research proposal of solid waste management

• Open access
• Published: 15 September 2021

Achieving sustainable development goals from the perspective of solid waste management plans

• K. M. Elsheekh   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7257-3201 1 , 2 ,
• R. R. Kamel 2 ,
• D. M. Elsherif 1 &
• A. M. Shalaby 2  

Journal of Engineering and Applied Science volume  68 , Article number:  9 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

16k Accesses

30 Citations

Metrics details

Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030 ad is one of the challenges and among the cross-cutting issues that countries around the world strive to achieve, despite it is not mandatory, to take control of the various negative environmental, economic, social, and urban impacts that threatened cities, in addition to benefits that are realized from achieving it. The research aims to promote the achievement of Sustainable Development Goals from the perspective of solid waste management (SWM) plans and programs, through analyzing and finding the interrelationship between SWM plans and programs and the related specific targets for each goal, in addition to using experts’ questionnaires to conclude the varying degrees of impact of SWM plans and programs at the level of 17 SDGs, which have been classified into groups, according to the most and the least affected by the SWM plans and programs. Where the goals of “sustainable cities and communities” and “good health and well-being” came in the lead of the goals; however, the goals of “quality education” and “peace, justice, and institutions” came in the tail of the goals that are affected by SWM plans and programs, according to the experts’ opinion.

Introduction

Rapid growth and urbanization processes in developing countries over the past decades have negatively affected cities, such as high rates of poverty and unemployment; problems related to providing infrastructure and social services, in addition to environmental problems and depletion of local resources; and other negative economic, social, and environmental impact be annexed on cities. Therefore, the need for achieving the Sustainable Development Goals appeared in all countries.

SDGs address not only the measurable changes in the well-being of people, economic development of countries, and better environment on the planet but also the means of how these changes shall be induced, in addition to enabling an environment of peace and security and rule of law and conditions for inclusion and participation [ 1 ]. All sectors of development can contribute to achieving SDGs, and every contribution, small or big, will make an impact on our world. Integrated solid waste management (ISWM) is one of the systems that can contribute to achieving 17 SDGs; it can act as a strong driver for achieving a wide range of specific target of goals, whether directly or indirectly.

The research focuses on the role of ISWM in achieving SDGs; it aims to observe the impact of solid waste management plans and programs on achieving the seventeen sustainable development goals and identifying the sustainable development goals that are the most/the least affected by solid waste plans and programs. The methodology of the research is based on two parts, the first part discussing “the concept of integrated solid waste management and “the role of SWM sector in achieving the SDGs” by analyzing the seventeen sustainable development goals from the perspective of solid waste management plans and programs. The second part is arranging the goals from the most affected by solid waste management to the least, depending on structured interviews and experts’ questionnaires for a diverse sample of 30 experts in this field from academics, researchers, and employees in local administrations.

The experts’ questionnaires were designed by 27 questions distributed into three sections; the first section included 8 questions at the level of “policies and general principles of the system,” the second section dealt with 10 questions at the level of “the solid waste management parties,” and the third section dealt with 9 questions at the level of “the technical stages solid waste management.” All the sections included the seventeen sustainable development goals. By transcribing the experts’ answers through 27 questions and by aggregating the number of times each goal was selected during each of the 27 questions and collecting them, it was possible to calculate the number of points collected for each goal through the use of Microsoft Excel. Accordingly, it was possible to arrange the goals from the most affected by solid waste management to the least.

The concept of integrated solid waste management

ISWM is used to refer to the management of the chain of processes, which starts with discharge/storage and extends through the collection, intermediate, treatment, and final disposal of all waste materials [ 2 ]. The core concept of ISWM has been developed out of the experience to address certain common problems with municipal waste management. The international agencies realized that improvements in waste management could not be achieved through a piecemeal approach. An integrated approach was required to reduce the increasing amount of waste that requires the proper collection, treatment, and disposal [ 3 ]. This integrated approach tries to take into account all the dimensions that may affect the solid waste management processes, in addition to taking into account all the actors and influencers on the solid waste management processes.

The role of SWM sector in achieving the SDGs

Considering SDGs, which encompass multiple sectors of urban governance. It can be seen that the interconnectedness and the basic interdependence between it and the solid waste management sector, where environmentally sound and integrated solid waste management programs and plans affect the achievement and improvement of many indicators of SDGs, whether that effect is directly or indirectly. “The environmentally sound management of waste touches on many vital aspects of development,” says Silpa Caza [ 4 ]. The next part deals with how the solid waste management sector affects the achievement of the SDGs, at the level of 17 goals.

Waste pickers and improve poverty rates

While it is known, millions of people in developing countries earn their living from recycling or reusing waste. Reliable statistical data are difficult, as waste pickers are mobile and their population may fluctuate by seasons. For example, Brazil’s official statistical system found over 229,000 people did this work in 2008 [ 5 ]. Many developing countries aim to determine the factors for successful informal sector integration in SWM systems to design measures for the integration of the informal workers in formal waste management strategies, which will have an impact on reducing poverty rates within this sector.

Organic waste and food security

Recycling of organic waste is a real opportunity to provide a large number of organic fertilizers that may improve the quality of crops and raise the rates of agricultural productivity in countries, thus supporting the provision of more safe and nutritious food throughout the year and reducing the proportion of the world population suffering from hunger. Only 13.5% of the world’s waste is recycled, and 5.5% turns into organic fertilizer [ 6 ]. This requires a greater effort to raise those rates and make greater use of them at the level of that goal.

SWM processes and ensuring a healthy life

The medical waste disposal system in developing countries is often subject to defects and faults. Under the pressure of crowded hospitals, workers make mistakes and get infected in return. Adopting the proper management of medical waste inside the health facilities, by incineration or sterilizing and shredding, can greatly reduce the transmission of infection and the transmission of pathogens.

In addition, garbage collectors are still exposed on a daily and continuous basis to the dangers of disease and infection as a result of improper practices of sorting and recycling this hazardous waste, especially many are pregnant and postpartum women within the garbage collectors communities, and to the dangers of premature death as a result of their abuse of sorting processes in the informal system and dealing with waste directly without taking precautionary measures to prevent the transmission of infection and disease.

Therefore, hepatitis C virus (HCV) is one of the most common diseases among litter collectors, which leads to their lives at early ages. Figure 1 shows a comparison between the population in Manshiyat Nasser (one of the largest garbage collectors communities in Egypt) and Greater Cairo by age groups. The available data indicate that the age group over 50 years old in Manshiyat Nasser is much lower compared to Greater Cairo, where the percentage in the Nasser facility is 8.4%, while the Cairo governorate is 14.3%, according to the Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics [ 7 ], which reflects the low average age in the region. This confirms that the proper management of solid waste collection and sorting processes has a great impact on reducing disease rates.

