, the deposits left by these volcanoes create tributaries and later cause flooding, either through the misdirection of tributaries or subsequent forming of lakes and other smaller water bodies (US Geological Surveys, 2009).

After eruptions, a large part of the volcano’s cone is usually displaced and this triggers the landslides which decrease the pressure on the magmatic and hydrothermal systems and in turn cause varying degrees of explosions, ranging from small to large steam explosions (US Geological Surveys, 2009).

Contrary to popular opinion that melting ice and rising temperatures are solely as a result of global warming, deep sea volcanic activities have been identified as another cause of this observation. In fact, scientists have reported that recent volcanic activity under the Arctic Ocean floor have resulted in a large spew of fragmented lava into the sea.

Such eruptions have been observed in Gukkel ridge which records one of the most massive eruptions that even buried Pompeii. This took place in 1999, from an underwater volcano located at the tip of green land near Siberia (Ajstrata, 2008).

Scientists have pondered whether there is a relation between subsequent earthquakes and volcanic explosions (School Specialty Publishing, 2006). Further explorations under the ocean rubbished reports that earthquakes were caused by slow spews of fragmented lava because they discovered that there were huge explosions taking place in the ocean (Ajstrata, 2008).

In understanding the melting of ice at the arctic, it should be understood that the Arctic Ocean resembles a closed system which has very limited outlets (Ajstrata, 2008). The natural basin and its characteristics emphasize the belief that volcanic eruptions are the cause of the melting ice because there isn’t much room for the heat generated out of the deep sea volcanic activities to circulate out of the basin. Ice and glaciers have therefore melted over the centuries.

These discoveries have led to many questions being asked about the real causes of ice melting. Interestingly, the arctic surface has recently had very thin surfaces of ice and either by sheer coincidence or not, the ocean floor underneath is home to some of the most active volcanoes on the ocean floor (Ajstrata, 2008). Evidence at the arctic therefore attests that volcanic activity is one of the primary reasons why ice is quickly melting on the global surface.

With regard to the thickness of ice underwater, it is often observed that bout 90% of icebergs is underwater. Interestingly, areas that have thick ice resemble inverted mountains but areas of thin ice resemble valleys (Ajstrata, 2008).

Evidently, if we were to analyze the effects of deep sea volcanoes, it makes perfect sense that the zone resembling a valley gets heated up fast because it takes less time for the heat to reach the ice and similarly, it would take a long time for the heat to reach the thick ice because of the stumbling inverted mountain-like barrier (Ajstrata, 2008).

There is enough evidence to prove that deep water volcanoes improve the aquatic life undersea. For instance, an active volcano at Guam has recently caught the attention of scientists because despite its regular spewing of lava, it remains home to numerous aquatic lives, including ocean critters, shrimps, limpets, crabs and barnacles (Rosaly, 2005, p. 20).

The volcano is now high enough to resemble a 12 storey building and with recent observations, there has been a growing population of aquatic animals living at the volcano’s dome. The development of a positive relationship between an increase in volcanic activity and the growing population of animals around the volcano is therefore inevitable.

Some scientists even point out that some of these animals found at the volcanic tip are completely new species. Interestingly, these animals are well adapted to their environment which is essentially toxic, in relation to other marine environments. Normal marine life wouldn’t survive there either (Ajstrata, 2008). It is therefore inevitable to conclude that the surrounding marine life is nourished by the deep sea volcanic activity.

Scientifically, this phenomenon has been explained by the slow deposits of bacterial filaments over surrounding rocks that provide a good source of food for the surrounding marine life (Ajstrata, 2008). Some shrimps have even been observed to have adapted to the volcanic environment by developing pruning claws to extract food from the rocks. Another animal species known as the Lohili shrimps has perfectly adapted to its environment by grazing on the bacterial filaments through the developments of garden like shears.

These species however graze as a primary source of obtaining food but as they develop into adult life, they develop their claws to become predators (Ajstrata, 2008). In this regard, the shrimps become predators and feed on dead animals like fish and squids which were jumped up by the volcano (Ajstrata, 2008). These underwater volcanoes have therefore provided better ground for understanding volcanic activities than volcanic mountains on land would.

Deep sea volcanoes have a huge impact on the environment. Virtually, marine life is largely dictated by volcanic activities that go on in deep waters. This is in reference to an evident change of aquatic life conditions especially in light of toxic gases released in the deep waters.

These volcanic activities also rival existing facts about global warming because their activities have been noted to increase world temperatures and result in ice and glaciers melting. In the same regard, landslides and earthquakes have been attributed to a destabilization of the earth’s surface by volcanic activities.

However, we cannot pass a blanket judgment that deep sea volcanoes only have detrimental effects because this study identifies that it helps reduce green gas emissions through carbon dioxide reduction. Conclusively this study identifies that the effects of deep sea volcanic activities have been largely underrated and more research needs to be done to quantify its effects.

Ajstrata. B. (2008). Global Warming or Simply Under Water Volcanoes . Web.

Fisher, R. (1998). Volcanoes: Crucibles of Change . New Jersey: Princeton University Press.

Fogarty, D. (2010). Deep-Sea Volcanoes Play Key Climate Role: Scientists . Web.

International Consortium on Landslides. General Assembly. (2005 ). Landslides: Risk Analysis and Sustainable Disaster Management: Proceedings of the First General Assembly of the International Consortium on Landslides. Amsterdam: Birkhäuser.

Patricia, L. (1999). The Oryx Guide to Natural History: The Earth and All Its Inhabitants . Boston: Greenwood Publishing Group.

Rosaly M. C. (2005). The Volcano Adventure Guide . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

School Specialty Publishing. (2006). World Atlas . New York: Carson-Dellosa Publishing.

US Geological Surveys, (2009). Volcano Landslides and their Effects . Web.

• Haleakalā Volcano and Wai'anapanapa State Park
• Volcanism Role on the Earth’s Climate
• Extraction of Chlorophyll A
• Ocean Currents: General Information
• The River Nile and Its Contribution to Ancient Egyptian Civilization
• Census Tract 78.09: Oahu Island
• The Tragedy of the Commons
• Towards Understanding the Causes of Genetic Diversity
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2018, July 3). Deep Sea Volcanoes and their Effects. https://ivypanda.com/essays/deep-sea-volcanoes-and-their-effects/

"Deep Sea Volcanoes and their Effects." IvyPanda , 3 July 2018, ivypanda.com/essays/deep-sea-volcanoes-and-their-effects/.

IvyPanda . (2018) 'Deep Sea Volcanoes and their Effects'. 3 July.

IvyPanda . 2018. "Deep Sea Volcanoes and their Effects." July 3, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/deep-sea-volcanoes-and-their-effects/.

1. IvyPanda . "Deep Sea Volcanoes and their Effects." July 3, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/deep-sea-volcanoes-and-their-effects/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Deep Sea Volcanoes and their Effects." July 3, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/deep-sea-volcanoes-and-their-effects/.

Your Article Library

Essay on volcanoes | geology.

ADVERTISEMENTS:

After reading this article you will learn about:- 1. Introduction to Volcanoes 2. Volcano Formation 3. Volcanic Landforms 4. Major Gases Emitted by Volcanoes 5. Lightning and Whirlwinds 6. Features Produced by the Escape of Gases from Volcanic Lavas 7. Volcanic Products 8. Source of the Explosive Energy 9. Classification of Pyroclastics 10. Lahars-Mudflows on Active and Inactive Cones and Other Details.

Essay Contents:

• Essay on the Volcanoes and Atmospheric Pollution

Essay # 1. Introduction to Volcanoes :

A volcano is a cone shaped hill or mountain which is built-up around an opening in the earth’s surface through which hot gases, rock fragments and lavas are ejected.

Due to the accumulation of the solid fragments around the conduit a conical mass is built which increases in size to become a large volcanic mountain. The conical mass so built-up is called a volcano. However the term volcano is taken to include not only the central vent in the earth but also the mountain or hill built around it.

Volcanoes are in varying sizes, varying from small conical hills to loftiest mountains on the earth’s surface. The volcanoes of the Hawaiian Islands are nearly 4300 metres above sea level since they are built over the floor of the Pacific ocean which at the site is 4300 to 5500 metres deep, the total height of the volcano may be about 9000 m or more.

The very high peaks in the Andes, in the Cascade Range of the Western United States, Mt. Baker, Mt. Adams, Mt. Hood etc. are all volcanoes which have now become extinct. Over 8000 independent eruptions have been identified from earth’s volcanoes. There are many inaccessible regions and ocean floors where volcanoes have occurred undocumented or unnoticed.

The eruption of a volcano is generally preceded by earthquakes and by loud rumblings like thunder which may continue on a very high scale during the eruption. The loud rumblings are due to explosive movement of gases and molten rock which are held under very high pressure. Before eruption of a volcano fissures are likely to be opened, nearby lakes likely to be drained and hot springs may appear at places.

The eruptive activity of volcanoes is mostly named after the well-known volcanoes, which are known for particular type of behaviour, like Strambolian, Vulcanian, Vesuvian, Hawaiian types of eruption. Volcanoes may erupt in one distinct way or may erupt in many ways, but, the reality is, these eruptions provide a magical view inside the earth’s molten interior.

The nature of a volcanic eruption is determined largely by the type of materials ejected from the vent of the volcano. Volcanic eruptions may be effusive (fluid lavas) or dangerous and explosive with blasts of rock, gas, ash and other pyroclasts.

Some volcanoes erupt for just a few minutes while some volcanoes spew their products for a decade or more. Between these two main types viz. effusive and explosive eruptions, there are many subdivisions like, eruption of gases mixed with gritty pulverised rock forming tall dark ash clouds seen for many kilometres, flank fissure eruptions with lava oozing from long horizontal cracks on the side of a volcano.

There is also the ground hugging lethally hot avalanches of volcanic debris called pyroclastic flows. When magma rises, it may encounter groundwater causing enormous phreatic, i.e., steam eruptions. Eruptions may also release suffocating gases into the atmosphere. Eruptions may produce tsunamis and floods and may trigger earthquakes. They may unleash ravaging rockslides and mudflows.

Volcanoes which have had no eruptions during historic times, but may still show fairly fresh signs of activity and have been active in geologically recent times are said to be dormant. There are also volcanoes which were formerly active but are of declining activity a few of which may be emitting only steam and other gases.

Geysers are hot springs from which water is expelled vigorously at intervals and are characteristics of regions of declining volcanic activity. Geysers are situated in Iceland, the Yellowstone park in USA and in New Zealand.

In contrast to the explosive type of volcanoes, there exist eruptions of great lava flows quietly pouring out of fissures developed on the earth’s surface. These eruptions are not accompanied by explosive outbursts. These are fissure eruptions.

Ex: Deccan Trap formations in India. The lavas in these cases are mostly readily mobile and flow over low slopes. The individual flows are seldom over a few meters in thickness; the average thickness may be less than 15 meters. If the fissure eruptions have taken place in valleys however, the thickness may be much greater.

A noteworthy type of volcano is part of the world encircling mid-ocean ridge (MOR) visible in Iceland. The MOR is really a single, extremely long, active, linear volcano, connecting all spreading plate boundaries through all oceans. Along its length small, separate volcanoes occur. The MOR exudes low-silica, highly fluid basalt producing the entire ocean floor and constituting the largest single structure on the face of the earth.

Essay # 2. Location of Volcanoes:

Volcanoes are widely distributed over the earth, but they are more abundant in certain belts. One such belt encircles the Pacific ocean and includes many of the islands in it. Other volcanic areas are the island of West Indies, those of the West coast of Africa, the Mediterranean region and Iceland.

Most volcanoes occur around or near the margins of the continents and so these areas re regarded as weak zones of the earth’s crust where lavas can readily work their way upward. There are over 400 active volcanoes and many more inactive ones. Numerous submarine volcanoes also exist.

Since it is not possible to examine the magma reservoir which fees a volcano our information must be obtained by studying the material ejected by the volcano. This material consists of three kinds of products, viz. liquid lava, fragmented pyroclasts and gases. There may exist a special problem in studying the gases, both in collecting them under hazardous conditions or impossible conditions.

It may also be difficult to ascertain that the gases collected are true volcanic gases and are not contaminated with atmospheric gases. Investigation of the composition of extruded rock leads to a general, although not very detailed, correlation between composition and intensity of volcanic eruption.

In general, the quite eruptions are characteristic of those volcanoes which emit basic or basaltic lavas, whereas the violent eruptions are characteristic of volcanoes emitting more silicic rocks.

ADVERTISEMENTS: (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({});

Essay # 3 . formation of volcanoes :.

The term volcano is used to mean both the opening in the earth’s crust, i.e. the vent through which the eruption of magma occurs as well as the hill built- up by the erupted material. Volcanoes occur where the cracks in the earth’s crust lead to the magma chamber.

The liquid magma which is lighter than the surrounding rocks is under high pressure is pushed up towards the surface through these cracks. In this process the gases dissolved in the magma which expand are released providing an upward push to the magma.

As the magma gets closer to the surface, due to the reducing confining pressure to overcome, the magma and the gases flow faster. The magma, depending on its viscosity may quietly pour to the surface in the form of a flood of molten rock or it may explosively spurt out the molten rock to considerable heights as showers on the surrounding region with solid rock fragments and globs of molten rock. The liquid magma discharged to the surface is called lava.

Essay # 4 . Volcanic Landforms :

Many surface features of volcanic origin are created. These features range from towering peaks and huge lava sheets to small and low craters. The features created by a volcano vary depending on the type of eruption, the material erupted and the effects of erosion.

Four types of volcanic landforms are formed:

i. Ash and Cinder Cones or Explosion Cones:

These appear where explosive eruptions take place. When very hot solid fragments from a central crater (or a subsidiary crater) are ejected. A concave cone of height not exceeding 300 m is formed.

ii. Lava Cones:

These are formed from slowly upwelling lava.

These are of two types:

(a) Steep Sided Volcanoes:

These are formed from sticky acid lava which gets hardened quickly. The highly viscous lava which is squeezed out makes spines like tower.