The population in Manshiyat Nasser and Greater Cairo by age groups [the author]

Ensuring quality education for garbage collector communities

Looking at the garbage collectors’ communities in most developing countries, it can be seen the use of children significantly throughout the work system, which increases the cases of illiteracy, and children drop out of education in exchange for the temptations of financial return. As in Manshiyat Nasser, which represents one of the largest garbage collectors’ communities in Egypt, statistics indicate that the level of education in it is much lower if compared to Cairo, where the illiteracy rate in Manshiyat Nasser is 52%, while in Cairo it is 24.2%, according to the Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics [ 7 ]. The illiteracy rate among females in Manshiyat Nasser is 59.6%, while in Cairo, it reaches 30.6% for males; the illiteracy rate in Manshiyat Nasser stands at 45.1%, while in Cairo governorate, it reaches 18.2% [ 7 ]. Figure 2 illustrates an approach between the ratios of the education in Manshiyat Nasser and Greater Cairo.

Educational levels ratios in Greater Cairo and Manshiyat Nasser [the author]

The previous data can be interpreted as an indication of the increasing rates of dropout from education with the advancement of age in one of the largest garbage collector communities in Egypt as a result of work requirements and the rise of child labor within the profession. The reduction of child labor and the provision of technical and vocational education for them, especially in developing countries, supports enrollment opportunities. In schools and learning for garbage collectors’ communities and family members of those in charge of this profession.

Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls in SWM

Women and girls are considered one of the main actors in informal SWM as they play a major role in the waste sorting stage, which is one of the most influential stages on health, as most of the sorting processes take place in the informal system inside residential spaces and residential streets [ 8 ], as shown in Fig. 3 that affects women’s health as women spend most of their time inside the home practicing this process, which makes them more vulnerable to serious diseases [ 9 ], in addition to the use of young girls in this process as well, which leads to an increase in the educational dropout rate among girls. This confirms the importance of the efforts made by civil organizations in Egypt such as the association for the Protection of the Environment (APE) and Youth Spirit Association (YSA) to spread awareness of the importance of adopting proper practices for sorting solid waste, as well as providing proper job opportunities based on solid waste recycling directed at women and girls and providing medical assistance to women who got infected, in addition to the inclusion of young girls in recycling schools that allow them to practice recycling for a paid fee while ensuring their continuation in the educational system.

Women and young girls sorting garbage in Manshiyat Nasser [ 8 ]

Dumping solid waste and provide clean water

Freshwater sources are exposed to pollution from a wide range of sectors, which threatens human health, as well as wildlife as a whole, and water pollutants include plastic garbage as well as invisible chemicals, in addition to direct discharges of factory waste. It ends up in lakes, rivers, streams, and underground water.

One-third of plastic waste ends up in the soil or freshwater. Plastic never degrades, but rather into tiny particles less than 2.5 mm in size known as nano-plastics, which break down further into nanoparticles (less than 0.1 μm in size) and that becomes part of the food chain. Fresh drinking water becomes contaminated with plastic particles, causing various diseases of cancer origin and hormonal disorder s[ 10 ]. For sure, reducing pollution caused by dumping hazardous wastes in or near waterways increases the chances of obtaining higher quality water.

Energy recover from solid waste

The scientific and technical development in dealing with solid waste has led to a review of the tons of waste that the city produces daily, and to look at it as alternative sources of energy. The concept of generating energy from waste is based on chemically treating solid waste to produce energy; waste is currently the third growing renewable energy source worldwide, after solar and wind. It also contributes, with biomass energy, to more than half of the renewable energy used globally [ 11 ]. This is what made many countries of the world strive in research and development and devising plans on a large scale to separate garbage and recycle it to convert it into energy.

Now, due to the tremendous development in the science of solid waste management and a large number of specialists in it, more than half of the garbage is incinerated and converted into liquid or gaseous fuels [ 10 ].

The informal sector in SWM and decent work for all

Informal employment remains a major challenge to the goal of providing decent work for all. In the SWM system, the percentage of informal employment is increasing in developing countries, which operates according to a framework that does not guarantee social insurance or safety standards, which requires improving the working conditions of the informal sector in the SWM system by integrating it within the formal framework of the system.

The utilization of the human resources of the informal sector in the SWM system and its accumulated experience in this field according to a framework that guarantees to improve the work environment and provide opportunities for decent work. It can support the promotion of economic growth by increasing the productivity rates of the several SWM sectors, by investing in solid waste recycling technology and maximizing the economic return by saving in the use of raw materials used in industries and replacing them with solid waste materials in different industries. These activities, industries, and small enterprises that are based on recycling operations of solid waste produce great decent job opportunities for the informal sector.

Recycling projects to stimulate industrialization and foster innovation

Small industries constitute the backbone of industrial development in developing countries [ 12 ], with a relatively small amount of investment and a domestic resource base. Small industries generate a great deal of employment and self-employment to which the SWM sector can contribute. Recycling materials is one of the processes that create opportunities for unlimited industries and small projects that stimulate innovation processes in various fields of industry, which depends on the output of sorting solid waste from plastic, glass, paper, or cloth and other recyclable materials, in addition to making use of organic waste to create opportunities for small projects that depend on the production of compost from well-separated organic waste. All of that can support growth and innovation processes in manufacturing.

Promoting social and economic inclusion for informal SWM communities

SWM sector could contribute to achieving economic and social integration within developing countries and reducing inequalities. As it is divided in many developing countries into two main systems, namely the formal and informal systems, each of them affects the economic growth processes to varying degrees. Therefore, the merger between the formal and informal SWM sectors will support the reduction of social and economic inequalities for all.

Many developing countries are making great efforts and multiple attempts and putting forward new policies to support the merging processes between the two systems because of the great economic and social benefits that this merging will bring. Some governments are trying to allay the concerns of the informal sector about bearing new tax and insurance burdens, as they try to add benefits to enjoy health care in addition to implementing appropriate systems of insurances and pensions in exchange for monthly installments. This enhances the ability to reduce social and economic inequalities within communities.

Sustainable SWM enhancing the quality of life

By looking at the services of SWM, there are two billion people without access to waste collection services globally, and 3 billion people lack controlled waste disposal facilities according to data collected between 2010 and 2018 ad [ 13 ]. This leads to a lack of indicators of quality of life for cities and the sustainability of local communities. Therefore, good practices for SWM through waste reduction, reuse, recycling, and exploitation in generating energy or safe disposal of it are an essential element in sustainable city management and improving the quality of life. “It is impossible to create a sustainable, livable city without rational solid waste management. It is no longer about technical solutions only. There are impacts on climate, health, and safety as well as important social considerations,” Vasquez stresses [ 14 ]. Therefore, there is an urgent need to invest in waste management infrastructure, including the opportunities to convert full landfills into green parks.

SWM and “sustainable consumption and production patterns”

ISWM contains many concepts related to reducing production and controlling consumption patterns such as moving towards the circular economy model which is based on recycling of materials and converting useful waste into resources. That supports the use of fewer natural resources in manufacturing processes. It can also be said that adopting the concept of extended producer responsibility which requires companies to collect and recycle the waste generated from their products is one of the applications of the green circular economy concepts.