(b) Shield Volcanoes:

These show gently sloping dome features. These are formed from runny lava which flows long distances, before getting hardened.

iii. Composite Cones or Strato-Volcanoes or Strato Cones:

These volcanoes have concave cone shaped sides of alternating ash and lava layers. These are common in most very high volcanoes. In some cases solid lava may plug the main pipe to the crater. Then pent up gases may blast the top off.

When the magma chamber empties, the summit of the volcano collapses. As a consequence, the feature produced is a vast shallow cavity called a Caldera. Strato volcanoes are the accumulated products of many volcanoes. Chemically most of these products are andesite. Some are dacite and a few are basalt and rhyolite. Due to this chemical mix and characteristic interlayering of lava flows, this volcano is called strato volcano.

iv. Shield Volcanoes:

When a volcano vent produces many successive basaltic lava flows stacked one on top of another in eruptive order, the resulting landform is called a shield volcano. A cinder cone and its associated lava flow can be thought of as the initial building blocks of a shield volcano.

A cinder cone is monogenetic because it forms from a single short-lived eruption (of a few years to a decade or two in duration). In contrast, a shield volcano that is an accumulation of the products of many eruptions over a period of say thousands to hundreds of thousands of years is polygenic.

On land these volcanoes have low angle cones. When they form under water they start with a steeper shape because the lava freezes much faster and does not travel far. The shape fattens to the shield form as the cone builds above the sea level.

v. Plateau Basalts or Lava Plains:

These form the bulk of many volcanic fields. These are features which occur where successive flows of basic lava leaks through fissures, over land surface and then cools and hardens forming a blanket-like feature.

The surface appearance of a flow provides information on the composition and temperature of the magma before it solidified. Very hot low viscosity basalt flows far and fast and produces smooth ropy surfaces. Cooler and less-fluid basalt flows form irregular, jagged surfaces littered with blocks.

The lava flows have blanketed to about 2000 m thickness covering 6,50,000 sq.km. in the Indian Deccan Plateau. Such lava flows have also created the U.S. Columbia River Plateau, the Abyssinian Plateau, the Panama Plateau of South America and the Antrim Plateau of Northern Ireland.

Magmas like dacite and rhyolite that have high silica contents are cooler and more viscous than basalt and hence they do not flow far resulting in the features, lobes, pancakes and domes. Domes often plug up the vent from which they issued, sometimes creating catastrophic explosions and may create a crater.

Eroded volcanoes have their importance. They give us a glimpse of the interior plumbing along which the magma rose to the surface. At the end of an eruption, magma solidifies in the conduits along which it had been rising. The rock so formed is more resistant than the shattered rock forming the walls and hence these lava filled conduits are often left behind when the rest of the volcano has been eroded away.

The filling of the central vertical vent is somewhat circular in section and forms a spire called a neck. The filling of cracks along which lava rose forms nearly vertical tabular bodies called dikes. Sometimes magma works its way along cracks that are nearly horizontal, often along bedding planes of sedimentary rocks. This results in the formation of table-like bodies called sills.

Essay # 5 . Major Gases Emitted by Volcanoes :

Volcanic gases present within the magma are released as they reach the earth’s surface, escaping at the major volcanic opening or from fissures and vents along the side of the volcano. The most prevalent gases emitted are steam, carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide. Carbon dioxide is an invisible, odourless poisonous gas. The table below shows the gases emitted from volcanoes.

Essay # 6 . Lightning and Whirlwinds :

Lightning flashes accompany most volcanic eruptions, especially those involving dust. The cause of this lightning is believed to be either contact of sea water with magma or generation of static electricity by friction between colliding particles carried in the erupting gases. Lightning is characteristic of vulcanian eruptions and is common during glowing avalanches.

Whirlwinds are seen during many volcanic eruptions. They are seen above hot lavas. Sometimes they form inverted cones extending a little below the eruption cloud. Energy for the whirlwinds might be from the hot gases and lava, high velocity gas jets in the eruption, heat released into the atmosphere during falls of hot tephra or where lava flows into the sea creating steam.

Essay # 7 . Features Produced by the Escape of Gases from Volcanic Lavas :

The gases of volcanic lavas produce several interesting features while they escape. They expand in the lava of the flow and thus cause the formation of Scoriaceous and Pumiceous rocks. By their explosion, they blow the hardened lava above them in the conduit, into bits and thus produce pyroclastic material.

They form clouds above volcanoes, the rain from which assists in the production of mud flows. When the volcano becomes inactive, they escape aiding in the formation of jumaroles, geysers and hot springs. Scoriaceous rocks are extremely porous. They are formed by the expansion of the steam and other gases beneath the hardened crust of a lava. The final escape of the gases from the hardening lava leaves large rounded holes in the rock.

Pumice is a rock also formed by the expansion and escape of gases. In pumice, many of the holes are in the form of long, minute, closed tubes which make the rock so light that it will float on water.

These tubes are formed by the expansive force of large amounts of gases in an extremely viscous lava that cools very rapidly, forming a glassy rock. Pumice is the rock that is usually formed from the lava ejected from explosive volcanoes. It can be blown to kilometres by explosions.

Essay # 8 . Volcanic Products :

Volcanoes give out products in all the states of matter – gases, liquids and solids.

Steam, hydrogen, sulphur and carbon dioxide are discharged as gases by a volcano. The steam let out by a volcano condenses in the air forming clouds which shed heavy rains. Various gases interact and intensify the heat of the erupting lavas. Explosive eruptions cause burning clouds of gas with scraps of glowing lava called nuees ardentes.

The main volcanic product is liquid lava. Sticky acid lava on cooling, solidifies and hardens before flowing long distances. Such lava can also block a vent resulting in pressure build-up which was relieved by an explosion. Basic fluid lava of lesser viscosity flows to great distances before hardening.

Some lava forms are produced by varying conditions as follows. Clinkery block shaped features are produced when gas spurted from sluggish molten rock capped by cooling crust. These are called Aa.

Pahoehoe is a feature which has a wrinkled skin appearance caused by molten lava flowing below it.

Pillow lava is a feature resembling pillows. This feature piles up when fast cooling lava erupts under water.

Products in explosive outbursts are called Pyroclasts. These consist of either fresh material or ejected scraps of old hard lava and other rock. Volcanic bombs include pancake-flat scoria shaped on impacting the ground and spindle bombs which are twisted at ends as they whizzle through the air. Acid lava full of gas formed cavities produces a light volcanic rock.

Pumice which is so light it can float on water. The product Ignimbrite shows welded glassy fragments. Lapilli are hurled out cinder fragments. Vast clouds of dust or very tiny lava particles are called volcanic ash. Volcanic ash mixed with heavy rain creates mudflows.

Sometimes mudflows can bury large areas of land. Powerful explosions can smoother land for many kilometres around with ash and can hurl huge amount of dust into the higher atmosphere. Violent explosions destroy farms and towns, but volcanic ash provides rich soil for crops.

i. Hot springs:

The underground hot rocks heat the spring waters creating hot springs. The hot springs shed minerals dissolved in them resulting in crusts of calcium carbonate and quartz (geyserite).

ii. Smoker:

This is a submarine hot spring at an oceanic spreading ridge. This submarine spring emits sulphides and builds smoky clouds.

iii. Geyser:

Periodically steam and hot water are forced up from a vent by super-heated water in pipe like passage deep down. Famous geysers are present in Iceland and Yellowstone National Park.

iv. Mud volcano:

This is a low mud cone deposited by mud-rich water gushing out of a vent.

v. Solfatara:

This is a volcanic vent which emits steam and sulphurous gas.

vi. Fumarole:

This is a vent which emits steam jets as at Mt. Etna, Sicily and Valley of Ten Thousand smokes in Alaska.

vii. Mofette:

This is a small vent which emits gases including carbon dioxide. These occur in France, Italy and Java.

Various terms used while describing volcanic features are given below:

i. Magma Chamber:

Magma is created below the surface of the earth (at depth of about 60 km) and is held in the magma chamber until sufficient pressure is built-up to push the magma towards the surface.

This is a pipe like passage through which the magma is pushed up from the magma chamber.

This is the outlet end of the pipe. Magma exits out of the vent. If a vent erupts only gases, it is called fumarole.

iv. Crater:

Generally the vent opens out to a depression called crater at the top of the volcano. This is caused due to the collapse of the surface materials.

v. Caldera:

This is a very big crater formed when the top of an entire volcanic hill collapses inward.

When the erupted materials cover the vent, a volcanic dome is created covering the vent. Later as the pressure of gas and magma rises, another eruption occurs shattering the dome.

A mountain-like structure created over thousands of years as the volcanic lava, ash, rock fragments are poured out onto the surface. This feature is called volcanic cone.

viii. Pyroclastic Flow :

A pyroclastic flow (also known as nuee ardentes (French word) is a ground hugging, turbulent avalanche of hot ash. pumice, rock fragments, crystals, glass shards and volcanic gas. These flows can rush down the steep slopes of a volcano at 80 to 160 km/li, burning everything in their path.

Temperatures of these flows can reach over 500°C. A deposit of this mixture is also often referred to as pyroclastic flow. An even more energetic and dilute mixture of searing volcanic gases and rock-fragments is called a pyroclastic surge which can easily ride up and over ridges.

ix. Seamounts :

A spectacular underwater volcanic feature is a huge localized volcano called a seamount. These isolated underwater volcanic mountains rise from 900 m to 3000 m above the ocean floor, but typically are not high enough to poke above the water surface.

Seamounts are present in all the oceans of the world, with the Pacific ocean having the highest concentration. More than 2000 seamounts have been identified in this ocean. The Gulf of Alaska also has many seamounts. The Axial Seamount is an active volcano off the north coast of Oregon (currently rises about 1400 m above the ocean floor, but its peak is still about 1200 m below the water surface.

Essay # 9 . Source of the Explosive Energy :

The energy for the explosive violence comes from the expansion of the volatile constituents present in the magma, the gas content of which determines the degree of commination of the materials and the explosive violence of the eruption.

This energy is expanded in two ways, firstly in the expulsion of the materials into the atmosphere and secondly, due to expansion within the magma leading to the development of vesicles. The most important gas is steam, which may form between 60 to 90 per cent of the total gas content in a lava. Carbon dioxide, nitrogen and sulphur dioxide occur commonly and hydrogen, carbon monoxide, sulphur and chlorine are also present.

Essay # 10 . Classification of Pyroclastics :

Pyroclastics refer to fragmental material erupted by a volcano. The larger fragments consisting of pieces of crystal layers beneath the volcano or of older lavas broken from the walls of the conduit or from the surface of the crater are called blocks.

Volcanic bombs are masses of new lava blown from the crater and solidified during flight, becoming round or spindle shaped as they are hurled through the air. They may range in size from small pellets up to huge masses weighing many kilonewtons.

Sometimes they are still plastic when they strike the surface and are flattened or distorted as they roll down the side of the cone. Another type called bread crust bomb resembles a loaf of bread with large gaping cracks in the crust.

This cracking of the crust results from the continued expansion of the internal gases. Many fragments of lava and scoria solidified in flight drop back into the crater and are intermixed with the fluid lava and are again erupted.

In contrast to bombs, smaller broken fragments are lapilli (from Italian meaning, little stones) about the size of walnuts; then in decreasing size, cinders, ash and dust. The cinders and ash are pulverized lava, broken up by the force of rapidly expanding gases in them or by the grinding together of the fragments in the crater, as they are repeatedly blown out and dropped back into the crater after each explosion.

Pumice is a type of pyroclastic produced by acidic lavas if the gas content is so great as to cause the magma to froth as it rises in the chimney of the volcano. When the expansion occurs the rock from the froth is expelled as pumice. Pumice is of size ranging from the size of a marble to 30 cm or more in diameter. Pumice will float in water due to many air spaces formed by the expanding gases.

Lava fountains in which steam jets blow the lava into the air produce a material known as Pele’s hair which is identical with rock wool which is manufactured by blowing a jet of steam into a stream of molten rock (Rock wool is used for many types of insulation).

Coarse angular fragments become cemented to form a rock called volcanic breccia. The finer material like cinders and ash forms thick deposits which get consolidated through the percolation of ground water and is called tuff. Tuff is a building stone used in the volcanic regions. It is soft and easily quarried and can be shaped and has enough strength to be set into walls with mortar.

i. Agglomerate:

The debris in and around the vent contains the largest ejected masses of lava bombs which are embedded in dust and ash. A deposit of this kind is known as agglomerate. The layers of ash and dust which are formed for some distance around the volcano and which builds its cone, become hardened into rocks which are called tuffs.

Ash includes all materials with size less than 4 mm. It is pulverized lava, in which the fragments are often sharply angular and formed of volcanic glass; these angular and often curved fragments are called shards.

Since the gas content of ash on expulsion is high it has considerable mobility on reaching the surface; it is also hot and plastic, the result of these conditions being that the fragments often become welded together. The finest of ash is so light that wind can transport it for great distances.

The table below sets out a general classification of pyroclastic rocks based on the particle size of the fragments forming the rocks.

The chart in Fig. 15.3 summarizes the names of the common magmas and their associated ranges in silica. A very important property of magma that determines the eruption style and the eventual shape of the volcano it builds, is its resistance to flow, namely its viscosity.

Magma viscosity increases as its silica content increases. Eruptions of highly viscous magmas are violent. The highly viscous rhyolite magma piles up its ticky masses right over its eruptive vent to farm tall steep sided volcanoes.

On the contrary the basaltic magma flows great distances from its eruptive vent to from low, broad volcanic features. Magma in the intermediate viscosity spectrum say the andesite magma tends to form volcanoes of profile shapes between these two extremes.

An additional important ingredient of magma is water. Magmas also contain carbon dioxide and various sulphur-containing gases in solution. These substances are considered volatile since they tend to occur as gases at temperatures and pressures at the surface of the earth.

As basaltic magma changes composition toward rhyolite the volatiles become concentrated in the silica-rich magma. Presence of these volatiles (mainly water) in high concentration produces highly explosive volcanoes. It should be noted that these volatiles are held in magma by confining pressure. Within the earth, the confining pressure is provided by the load of the overlying rocks.