In addition to many practices that are being developed to maximize the benefit from the generated solid waste, such as the MSWM Hierarchy (5Rs), which is considered a widely accepted guideline method on what is better for the environment, as it gives top priority to preventing waste generation in the first place then for reuse, recycling, energy recovery, and finally for final disposal. The importance of using the concept of hierarchy for managing solid waste (5Rs) is due to avoiding wasting an important economic value, which is recyclable waste and reducing the rates of environmental pollution.

Solid waste disposal and climate change measures

Greenhouse gasses such as methane emitted from solid waste are a major factor in air pollution and climate change. Many municipal solid waste (MSW) disposal facilities in developing countries are open dumpsites that contribute to air, water, and soil pollution, as well as greenhouse gas emissions. In 2016, 5% of global emissions were generated from solid waste [ 15 ]. This calls for the need to improve solid waste disposal in most parts of the world, as the safe disposal and the reduction of open burning of garbage are one of the most important climate change-related measures.

According to the statistics issued by the World Bank, the world generates 2.01 billion tons of MSW annually, and at least 33% of it is not managed in an environmentally safe manner. Without improvements in the SWM sector, emissions related to solid waste are probably to increase to 2.6 billion tons of carbon dioxide equivalent by 2050 ad [ 16 ]. Environmentally sound management of solid waste will help reduce the spread of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere.

SWM and “conserve the oceans, seas, and marine resources”

The oceans constitute the largest ecosystem on the planet, and they produce about half of the oxygen we breathe and act as a climate regulator, they also absorb heat from the atmosphere and more than a quarter of the carbon dioxide that man makes, and carbon emissions lead to the accumulation of heat in the oceans and to changes in their chemical composition, which increases acidification. Reducing open burning can limit the diffusion of carbon dioxide. On the other hand, plastic waste is one of the biggest threats to the oceans. Global production of plastic reached more than 300 million tons in 2014. Much of this plastic has ended up in the oceans, where plastic waste accounts for 90% of marine debris, damaging wildlife and harming marine ecosystems [ 17 ]. The environmentally sound management of solid waste and its safe disposal, especially plastics, can reduce damage to the oceans.

SWM impact on land ecosystems

As a result of the rapid urbanization processes and the increase in the population, the solid waste sector is one of the important sectors with a significant impact on the health of ecosystems with their growth rates of waste. One of the aspects of preserving the ecosystems on the earth’s surface is the safe disposal of solid waste. and Adopting an integrated and sustainable SWM system, which takes care of reducing the amount of waste from the source according to a set of concepts related to such as the (3Rs), and (5Rs), in addition to the circular economy model, which are all widely accepted approaches and principles for waste management operations. The importance of using these concepts is due to the reduction of waste production, which supports the reduction of the need for land utilized for the sanitary burying of waste and using a lower amount of land sustainably and the reduction of the impact on the pollution of soil, water, and air.

Integrated SWM and institutional building strengthening

Given the ISWM, the institutional framework depends on delegating and distributing responsibilities and functions between central governments and local administrations, in addition to the partnership with the private sector, civil society organizations, and all actors in the system. This ensures that decisions are made in a manner that is responsive, inclusive, participatory, and representative at all levels. Many developing countries have turned to the institutional framework based on the principle of decentralization because of its potential benefits as a result of its application in the processes of integrated solid waste management, such as improving economic efficiency, protecting local interests, enhancing citizen participation, and ensuring the availability of tools and methods to activate transparency and accountability to ensure that the costs of programs and projects are evaluated and then monitor the service delivery process.

Partnerships between different parties and sectors

The participation of multiple parties in the SWM system is one of the most important points that the system aspires to, as the transformation from the traditional government sector to the government as a partner by adopting multi-lateral partnerships such as the private sector, non-governmental organizations, and the local community has become inevitable and necessary for the success of the SWM system, also establishes partnerships with other sectors such as industry and trade. All of that is a result of the government sector in developing countries’ realization of its limited ability alone to meet the increasing demand for SWM services. And its need to benefit from the local and foreign experiences of the private sector, ensure the utilization of the human capital and the accumulated experiences of the informal sector, and the inclusion of the local community in identifying the actual needs and evaluating the services provided to it, all of that to support the improvement of the SWM system’s performance. Partnerships with donors also provide opportunities to support the system technically and financially. This supports the achievement of goal 17 by making use of the experiences gained from partnerships and their resource mobilization strategies.

Results and discussion

In view of the Egyptian case and its similarity with developing countries with regard to the solid waste management systems, the research committed to monitoring the impact of SWM plans and programs in developing countries on achieving SDGs through their specific related targets, as the research limitations.

Through the previous section, it became possible to analyze the possibility of achieving the SDGs from the perspective of SWM plans and programs, as it supports the achievement of a wide range of specific targets set within the 17 SDGs, whether directly or indirectly, starting with the development of the natural and urban environment by improving the quality of life for cities, maintaining the sustainability of local communities, reducing the individual negative environmental impacts of cities, and preserving the ecosystems on earth, and its ability to contribute to economic and social development by providing job opportunities. In addition to its support for building transparent institutional frameworks that guarantee partnerships with different sectors and various stakeholders as well. Table 1 deduced the contribution of SWM plans and programs to each of the 17 SDGs.

An expert questionnaire (30 experts) was designed to put the 17 SDGs in the order of the impact of SWM plans and programs on achieving it. The questionnaire included 27 questions distributed into three sections: policies and general principles of the system, the system parties, and the technical stages of the system. Figure 4 shows SDGs and the number of times each goal is chosen as a result of being affected by plans and programs for solid waste management. It is based on analyzing expert answers through 27 questions in the experts’ questionnaire.

SDGs and the lead of goals that are affected by SWM programs [the author]

By transcribing the experts’ answers through 27 questions, it is possible to note the following:

Goal 11: Sustainable cities and communities and goal 3: Good health and well-being goal are in the lead goals that are affected by SWM plans and programs.

Then, comes the second stage goal 9: Industry and innovation, goal 8: decent work and economic growth, and goal 12: Responsible consumption and production.

Then, the third stage goal 17: Partnerships for the goals, goal 15: Life on land, and goal 13: Climate action. Then comes the rest of the SDGs.

Goal 4: Quality education and goal 16: Peace, justice and institutions are representing the least affected goals by the SWM plans and programs, according to the experts’ opinion.

Conclusions

It was clear that there was an impact of solid waste plans and programs on achieving SDGs, in various degrees at the level of 17 SDGs, and the greatest impact appeared in the goals related to improving the quality of life and health in cities, in addition to the goals related to providing decent work for all, supporting industrialization and innovation, and improving production and consumption patterns, as well as addressing climate change, enhancing life on earth and supporting partnerships. While some goals appeared less affected by SWM plans and programs, such as the goal related to quality and equitable education for all and the goal related to establishing institutions subject to the issue. The future direction of research should be focusing on developing a framework for achieving goals 3 and 11 (the most affected by SWM) in Egypt from the perspective of SWM plans and programs.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are available in the Google/forms repository [ https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1eDuL-tDf_xxOAKaDIUKiz8Qji6iGonwbQZHCmCgQc68/edit ].

Abbreviations

Solid waste management

• Sustainable Development Goals

Municipal solid waste

Refuse, reduce, reuse, repurpose, recycle

• Integrated solid waste management

Municipal solid waste management

Gurbo M (2017) Why are sustainable development goals important? The institute for development of freedom of information (IDFI) published article, available via: . https://idfi.ge/en/why_does_sdgs_matter . Accessed 1 Mar 2021

Google Scholar  

Starovoytova D (2018), Solid waste management at a university campus (part 1/10): comprehensive-review on legal framework and background to waste management, at a global context, online published paper, J Environ Earth Sci, 8, no.4, p.71. Available via: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328747778_Legal_Framework_and_Background_to_Solid_Waste_Management . Accessed 1 Mar 2021

Memon MA (2010) Integrated solid waste management based on the 3R approach. J Mater Cycles Waste Manag:7 Available via: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225707470_Integrated_solid_waste_management_based_on_the_3R_approach . Accessed 1 Mar 2021

Kaza S, Yao LC, Bhada-Tata P, Van Woerden F (2018) What a waste 2.0: a global snapshot of solid waste management to 2050, published book, urban development. World bank, Washington, DC Available via: https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/immersive-story/2018/09/20/what-a-waste-an-updated-look-into-the-future-of-solid-waste-management . Accessed 1 Mar 2021

Book   Google Scholar  

Dias S (2011) Integrating informal workers into selective waste collection: the case of Belo Horizonte, Brazil, wiego policy brief (urban policies) no. 4

The world bank (2018), What a waste: an updated look into the future of solid waste management, how much trash is that?, online article, the world bank, IBRD.IDA, available via: https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/immersive-story/2018/09/20/what-a-waste-an-updated-look-into-the-future-of-solid-waste-management . Accessed 1 Mar 2021

Egypt in figures (2013), Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics (CAPMAS), Arab Republic of Egypt, available via: https://www.capmas.gov.eg/ . Accessed 1 Mar 2021

Flavia C, Joos V (2010) Mokattam world’s largest recycling hub, research project, studio-Basel-contemporary city institute, p 136

Elsheekh K (2014) The environmental coexistence aspects in functional communities, analytical study of garbage area in Manshiyat Nasser, unpublished master thesis, Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University, p 145

Lamizana B (2013), Plastic planet: how tiny plastic particles are polluting our soil, un environment program, ecosystems and biodiversity, available via: https://www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/story/plastic-planet-how-tiny-plastic-particles-are-polluting-our-soil . Accessed 1 Mar 2021

Ogola JS, Chimuka L, Tshivhase S (2011) Management of municipal solid wastes: a case study in Limpopo province, South Africa. In: Kumar S (ed) Integrated waste management, vol 1. InTech, Rijeka, pp 91–112

Banik S (2018) Small scale industries in India: opportunities and challenges. IJCRT (6, 1):337 Available via: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323756073_small_scale_industries_in_india_opportunities_and_challenges . Accessed 1 Mar 2021

United Nations (2019) The sustainable development goals report. Department of economic and social affairs, p 45 Available via: https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2019/The-Sustainable-Development-Goals-Report-2019.pdf . Accessed 1 Mar 2021

The World Bank (2018), What a waste: an updated look into the future of solid waste management, online article, the world bank, IBRD.IDA, available via: https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/immersive-story/2018/09/20/what-a-waste-an-updated-look-into-the-future-of-solid-waste-management . Accessed 1 Mar 2021

Kristanto GA, Koven W (2019) Estimating greenhouse gas emissions from municipal solid waste management in Depok, Indonesia. City Environ Interact 4:1 Available via: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2590252020300088#bb0030 . Accessed 1 Mar 2021

Article   Google Scholar  

Kaza S, Yao L C, Bhada-Tata P, Van Woerden F (2018), What a waste 2.0: a global snapshot of solid waste management to 2050, published book, urban development;. Washington, DC: World bank, P.xi., available via: https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/immersive-story/2018/09/20/what-a-waste-an-updated-look-into-the-future-of-solid-waste-management . Accessed 1 Mar 2021

Abalansa S, El Mahrad B, Vondolia G K, Icely J, Newton A (2020), The marine plastic litter issue: a social-economic analysis. Sustainability 2020, 12, 8677. Available via: https://doi.org/10.3390/su12208677 . Accessed 1 Mar 2021

World Bank (2018) Atlas of sustainable development goals 2018: world development indicators. World bank, Washington, DC. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1250-7 License: Creative Commons Attri-bution CC BY 3.0 IGO, P.70-76. https://olc.worldbank.org/system/files/Atlas%20of%20Sustainable%20Development%20Goals%20-%20Introduction.pdf . Accessed 1 Mar 2021

Download references

Acknowledgements

Not applicable.

The research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or notfor-profit sectors.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Architecture, Housing and Building National Research Center (HBRC), Giza, Egypt

K. M. Elsheekh & D. M. Elsherif

Department of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt

K. M. Elsheekh, R. R. Kamel & A. M. Shalaby

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

KM was a major contributor in writing the manuscript and analyzed and interpreted the experts’ questioner data regarding the impact of solid waste management plans and programs on achieving sustainable development goals. DM contributed to identifying the experts to be interviewed. RR, DM, and AM contributed to the review of the experts’ questioner and the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to K. M. Elsheekh .

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate.

The authors declare that the manuscript is our original work. The ideas, views, innovations, and results presented in the above manuscript are totally ours unless otherwise referenced in the text. Works of others necessary for the development of ideas presented in this manuscript are clearly referenced within the text and accurately listed at its end. Also, the authors declare that they consent for publication.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ . The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver ( http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ ) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Elsheekh, K.M., Kamel, R.R., Elsherif, D.M. et al. Achieving sustainable development goals from the perspective of solid waste management plans. J. Eng. Appl. Sci. 68 , 9 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s44147-021-00009-9

Download citation

Received : 16 April 2021

Accepted : 01 July 2021

Published : 15 September 2021

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s44147-021-00009-9

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Decentralized solid waste management
• Merging informal SWM sector

• Research article
• Open access
• Published: 08 July 2020

Sustainable solid waste management Measures in Tanzania: an exploratory descriptive case study among vendors at Majengo market in Dodoma City

• Kepha Nyampundu 1 ,
• William J. S. Mwegoha 1 &
• Walter C. Millanzi 2  

BMC Public Health volume  20 , Article number:  1075 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

41k Accesses

18 Citations

Metrics details

Solid waste management is both an urban and rural problem because every person is considered a producer of wastes. It has been noted to be a global universal issue, which affects every individual, families, communities and governments and thus, needs to be addressed through sustainable strategies. This study aimed at characterizing solid wastes; assessing the levels of awareness of vendors on the sustainable solid waste management measures; and identifying techniques used to handle solid waste generated at the Majengo market in Dodoma City, Tanzania.