As the magma rises from the mantle to depths about 1.5 km or somewhat less, the rock load is reduced to that extent that the volatiles (mainly water) start to boil. Bubbles rising through highly viscous rhyolitic magma have such difficulty to escape their way, that many carry blobs of magma and fine bits of rock with them and they finally break free and jet violently upward resulting in a violent buoyant eruption column that can rise to kilometres above the earth.

The fine volcanic debris in such a powerful eruption gets dispersed within the upper atmosphere, hide the sunlight affecting the weather. The greater the original gas concentration in a magma and the greater the volume rate of magma leaving the vent, the taller is the eruption column produced.

The gases escaping from magma during eruption mix with the atmosphere and become part of the air humans, animals and plants breath and assimilate. However as magma cools and solidifies to rock during eruption, some of the gas remains trapped in bubbles creating vesicles. Generally all volcanic rocks contain some gas bubbles. A variety of vesicular rhyolite is pumice. Pumice is vesicular to such an extent, it floats in water.

Essay # 15. Classification of Volcanic Activity:

A classification of volcanic activity based on the type of product is shown in Fig. 15.4. The basic subdivision is based on the proportions of the gas, liquid and solid components, which can be represented on a triangular diagram. The four basic triangles represent the domain of four basic kinds of volcanic activity.

Essay # 16. Cone Topped and Flat Topped Volcanoes:

Generally rhyolite volcanoes are flat-topped because rhyolite magma which is extremely viscous, oozes out of the ground, piles up around the vent and then oozes away a bit to form a pancake shape. In contrast basalt volcanoes generally feed lava flows that flow far from the vent, building a cone.

Basaltic tephra (large particles of different size) is a spongy-looking black, rough material of pebble or cobble. Commercially this tephra is known as cinder and is used for gardening and rail-road beds. In some situations basaltic volcanoes develop flat top profile.

Flat topped volcanoes of basalt can form when there is an eruption under a glacier. Instead of getting ejected as tephra to form a cone, it forms a cauldron of lava surrounded by ice and water and eventually solidifying. When the ice melts, a steep-sided, table-shaped mountain known as a tuya remains. Volcanoes of this type are common in Iceland and British Columbia, where volcanoes have repeatedly erupted under glaciers.

Surprisingly, the Pacific ocean is a home to many flat-topped undersea basaltic mountains. These are called seamounts. How these seamounts were formed was a mystery for a long time. Surveying and dredging operations revealed that most seamounts were formerly conical volcanoes projecting above the water.

Geologists found that the conical volcanoes got lowered due to subsidence and the tops of the volcanoes came near the sea water level and the powerful waves mowed them flat. Continued subsidence caused them to drop below the water surface.

Essay # 17. Types of Volcanoes :

There are many types of volcanoes depending on the composition of magma especially on the relative proportion of water and silica contents. If the magma contains little of either of these, it is more liquid and it flows freely forming a shallow rounded hill.

Large water content with little silica permits the vapour to rapidly rise through the molten rock, throwing fountains of fire high into the air. More silica and less water in the magma make the magma more viscous. Such magma flows slowly and builds-up a high dome.

High content of both water and silica create another condition. In such a case the dense silica prevents the water from vaporizing until it is close to the surface and results in a highly explosive way. Such an eruption is called a Vulcan eruption.

Other types of eruption are named after people or regions associated with them. Vesuvian eruption named after Vesuvius is a highly explosive type occurring after a long period of dormancy. This type ejects a huge column of ash and rock to great heights upto 50 km.

A peleean eruption named after the eruption of Mt. Pelee in Martin que in 1902 is a highly violent eruption ejecting a hot cloud of ash mixed with considerable quantity of gas which flows down the sides of the volcano like a liquid. The cloud is termed nuee ardente meaning glowing cloud. Pyroclastic or ash flow refers to a flow of ash, solid rock pieces and gas. Hawaiian eruptions eject fire fountains.

Essay # 18. Violence of Volcanic Eruptions :

Volcanic activity may be classified by its violence, which in turn is generally related to rock type, the course of eruptive activity and the resulting landforms. We may in general distinguish between lava eruptions associated with basic and intermediate magmas and pumice eruptions associated with acid magmas.

The percentage of the fragmentary material in the total volcanic material produced can be used as a measure of explosiveness and if calculated for a volcanic region can be adopted as an Explosion Index (E), useful for comparing one volcanic region with others. Explosion Index for selected volcanic regions by Rittmann (1962) are shown in the table below.

Newhall and Self (1982) proposed a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) which helps to summarize many aspects of eruption and is shown in the table below.

Essay # 19. Famous Volcanoes around the World :

Many volcanoes are present around the world. Some of the largest and well known volcanoes are listed in the table below.

Essay # 20. Volcanic Hazards :

Volcanic eruptions have caused destruction to life and property. In most cases volcanic hazards cannot be controlled, but their impacts can be mitigated by effective prediction methods.

Flows of lava, pyroclastic activity, emissions of gas and volcanic seismicity are major hazards. These are accompanied with movement of magma and eruptive products of the volcano. There are also other secondary effects of the eruptions which may have long term effects.

In most cases volcanoes let out lava which causes property damage rather than injuries or deaths. For instance, in Hawaii lava flows erupted from Kilauea for over a decade and as a consequence, homes, roads, forests, cars and other vehicles were buried in lavas and in some cases were burned by the resulting fires but no lives were lost. Sometimes it has become possible to control or divert the lava flow by constructing retaining walls or by some provision to chill the front of the lava flow with water.

Lava flows move slowly. But the pyroclastic flows move rapidly and these with lateral blasts may kill lives before they can run away. In 1902, on the island of Martinique the most destructive pyroclastic flow of the century occurred resulting in very large number of deaths.

A glowing avalanche rushed out of the flanks of Mount Pelee, running at a speed of over 160 km/h and killed about 29000 people. In A.D. 79 a large number of people of Pompeii and Herculaneum were buried under the hot pyroclastic material erupted by Mount Vesuvius.

The poisonous gas killed many of the victims and their bodies got later buried by pyroclastic material. In 1986, the eruption of the volcano at Lake Nyos, Cameroon killed over 1700 people and over 3000 cattle.

When magma moves towards the surface of the earth rocks may get fractured and this may result in swarms of earthquakes. The turbulent bubbling and boiling of magma below the earth can produce high frequency seismicity called volcanic tremor.

There are also secondary and tertiary hazards connected with volcanic eruptions. A powerful eruption in a coastal setting can cause a displacement of the seafloor leading to a tsunami. Hazardous effects are caused by pyroclastic material after a volcanic eruption has ceased.

Either melt water from snow or rain at the summit of the volcano can mix with the volcanic ash and start a deadly mud flow (called as lahar). Sometimes a volcanic debris avalanche in which various materials like pyroclastic matter, mud, shattered trees etc. is set out causing damage.

Volcanic eruptions produce other effects too. They can permanently change a landscape. They can block river channels causing flooding and diversion of water flow. Mountain terrains can be severely changed.

Volcanic eruptions can change the chemistry of the atmosphere. The effects of eruption on the atmosphere are precipitation of salty toxic or acidic matter. Spectacular sun set, extended period of darkness and stratospheric ozone depletion are all other effects of eruptions. Blockage of solar radiation by fine pyroclastic material can cause global cooling.