The study adopted an exploratory descriptive case study, with a mixed research approaches with a minimum sample of 196 conviniently selected respondents. Semi-structured questionnaires developed by the researcher were the main data collection tools to characterize solid wastes, measure levels of awareness about sustainable solid waste management approaches (SWM) and identify solid waste handling techniques among vendors at the market. Quantitative and Qualitative data were analyzed by using the Statistical Product for Social Sciences version 23 and thematic analysis respectively.

Findings showed that 55% of vendors were males. Majority of the sampled vendors (56%) were not aware of SWM. On the other hand, crops/food and animal product remains were reported to be the most generated solid wastes (94.4%) with the rate of > 2 tons/day equivalent to 72.4% of the overall solid waste generation at the market. SWM services were reported to be provided by City council (85.7%) with the main equipment/tool used to store solid wastes (SW) being containers without lids (88.3%). The dumpsite was the main site for SW disposal (80.1%). Nevertheless, 92.9% of the sampled vendors reported that SWM strategies were there at the market though not adhered to accordingly.

Vendors were not aware of sustainable solid waste management measures existing at the market. However, vendors’ education levels and the duration of doing business at the market were related to their levels of awareness on SWM ( p  < 0.05). The SWM measures were found to exist at the market, however, they were not sustainable because it was reported that they were ineffectively and inefficiently used to control SW generation, collection, storage, and disposal. There is a need of regular awareness-raising activities about sustainable SWM measures among vendors. Moreover, city council and market authorities need to have sustainable and scheduled implementation, supervision, monitoring and evaluation of SWM measures to maintain the management of solid wastes at Majengo market premises.

Peer Review reports

The fundamental global environmental issue in both industrial and developing countries is how to best identify and manage waste [ 1 ]. Solid waste management has been noted to be a global universal issue, which affects every individual and government [ 2 ]. As urbanization continues to take place, the management of solid wastes (MSW) poses major public health and environmental problem particularly in urban areas all over the world [ 3 ]. The UN [ 4 ] edition of world urbanization prospects noted that about 90% of urban growth will take place in Africa and Asian countries due to the migration of people from rural to urban areas.

Currently, the remarkably progressive and rapid urbanization has overwhelmed the global, regional, national, and local authorities, particularly of the developing countries to plan for it [ 1 ]. This has led to the constrain of quality and efficient institutional, and organizational structures that in turn affects the provision of various public services, and to plan for sustainable infrastructures in the favor of solid waste management and characterization [ 2 ].

Solid waste is described as any discarded materials that arise from human activities and are not free-flowing including bottles, metals and plastic scrapers, garbage, papers, glasses, and food/animal product, disposable carrying bags, woods, and or malfunctioned electronic devices [ 4 , 5 , 6 ]. They can be classified as domestic, commercial/market, industrial, hospital, or street sweepings. Furthermore, municipal solid waste management is a multi-disciplinary natural and social sciences approach, which describes the process of controlling the production, storage, collection, transportation, processing, and disposal of municipal solid wastes including those, which are produced in the market places [ 7 ].

Owing to the growing population, the quantity and variety of solid wastes from domestic, social, industrial activities, the development of technologies, agricultural activities, livestock keeping, and commercials, continue to increase in most African countries [ 5 ]. Individuals, families, communities, municipalities, cities, markets, private and government offices, and conference rooms are responsible for public health and safety [ 6 ]. Careful sustainable management of solid wastes can prevent damage done to the environment and conserve scarce resources. However; solid waste disposal and management are given low priority, particularly in most developing countries.

Solid waste disposal and management is both an urban and rural problem as every person is considered as a producer of wastes and thus a contributor to the problem [ 8 ]. In the current study, solid waste management was defined as any sustainable and integrated environmentally cleanliness approach, which aimed at making the environment specifically at market premises, clean and neat. One of the global agendas is to increase awareness of the environmental issues among people to address the problem of solid wastes. Municipal solid waste management stakeholders are mandated to take collective action under the decentralized systems to achieve municipal sustainable solid waste service provision especially in market places [ 8 , 9 ].

The decentralized systems of solid waste management include local authorities and the abilities of municipalities to develop, execute, and evaluate market-based policies, standards, and rules, which aim at managing wastes. Moreover, local authorities have the roles of the presence of effective and efficient solid waste collection, storage, and transportation and disposal centers including solid waste collection and transportation utensils or equipment such as bins and trucks. They also play a key role in establishing solid waste collection, transportation, and disposal schedule from their respective areas to the treatment and dumping sites.

However, the presence of bottles, metals and plastic scrapers, garbage, papers, glasses, and food/animal product, disposable carrying bags, woods, and or malfunctioned electronic devices in the environment, particularly in the market places, would indicate the inadequacy of SWM strategies implementation. Solid waste management strategies as defined in the current study are approaches used to manage wastes generation, storage, collection, transportation, treatment, and disposal at the final dumping place. They include the presence of market-based SWM leadership, guidelines, rules, and standards, equipment such as bins and trucks, storage and collection center and a schedule for SW disposal. The systemic failure of policymakers and local authorities to identify the most sustainable SWM approach to meet the environmental and socio-economic aspirations, complex waste operations and also expensive running costs of urban solid waste management, has led to the improper SWM [ 2 , 7 , 8 ].

Consequently, a huge uncollected solid waste, especially in market places, cause clogging of drains, flooding, health problems caused by vectors that transmit diseases, harming animals and people, who consume hazardous waste unknowingly, environmental pollution, air pollution from airborne particles, and affecting social-economic development such as through diminished tourism, particularly in developing countries.

In many developing countries, the lack of viable alternatives to handle market waste management efficiently and effectively to prevent environmental pollutions is still a challenge [ 2 ]. The main sources of pollution include municipal wastewater from leaking sewage systems (the most serious), heavy smoke and chemical emissions from agricultural activities, and air pollution and vehicle scraps from transportation activities, electronic and non-electronic scraps from commercial/market activities, and noises, gaseous emissions from industrial activities and leachates from dumpsites [ 4 ].

Tanzania like other developing countries faces a serious concern and challenges on solid waste management, which is more pronounced in the commercial and market places where most people visit to sell or buy goods without necessary infrastructures and quality social services [ 10 , 11 ]. The most common market solid wastes in the country include among others; bottles, metals, garbage, papers, plastics, glasses, and food/animal product remains [ 2 ].

Rapid urban development in Tanzania and Dodoma city, in particular, has brought significant benefits to people such as employment and socio-economic development. However, the status has caused environmental problems especially in market places that endanger public health. Moreover, the limited sorting process of solid wastes at the source that leads to improper collection, storage, transportation, treatment, and final disposal at the dumping areas is experienced in the country [ 9 ].

This an indicator of unsatisfactory SWM in the country that might be attributed by either lack of enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, or the awareness levels, unwillingness of the urban dwellers and vendors to participate in SWM and or pay for the waste management services [ 9 , 10 ]. Based on that solid waste management in cities and towns might not be as effective to manage ever-increasing volume and variety of waste, solid waste collection, storage, and transportation and disposal system as it is required.

The Environment Management Act (EMA) No. 20 of 2004, and the National Environment Management Council (NEMC) Act No. 19 of 1983, is in practice in Tanzania to make sure that environmental conservation and sanitation are maintained. However, municipal solid waste management has been commonly the largest single budget item for communities, industries, institutions, and business areas such as in markets [ 9 ]. In the face of that, approximately more than 10,000 tons of municipal solid wastes are generated per day with a rate ranging from 0.1 to 1.0 kg/cap/day Countrywide, whereby [ 9 ].

Nevertheless, the National Environment Statistics reported that 2,101,500 tones of wastes, for example, are generated in Tanzania mainland regions including Arusha, Songwe, Dodoma, Mwanza, Songea, and Rukwa. It has been reported that out of which, 1,196,900 tones (57%) of the total generated waste in those regions came from the households, 279,400 tones (13.3%) construction wastes and the remained 625,200 tones (29.7%) wastes from other sources including market places.

Yet, despite the decentralization of authorities to municipal councils, city councils and market leadership by the government of Tanzania and involvement of community-based solid waste collection teams to assure solid waste management, data show that 80 to 90% of the total solid waste generated in urban areas daily is not collected [ 9 ]. On the other hand, about 60% of the daily domestic generated solid waste is disposed of by burning and composited to be used as manure in farms or burying [ 9 ].

The uncollected solid waste stays longer in one area and spread all over the environment when the wind comes or birds and animal feed them as food leading to environmental, air and water pollution. Additionally, the country’s trend of solid wastes generation increased from 251 tons in 2010 to 278 tons per day in 2011. It was estimated that, of the total population, each person was producing an average solid waste of about 0.5 kg to 0.8 kg per day in 2011 including those produced at the market places [ 12 ].

Various solid waste management policies and guidelines on solid waste management including the National Environmental Policy (NEP) of 1997, Environment Management Act (EMA) No. 20 of 2004 and National Environment Management Council (NEMC) Act No. 19 of 1983 have made to control environmental sanitation in Tanzania. The NEP emphasizes sustainable environment management, security, and equitable use of resources, raising public awareness, and promoting individual and community participation in environmental management. The policy is still implemented though there is a scarcity of information on its effectiveness about waste management on the market places. On this basis, continued research is necessary.

The National Environment Management Council (NEMC) Act mandates the environmental management Authorities to ensure a clean, safe, and healthy environment for people in Tanzania through the coordination of environmental management activities. Moreover, it emphasizes awareness rising on waste management among people in all geographical locations, enforcement of the environment management policy, its assessment, monitoring, and guide for planning and undertaking environmental research programs, projects, and activities in the country.

Issues on enforcement of the waste management policy, its assessment, and monitoring are being implemented. However, many urban authorities are facing challenges on how to manage solid wastes at the market places due to the rapid urban growth coupled with the scarcity of funds [ 11 ]. In this regard, little is still known about the level and role of awareness rising programs stipulated in the EMA on waste management among vendors and other people in the market and researches are being implemented and yield positive results in managing SW.

On the other hand, The Environment Management Act (EMA) requires authorities to put more efforts to promote the state of the actual environment and its associated future threats such as any emission to air, land or water and the storage and disposal of non-hazardous and hazardous wastes (waste segregation). The Act requires the appointed sectoral, regional and the District Environmental management coordinators to enforce environmental management policy to their geographical locations, implement, monitor, and evaluate it for its effectiveness. However, there has been a lack of adequate and sound reports as well as research data on the effectiveness of the Act implementation on environment management (waste management), particularly in market places.

Literature and reports [ 1 , 2 , 8 , 11 , 13 , 14 , 15 ] has found that there is low market solid wastes management due to amongst others such as financial resources and infrastructures, sensitization and awareness-raising about solid waste management among people. Levels of awareness on SWM among people including vendors have been observed to influence their practices on proper waste segregation, reduction, and recycling. However, available information from the pieces of the literature revealed little evidence on the influence of awareness on sustainable solid waste management in terms of reuse and disposal.

This probably might lead to the failure of the council and market authorities to make the best timely mechanisms to control and manage SW generation, storage, collection, transportation, treatment, and disposal. Based on that, SW such as papers, food, and animal remains, disposable carrying bags and other related materials are sometimes found scattered in the market premises and nearby households by either winds or water flow especially during rainy seasons. This is an indicator that there might be an inadequate implementation of sustainable policy guidelines and approaches in handling solid waste in the market. The government of Tanzania through local government authorities is looking into different approaches and other sustainable solutions to manage solid wastes [ 14 ].

Dodoma Region is one of the newly announced and growing city in Tanzania. Dodoma City had a total population of 410,956 people in the 2012 census [ 10 ]. The region development vision is ‘promoting Dodoma region such that it becomes a new business hub and growth pole for the East and Central African Economic Region’. This is an added indicator to the urbanization, which continues to take place in the region that, the generation of solid wastes would continue to be high both in volume and variety in its environment including market places.

The councils through Environment management departments use various approaches to manage solid wastes including the decentralization of SWM authorities to the market centers, employment of community-based SWM teams, and information dissemination about SWM among people who come to purchase goods at the market, development of market-based SWM schedules, standards, and guidelines. However, Dodoma City experienced a serious municipal solid wastes management problem. Solid wastes generated in Dodoma City were estimated to be 305 tons per day. The wastes were mainly from different sources including institutions such as schools/universities (20 tons); shops, hostels, (22 tons); street sweepings, industries, (15 tons); markets (30 tons) and domestic houses waste (218 tons) per day [ 12 ].

The capacity of the city to manage solid waste in terms of supplying human resources and non-human resources such as infrastructures (trucks, bins, insecticides, reserve the protected waste storage centers, fumigations) and financial resources was estimated to be 33% (100 tons) while the remaining 67% of the daily-generated solid waste was improperly managed or disposed of [ 12 ]. This trend of high volume solid waste generation and improper SWM would, in turn, lead to the cost-fully management of environmental hygiene throughout the city and difficulties in delivering public health services among people particularly in market places to protect them from communicable diseases like cholera, dysentery, malaria, pneumonia, flue, and typhoid.

On the other hand, Dodoma city has three large markets including Saba Saba, Majengo central, and Bonanza markets [ 16 ]. Majengo market is located more at the center of the city council and it serves a larger number of people from different places within and outside the city. Moreover, apart from being a place where people visit every day to sell and buy goods, the market serves as a place where people can gather and share the news. The most sold products at the Majengo market include consumables such as foods (packed and unpacked), drinks, and animal products and non-consumables such as clothing, paper bags, customers’ carrying bags of their purchase, technological and electronic equipment, and industrial services. The generated solid wastes came from these sold products, which when the waste collection containers were full, a new visitor would find them scattered all over the market premises such as food shells, husks, food remains, and casings.