Apart from the above negative effects of volcanisms there are a few positive effects too. Periodic volcanic eruptions replenish the mineral contents of soils making it fertile. Geothermal energy is provided by volcanism. Volcanism is also linked with some type of mineral deposits. Magnificent scenery is provided by some volcanoes.

The study of volcanoes has great scientific as well as social interest. Widespread tephra layers inter-bedded with natural and artificial deposits have been used for deciphering and dating glacial and volcanic sequences, geomorphic features and archeological sites.

For example, ash from Mt. St. Helens Volcano in Washington travelled at least 900 km into Alberta. North American Indians fashioned tools and weapons out of volcanic glass, the origin of which is used to trace migratory and trading routes.

Volcanoes are windows through which the scientists look into the interiors of the earth. From volcanoes we learn the composition of the earth at great depths below the surface. We learn about the history of shifting layers of the earth’s crust. We learn about the processes which transform molten material into solid rock.

From the geological historical view point, volcanic activity was crucial in providing to the earth a unique habitat for life. The degassing of molten materials provided water for the oceans and gases for the atmosphere – indeed, the very ingredients for life and its sustenance.

Essay # 21. Volcanoes and Atmospheric Pollution :

During eruptions volcanoes inject solid particles and gases into the atmosphere. Particles may remain in the atmosphere for months to years and rain back on to the earth. Volcanoes also release chlorine and carbon dioxide.

The main products injected into the atmosphere from volcanic eruptions however are volcanic ash particles and small drops of sulphuric acid in the form of a fine spray known as aerosol. Most chlorine released from volcanoes is in the form of hydrochloric acid which is washed out in the troposphere. Volcanoes also emit carbon dioxide.

During the times of giant volcanic eruptions in the past the amount of carbon dioxide released may have been enough to affect the climate. In general global temperatures are cooler for a year or two after a major eruption.

A large magnitude pyroclastic eruption such as a caldera-forming event can be expected to eject huge volumes of fine ash high into the atmosphere where it may remain for several years, carried around the globe by strong air currents in the upper atmosphere.

The presence of this ash will increase the opacity of the atmosphere, that is, it will reduce the amount of sunlight reaching the earth’s surface. Accordingly, the earth’s surface and climate will become cooler. Various other atmospheric effects may be observed. Particularly noticeable is an increase in the intensity of sunsets.

i. Global Warming :

Besides blocking the rays of the sun, the vast clouds of dust and ash that result from a volcanic eruption can also trap ultraviolet radiation within the atmosphere causing global warming.

Volcanic eruptions usually include emissions of gases such as carbon dioxide which can further enhance this warming. Even if it lasted only for a relatively short time, a sudden increase in temperature could in turn have contributed to extinctions by creating an environment unsuitable for many animals.

ii. Geothermal Energy :

Geothermal energy is the heat energy trapped below the surface of the earth. In all volcanic regions, even thousands of years after activity has ceased the magma continues to cool at a slow rate. The temperature increases with depth below the surface of the earth. The average temperature gradient in the outer crust is about 0.56° C per 30 m of depth.

There are regions however, where the temperature gradient may be as much as 100 times the normal. This high heat flow is often sufficient to affect shallow strata containing water. When the water is so heated such surface manifestations like hot springs, fumaroles, geysers and related phenomena often occur.

It may be noted that over 10 per cent of the earth’s surface manifests very high heat flow and the hot springs and related features which are present in such areas have been used throughout the ages, for bathing, laundry and cooking.

In some places elaborate health spas and recreation areas have been developed around the hot-spring areas. The cooling of magma, even though it is relatively close to the surface is such a slow process that probably in terms of human history, it may be considered to supply a source of heat indefinitely.

Temperatures in the earth rise with increasing depth at about 0.56°C per 30 m depth. Thus if a well is drilled at a place where the average surface temperature is say 15.6°C a temperature of 100°C would be expected at about 4500 m depth. Many wells are drilled in excess of 6000 m and temperatures far above the boiling point of water are encountered.

Thermal energy is stored both in the solid rocks and in water and steam filling the pore spaces and fractures. The water and steam serve to transmit the heat from the rocks to a well and then to the surface.

In a geothermal system water also serves as the medium by which heat is transmitted from a deep igneous source to a geothermal reservoir at a depth shallow enough to be tapped by drilling. Geothermal reservoirs are located in the upward flowing part of a water – convective system. Rainwater percolates underground and reaches a depth where it is heated as it comes into contact with the hot rocks.

On getting heated, the water expands and moves upward in a convective system. If this upward movement is unrestricted the water will be dissipated at the surface as hot springs; but if such upward movement is prevented, trapped by an impervious layer the geothermal energy accumulates, and becomes a geothermal reservoir.

Until recently it was believed that the water in a geothermal system was derived mainly from water given off by the cooling of magma below the surface. Later studies have revealed that most of the water is from surface precipitation, with not more than 5 per cent from the cooling magma.

Production of electric power is the most important application of geothermal energy. A geothermal plant can provide a cheap and reliable supply of electrical energy. Geothermal power is nearly pollution free and there is little resource depletion.

Geothermal power is a significant source of electricity in New Zealand and has been furnishing electricity to parts of Italy. Geothermal installations at the Geysers in northern California have a capacity of 550 megawatts, enough to supply the power needs of the city of San Francisco.

Geothermal energy is versatile. It is being used for domestic heating in Italy, New Zealand and Iceland. Over 70 per cent of Iceland’s population live in houses heated by geothermal energy. Geothermal energy is being used for forced raising of vegetables and flowers in green houses in Iceland where the climate is too harsh to support normal growth. It is used for animal husbandry in Hungary and feeding in Iceland.

Geothermal energy can be used for simple heating processes, drying or distillation in every conceivable fashion, refrigeration, tempering in various mining and metal handling operations, sugar processing, production of boric acid, recovery of salts from seawater, pulp and paper production and wood processing.

Geothermal desalinization of sea water holds promise for abundant supply of fresh water. In some areas it is a real alternative to fossil fuels and hydroelectricity and in future may help meet the crisis of our insatiable appetite for energy.

iii. Phenomena Associated with Volcanism :

In some regions of current or past volcanic activity some phenomena related to volcanism are found. Fumaroles, hot springs and geysers are the widely known belonging to this group. During the process of consolidation of molten magma either at the surface or at some depths beneath the surface gaseous emanations may be given off.

These gas vents constitute the fumaroles. The Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes in Alaska is a well-known fumarole and is maintained as a national monument. This group of fumaroles was formed by the eruption of Mount Katmai in 1912. This valley of area of about 130 square kilometres contains thousands of vents discharging steam and gases.

These gases are of varied temperatures and the temperatures vary from that of ordinary steam to superheated steam coming out as dry gas. Many of the gases escaping from the vents may be poisonous, such as hydrogen sulphide and carbon monoxide which are suffocating and may settle at low places in the topography. For example, the fumaroles at the Poison Valley, Java discharge deadly poisonous gases.

Solfataras are fumaroles emitting sulphur gases. At some places, the hydrogen sulphide gases undergo oxidation on exposure to air to form sulphur. The sulphur accumulates in large amount so that the rocks close to the solfataras may contain commercial quantities of sulphur.