The market has its internal leadership, which its leaders are selected amongst vendors themselves whom their role was to lead and manage the market in collaboration with the city council authority. The market leaders have the roles of making sure that waste collection and disposal equipment were enough and available all the time and thus, generated solid wastes by customers, vendors and market visitors were appropriately disposed into them. Moreover, they have the role to enforce environmental sanitation policy set by the council, which required them to catch responsible anyone who was caught violating the market solid waste management rules by having them either pay Tanzanian shillings not less than fifty thousand cash or clean the environment or both of them.

However, the market lack some activities, which in one way or the other would facilitate a sustainable SWM in the market such as scavenging activities whereby people pick through the waste to find potential consumable and non-consumable scraps that could be recycled. High volume and variety of solid wastes generated in the market places is an indicator that there was something wrong either on the level of awareness of vendors on SWM or the compliance of city council and market leadership to implementing sustainable SWM strategies in an attempt to handle and manage solid wastes.

Literatures [ 3 , 12 , 14 , 16 ], have been conducted to add new knowledge on the best ways to be employed on SWM across countries and councils as well. Studies on the aspect of assessing how solid waste management authorities and solid waste service providers contributed to the implementation of sustainable solid waste management have been extensively conducted. However, little has been exposed and published on the degree to which the level of awareness vendors has on SWM in market places. Moreover, little is still known on the effectiveness of environmentally Solid Waste Management measures used at Majengo Market in Dodoma City particularly in solid wastes collection, storage, transportation, treatment, and disposal. There is a scarcity of the locally available scholarly works on this topic under study about Dodoma city.

If the status of solid waste generation continues to increase without being sustainably addressed through consistent and effective implementation of the sustainable SWM measures, potential contamination of groundwater sources, organic and inorganic pollution, and carbon dioxide release from the food and animal product remains would prevail. Ultimately, improper integrated and sustainable management of solid wastes would cause poor environmental hygiene and poor public health including the eruption of communicable diseases such as malaria, cholera, typhoid/paratyphoid, pneumonia, and bronchitis illnesses just to mention a few.

This prompted an investigation on how effective the environmentally solid waste management measures were implemented at the Dodoma City market places and whether they were sustainable city solid waste management-oriented or not. The study employed an analytical case study with a mixed research approach. This was not only relevant but also timely in the rapid Dodoma city socio-economic growth and its rapid urbanization to achieve cost-effective SWM and thus assure environmental hygiene and good public health of its citizens. The study was guided by the specific objectives including to: characterize solid wastes generated at the Majengo market; assess level awareness of vendors on solid waste management and identify techniques used to handle solid wastes generated at the Majengo market in Dodoma City, Tanzania.

The scope of the study

The current study was limited at the Majengo market in Dodoma city and preferences for improving market solid waste management options only in the market premises. Furthermore, the study investigated solid wastes management oly at the Majengo market, Dodoma city Tanzania. Therefore, based on the scope of the study, its findings were only concluded among vendors who were sampled from Majengo market at Dodoma city.

Study design/approach

The current study employed an exploratory descriptive case study with mixed research approaches. Case study research design is recommended when a researcher intends to get detailed qualitative accounts to explore or describe the data in a real-life environment and explain the complexities of real-life situations which may not be captured through experimental or survey research [ 17 , 18 , 19 ]. This study design helped the researcher to intensively study SWM measures implementation among vendors at the Majengo market.

The quantitative research approach was used to guide a researcher of this study to collect information from the study respondents at a single point of time and involve a large number of respondents, to have a room of explaining results in logic, numbers, detailed, and generalized reasons in the market basis. Moreover, the study employed a qualitative research approach that enabled the researcher to gain a greater and in-depth understanding of a studied phenomenon, and experiences of the study respondents on the topic under study.

Study population

This study involved all registered vendors and leaders of the Majengo market in Dodoma City, Tanzania who consented to join the study with an exception of the sick ones and all who were not available during the study. The market had approximately 10,000 registered vendors by the time of this study based on the report given by the market leaders. Moreover, it was reported that some vendors (the exact number was not known by the market leader by that time) were not available all the time due to the availability of commodities they sell at the market. None of the vendors was reported to be absent during the period of this study due to either sickness or other excuse. Therefore, the sampled population was drawn from approximately 8733 vendors who were reported to be present during the date of this study.

Sampling procedure

Sampling is a process of selecting several persons or objects from a population such that the selected group contains elements representative of the characteristics found in the whole group [ 19 ]. Purposive sampling technique was used to select the region and district, simple random sampling by the lottery method to select one out of three markets in Dodoma city and convenient sampling method to select the study respondents.

Sample size determination

A sample is referred to as a selected portion of the individuals or items that represents the aggregate of the population for the study [ 20 ]. The sample size was calculated based on the formula for single population proportion and the overall minimum sample size was determined using a single population, Proportion calculation formula:

Where n = minimum sample size required for the study

❖ Zα/2 = 1.96, standardized normal distribution curve value for the 95% Confidence Interval

❖ p  = 0.5 (assumption used in the absence of a similar previous study and to achieve the maximum possible sample size).

❖ d = 0.05 degree of margin of error

❖ n = the number of respondents to be interviewed i.e. sample size of the study

But the total population was less than 10,000, thus the following formula was used

n = no/1 + no/N

Therefore, the minimum sample size of the current study was 196 respondents.

Data collection methods/tools

Data collection tools (Questionnaires and an Interview guide), which were used in this study were developed by benchmarking from questionnaires, which were used in previous studies [ 13 , 20 , 21 ] and pretested by the researcher before actual field data collection. A self-administered semi-structured questionnaire on awareness status about solid waste, and awareness status about SWM, which consisted of four parts, was used to collect information from the study respondents. Structured questions had ‘Yes/No’ responses while unstructured questions provided an opportunity for the study respondent to express themselves in writings. The first part was about the demographic characteristics of the study respondents with four items including age, gender, education level, and duration of doing business at the market.

The second part consisted of 20 items about awareness on solid waste, which had ‘Yes/No’ responses. Awareness of something was described in the current study as one of the important key factors of motivating people to develop a positive or negative attitude towards an intervention (in this case solid waste management). Moreover, it was the state of the market vendors were informed about their environmental responsibilities and what was going on about the SW generation, storage, collection, transportation, treatment, disposal and the approaches, which were used to handle SW in the market.

The ‘Yes’ response weighed 1 score indicating that the respondent was aware of the item and ‘No’ weighed 0 scores indicating she/he was not. In this regard, the tool had 20 scores if all the responses would be ‘Yes’, with a cut-off point of ten scores. Respondents who scored less than 10 were defined as not aware of SWM in the market place otherwise, aware. Example of items asked in the questionnaire to assess awareness status of the respondents about solid waste included: ‘Have you ever heard about solid waste in your life? i) Yes, ii) No’; ‘Have you ever seen a solid waste in your life: i) Yes ii) No; iii) Have you ever participated in cleaning the market premises? i) Yes; iii) No.’