Hot springs are also phenomena associated with volcanic activity. Waters from the surface which penetrate into the ground can get heated either by contact with the rocks which are still hot or by gaseous emanations from the volcanic rocks. The water so heated may re-emerge at the surface giving rise to hot springs. In some situations the hot springs may be intermittently eruptive. Such intermittently hot springs are called geysers.

Related Articles:

• Lava: Types and Eruptions | Volcanoes
• Submarine and Sub Glacial Eruptions | Volcanoes

Science , Essay , Geology , Volcanoes , Essay on Volcanoes

Comments are closed.

• Share full article

Advertisement

Supported by

This Island Wants to Round Up Its Wild Goats. Catching Them Won’t Be Easy.

The ruminants outnumber humans on the Mediterranean island of Alicudi 6 to 1 (maybe more). Officials have devised a plan to catch the goats and send them to adoptive homes elsewhere.

By Elisabetta Povoledo

Reporting from Rome

Come June, a crack team of wildlife experts plans to swarm the volcanic cliffs and natural caves of a small island in the Mediterranean to ensnare what has become an out-of-control species: goats gone wild.

It is the first step in a mission to rid the Aeolian island of Alicudi, just north of Sicily, of the hundreds of feral goats that are crowding out the island’s 100 or so year-round human inhabitants, so that the animals can be adopted elsewhere.

“We are all for goats running free, but let’s be clear: These aren’t Heidi’s kid goats,” said Carolina Barnao, a council member in neighboring Lipari, which administers its fellow Aeolian islands. “Some of them could even become dangerous.”

After being seized on Alicudi, the goats will be rustled down to an enclosure near the island’s port, tested for diseases and then hoisted onto a ship heading to Sicily, where they will spend two months in quarantine. Then, they can be adopted and taken to greener pastures.

Yet it is not as straightforward as it sounds.

For one thing, said Giovanni Dell’Acqua, the regional government official overseeing the undertaking, the goats are fast and can leap 10 feet in a bound. They can also weigh as much as 175 pounds, he said — “think of what that means.”

And while the animals will be penned up on Alicudi “for as short a time as possible,” Mr. Dell’Acqua said, officials still have not quite sorted out what kind of boat to use to safely transport the goats to the mainland.

“Trust me,” he said, “capturing the goats on an island like Alicudi is an uphill battle.”

Measuring two square miles, Alicudi is the least inhabited and most remote of the seven Aeolian islands off Sicily’s northern coast. In the absence of cars and many other amenities, donkeys still hoist supplies up unpaved streets, and distances are measured in stair-steps from the port.

Tyrrhenian Sea

San Fratello

“The island’s allure is that there is nothing there,” said Pietro Lo Cascio, a zoologist and nature guide on the Aeolian islands.

The goats themselves arrived about 35 years ago, when an islander sought to supplement food supplies from the mainland. At some point, the handful of goats got loose and were left to forage among the rugged terrain of the dormant volcano.

It did not take long for the ruminants to outnumber humans, delighting tourists by photobombing their summer memories. But locals grew irritated as the goats encroached on their gardens and fruit trees and leaped along the traditional dry stone walls that once terraced the island, knocking down many.

Emboldened over the years, the goats moved from the crest of the island into the lower, inhabited areas in search of ever-decreasing food supplies — “even people’s homes,” said Ms. Barnao, the council member, whose mandate for animal rights includes overseeing the goat giveaway.

And although Alicudi is a nature reserve, the ballooning goat population has also put the island’s biodiversity at risk.

Mr. Lo Cascio said he raised warnings about the growing goat population in 2008, when he was a member of the Lipari municipal council. At the time, he estimates, there were 200 to 300 goats on Alicudi.

Last year, a census counted 600 goats, a six-to-one goat-to-human ratio, but Mr. Lo Cascio suspects that it is even higher.

If action had been taken years ago, the situation “could have been resolved with a minimal effort,” he said. “Today it is a catastrophe.”

Yet Ms. Barnao said the adopt-a-goat program, which the regional government and local administration introduced this year via a public notice , had attracted considerably more requests for the goats than the number of animals available.

The wildlife experts will now try to catch as many goats as possible before the tourist season begins in mid-June.

Captured animals will be tagged so officials can keep tabs on “their destiny,” Ms. Barnao said. If the initiative is successful, she said, it will probably be replicated on other Aeolian islands.

But not everyone thinks the goat getting is a great idea.

“They could have found less cruel solutions” than removing the goats from their familiar territory, said Lorenzo Croce of Aidaa, an animal rights group that filed a legal complaint in the hopes that local prosecutors and a regional court would stop the giveaway.

Aidaa had suggested that the goats be taken to a sanctuary in Italy for animals that have been saved from slaughter. “They have a right to die in tranquillity at the end of their natural lives,” Mr. Croce said. But he said the proposal was rejected.

Mourad Rekik, an expert in small ruminants at ICARDA, an international research center, said that introducing feral goats into a domestic flock “usually happened quite smoothly.”

Mr. Rekik warned that catching feral male goats could be a particular challenge — and, if the horns have developed, “a little bit risky for the people” doing the capturing. “These animals can probably defend themselves,” he said.

If the goats elude capture, Mr. Dell’Acqua said, the team might have to “resort to Plan B,” which is to shoot and kill them, if they receive authorization to do so.

As it is, many locals are already exercising some form of goat population control by shooting and eating them, Mr. Dell’Acqua said. “Their refrigerators are full, I can assure you,” he said.

Elisabetta Povoledo is a reporter based in Rome, covering Italy, the Vatican and the culture of the region. She has been a journalist for 35 years. More about Elisabetta Povoledo

Home — Essay Samples — Environment — Volcano — Composite Volcanoes – the most explosive volcanoes

Composite Volcanoes - The Most Explosive Volcanoes

• Categories: Volcano

About this sample

Words: 556 |

Published: Mar 14, 2019

Words: 556 | Page: 1 | 3 min read

Table of contents

Formation and structure, pyroclastic flows and dangerous eruptions, references:.

• Lockwood, J. P. (1995). Stratovolcanoes: Nature’s Explosive Giants. U.S. Geological Survey, Volcano Hazards Program. Retrieved from https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/1995/0137/report.pdf
• Johnston, D. A. (1980). Formation and Behavior of Composite Volcanoes. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 91(4), 234-248. https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1980)91<234:FABOCV>2.0.CO;2
• Coney, P. J. (1980). Volcanoes: A Planetary Perspective. Oxford University Press. ISBN: 978-0195045211
• United States Geological Survey. (2020). Eruptions of Mount St. Helens: Past, Present, and Future. U.S. Geological Survey, Fact Sheet 2020-3049. Retrieved from https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/fs20203049
• Stern, C. R., & Stern, T. B. (Eds.). (2010). Volcanoes: Global Perspectives. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN: 978-1405162500

Cite this Essay

Let us write you an essay from scratch

• 450+ experts on 30 subjects ready to help
• Custom essay delivered in as few as 3 hours

Get high-quality help

Prof Ernest (PhD)

Verified writer

• Expert in: Environment

+ 120 experts online

By clicking “Check Writers’ Offers”, you agree to our terms of service and privacy policy . We’ll occasionally send you promo and account related email

No need to pay just yet!

Related Essays

5 pages / 2919 words

2 pages / 993 words

2 pages / 913 words

4 pages / 1919 words

Remember! This is just a sample.

You can get your custom paper by one of our expert writers.

121 writers online

Still can’t find what you need?

Browse our vast selection of original essay samples, each expertly formatted and styled

Related Essays on Volcano

Volcanoes, nature's fiery spectacles, have long fascinated scientists and the curious alike. These geological wonders are not uniform; rather, they are categorized into distinct types, each with its unique characteristics and [...]

Volcanoes, natural wonders of geological activity, have captivated human interest and instilled both awe and fear throughout history. These powerful manifestations of Earth's inner forces shape landscapes, ecosystems, and human [...]

The rapid, eco-friendly, non-pathogenic, economical protocol of using plant to produce silver nanoparticles has drawn the attention of the scientist because of providing a single step technique for the processes of biosynthesis [...]

The first thing that needs to be done is defining what a synthetic pesticide is and what biodiversity is. A synthetic pesticide is a chemical used to kill or repel pests and biodiversity is the variety of life in the world. [...]

Current research claims that drinking cow’s milk that was produced during the night could possibly be a treatment for both anxiety and insomnia alike. This was published in the Journal of Medicinal Food earlier this year. [...]

The 'polluter pays' principle is a fundamental environmental policy concept that places the responsibility for the costs of pollution squarely on those who generate it. This principle, although seemingly straightforward, plays a [...]

Related Topics

By clicking “Send”, you agree to our Terms of service and Privacy statement . We will occasionally send you account related emails.

Where do you want us to send this sample?

By clicking “Continue”, you agree to our terms of service and privacy policy.

Be careful. This essay is not unique

This essay was donated by a student and is likely to have been used and submitted before

Download this Sample

Free samples may contain mistakes and not unique parts

Sorry, we could not paraphrase this essay. Our professional writers can rewrite it and get you a unique paper.

Please check your inbox.

We can write you a custom essay that will follow your exact instructions and meet the deadlines. Let's fix your grades together!

Get Your Personalized Essay in 3 Hours or Less!

We use cookies to personalyze your web-site experience. By continuing we’ll assume you board with our cookie policy .

• Instructions Followed To The Letter
• Deadlines Met At Every Stage
• Unique And Plagiarism Free

Jump to navigation

Forgotten Spaces: Ecocriticism Social Justice, and the U.S. South (Collection of Essays)

The U.S. South is often a forgotten space within ecocritical discussions, yet it provides fruitful ground for thinking about environmental issues. In 2019, in the first edited collection of essays on the topic, Zachary Vernon notes that focusing attention on this bioregion might help “provide a way out of the limitations of thinking too locally or too globally,” and it might inspire a group of stakeholders to come to the table as well (7). One problem with ecocritical approaches is the long history of representing the U.S. South as an “internal other in the national imagination: colonized, subordinate, primitive, developmentally arrested, or even regressive” (Watson 254). Another issue is that both the environmental humanities and Southern studies have frequently been white spaces. This proposed anthology convenes a conversation about the U.S. South and environmental issues with an eye towards social justice. We seek theoretically-sophisticated essays attentive to intersections between race, class, gender, and sexuality within the U.S. South to round out our proposed collection.  Interdisciplinary environmental research from a variety of frameworks and disciplines is welcome, including literature, film, art, history, popular culture, public memory, sociology, political science, and geography. 

Questions to consider:

• Why does the U.S. South seem like a forgotten space within ecocritical discussions?
• How do we reach across entrenched divides and academic silos to engage in cross-disciplinary engagement with ecocritical concerns about the South?
• What entanglements might we find between race, environment, gender, sexuality, class, and social justice?
• How have artists, writers, activists, and cultural workers of color engaged with representing the environment, and what might their creative labor contribute to wider discussions beyond the academy?
• How are rural and urban environments represented in the U.S. South? How are they represented from outside?
• What constitutes the commons in the South? Was there ever really a Southern commons?
• How are public parks, museums, and recreation areas curated in the South, and what might we learn about entanglements between race and the environment through attending to these spaces?
• What is the history of traveling southward or leaving the South? What kinds of cultural constructions represent the region as a place to return to or escape from?
• How might we interrogate Donna Haraway’s phrase “the plantationocene” to consider the vexed history of work, nature, and captivity in Southern spaces? 
• How might we consider Settler colonialism, genocide, and Indian Removal within an ecocritical framework? How has a legacy of Settler colonialist violence in the South impacted the environment?
• Can indigenous practices, beliefs, and cultural production be mobilized towards a Southern ecocriticism?
• What are the many varieties of experience within different souths?

Other possible topics:

• Climate change and its impact on southern spaces. Southern climate diaspora.
• Hurricanes, floods, tornados. Natural disasters and social justice.
• Disaster capitalism and southern spaces.
• Sacrifice zones. Industrial pollution.
• Carceral, military, and/or institutional Southern spaces.
• Queer ecology and queer ecological souths.
• Global approaches to environment and the U.S. South.
• Animals and animality in southern cultural productions. Domestic/wild/wilding.
• Southern megacities and the built environment in the U.S. South.
• Race and nature in the South.
• White supremacy and public spaces.

We seek MLA-formatted essays from 4,000-7,000 words. Please submit abstracts of 250-500 words by July 15, 2024. Notification of acceptance will be made by Aug. 1, 2024. And final essays will be due October 15, 2024. We will be submitting the proposal, table of contents, and sample essays to academic presses by Aug. 1, 2024.

Send abstracts and questions to: Katie Simon, Georgia College and State University,  [email protected]  and Catherine Bowlin, Elon University,  [email protected]

Site Content

Essays on art and science.

Eric R. Kandel

Columbia University Press

Pub Date: March 2024

ISBN: 9780231212564

Format: Hardcover

List Price: $26.95 £22.00

Shipping Options

Purchasing options are not available in this country.

ISBN: 9780231559454

Format: E-book

List Price: $25.99 £22.00

• EPUB via the Columbia UP App
• PDF via the Columbia UP App

Anything Eric R. Kandel says about neuroscience or the relationship between art and neuroscience is noteworthy. He is not only brilliant at explaining difficult and complex scientific ideas and data in simple language but also well-informed about—and sympathetic to—twentieth-century art, and avails himself of an impressive range of art-historical literature. Nancy Princenthal, author of Unspeakable Acts: Women, Art, and Sexual Violence in the 1970s, and Joseph E. LeDoux, Henry And Lucy Moses Professor of Science, New York University

A lively, erudite inquiry into the experience of art. Kirkus Reviews

Eric R. Kandel’s ‘Essays on Art and Science’ is a fascinating, thought-provoking read that beautifully articulates the complex interplay between our brain’s inner workings and our emotional responses to art. It’s a testament to Kandel’s expertise and ability to make science approachable and relevant to our everyday experiences with art. This book is a must-read for anyone interested in the profound ways in which art and science intersect to define our perception of the world. Mental Health Affairs

• Read an excerpt in Book Post
• Read an excerpt "The Creative Brain" from as published in The Transmitter

About the Author

• Neuroscience and Biopsychology
• Neuropsychology
• Fine Arts and Art History