The output technique under the commercial waste material flow method by Tchobanoglous and Kreith [ 22 ] was used to characterize solid wastes in terms of their generation as well as discards. The approach is used to provide information regarding the condition of the waste components before separation or disposal. The researcher with the support and escort of the market leaders went to the solid waste storage and collection center located within the market premise (just along the road) to sample, sort, characterize, and quantify solid waste. The container that was used to store the waste was found full and uncovered, thus, it was easy for the researcher to see the stored waste the way they were collected (original state).

The researcher then considered and estimated the solid waste characteristics in terms of volume (to determine the rate of solid waste generation) and varieties (to identify the types of generated solid waste). The researcher worn protective gears available at the market and used a solid waste characterization checklist (developed by the researcher) based on the output technique and started to characterize a sample of drawn solid waste from the container (solid waste collectors helped to take a bundle of wastes from the container). The market leaders’ experience about the approaches they used to characterize solid waste at the market and the use of available market-based approximation tools, which were used in the market to record the amount and types of waste helped, the researcher to characterize solid waste at the market.

The third part concerned about the status of solid waste collection, transportation and disposal (SWM) (8 items). Examples of items in this part included: ‘Are there any solid waste management services provided in the market? i) Yes, ii) No’; Who offers solid waste management services? Municipality i) Yes ii) No; Community-based organizations/groups i) Yes ii) No; vendors themselves i) Yes ii) No; Private organizations/groups i) Yes ii) No; I am not aware of it i) Yes ii) No. The ‘Yes’ response weigh 1 score indicating that the issue that was questioned in the item was present and ‘No’ weighed 0 scores indicating it was not there in the market. Each study respondent answered the same questions and the process of filling them lasted between 5 to 10 min.

An in-depth un-structured interview through unstructured questions in the questionnaire targeted vendors in the field of SWM at the Majengo market who were chosen randomly. The research respondents were interviewed about the existed SWM measures and the perceived factors, which influenced its implementation to get qualitative information. The interview guide was specific to the study respondents and their roles in SWM, which consisted of open-ended questions. The first part of the interview guide consisted of questions about the status of the market cleanliness, and the second part was about the solid waste management policies/measures that existed and were implemented at the market.

The researcher informed and explained to each research respondent about the aims of the study and those who gave informed consent to participate were given questionnaires to fill and interviewed about the status of market cleanliness, solid waste generation, collection, transportation, and disposal. The researcher of this study in a selected room that assured privacy and confidentiality conducted the personally (face-to-face) interview and it lasted between 10 to 25 min per each study respondent.

The researcher of this study used the triangulation method (semi-structured Questionnaires including individual in-depth interviews) to collect data, and this was to ensure the validity of the information provided by the study respondents. The researcher of this study developed the research tools by benchmarking research tools from previous studies [ 13 , 20 , 21 ] before being shared with the supervisor and subject matter for professional assistance including inputs, deletion, and correction.

Reliability

The tool was tested for the content, language accuracy, clearness, and ability of the study respondents to understand the content to assure the trustworthiness of data, transferability, and generalizability of the study finding at the market. It was pre-tested by the researcher with professional support from supervisors, business experts, and statisticians from the University of Dodoma for reliability before their actual field use. A pilot study involving 20 consented respondents was conducted at SabaSaba Market, which was a location other than the sampled study area to test the abilities of the tool for it to give the intended results. The 20 copies of questionnaires were distributed to the sampled study respondents during the pilot study after having them are seated on chairs in the provided room at the market and given a brief instruction on how to fill them. None of the items were deleted or added; rather they were grammatically corrected accordingly and proofread again post-pilot study by the supervisor, business expert, and the statistician.

Findings from the pilot study were subjected to the scale analysis by using a statistical package for the social solution (SPSS) software program version 23. No item was extracted from the scale and the Cronbach Alpha was found to be 0.73, which was statistically accepted as an indicator that the tool was reliable to be used in this study for data collection.

Data analysis

This study involved two types of data analysis including descriptive analysis by using Statistical Product for Service Solution (SPSS v.23) software program, which was used to analyze quantitative information. Descriptive analysis was used to analyze the demographic information of the respondents. Chi-square test and cross-tabulation were used to test the relationship between categorical data. Thematic analysis, which was used to analyze qualitative data to present them into theme/quotations. Before data analysis, manual data coding and error checking were done to check for missing data, incomplete or incorrect information.

Presentation and discussion of the findings were done per the objectives of the study.

Level of awareness on SWM among vendors

Awareness of something was described in the current study as one of the important key factors of motivating people to develop a positive or negative attitude towards an intervention or program. The researcher of the current study was also interested to assess the level of awareness of the vendors on solid waste management at Majengo Market in Dodoma city Tanzania. The findings showed that majority 56% ( n  = 110) of the study respondents were not aware about sustainanble solid waste management measures against a few 44% ( n  = 86) who were aware of it (Fig.  1 ).

Levels of Awareness about Sustainable solid waste management measures among Vendors at Majengo market, Dodoma City Tanzania ( n  = 196) pg. 13

During an interview, which involved individual vendors, one of them was quoted saying about their roles in SWM at the market places:

“ In our market, solid waste management has got nothing to do with our daily businesses. It is normally done by the City council and thus, they are the ones who plan and implement it, our role as the vendor is just paying the city SMW authority or community-based solid waste collection teams through the market leadership monthly money (Tz. shs.5,000/= to 10,000/=) for the solid waste collection services” (B34, April 2018)”

In addition to that, one among the interviewed vendor stated that:

“ I’m less concerned about solid waste management in the market because I just come and sell goods for my domestic use and go. Those who provide SWM services to us are the ones to be responsible and accountable for it” (B156, April 2018)”

Factors influencing the levels of awareness on sustainable solid waste Management measures at Majengo Market, Dodoma City Tanzania

The relationship between age of the respondents and level of awareness on swm.

A Chi-square and cross-tabulation test was performed to find out the relationship between age groups of the respondents and their levels of awareness on the sustainable management of solid wastes at the market. Findings in Table  1 indicated that many respondents of the age group < 24 years (54.2%) were not aware of SWM as compared to other age groups. However, there was no statistically significant relationship between age groups and their levels of awareness on sustainable SWM measures at the market ( p  > 0.05) (Table  1 ).

Gender distribution of the respondents

Furthermore, the study findings in Table  2 show that majority of the study respondents who participated in this study were males 55% ( n  = 107). Despite that, findings revealed no significant relationship between being a female or male vendor could influence their levels of awareness about how to manage solid wastes at the market. Therefore, gender of vendors had little influence on SWM at the market place.

The relationship between gender of the respondents and level of awareness on SWM

Moreover, a cross-tabulation with chi-square was done to find out if there could be an existing relationship between gender of the study respondents and their levels of awareness about the sustainable management of solid wastes at the market. Findings in Table  2 point out that, gender of the respondents had no statistically significant relationship with the level of awareness about sustainable SWM measures among vendors ( p  > 0.05) (Table  2 ).

The education level of study respondents at Majengo market, Dodoma city Tanzania

Under this category, study findings indicated that, out of 196 vendors who were involved in the current study, 51% ( n  = 99) reported to have passed secondary school education followed by 79 (40%) who had primary education while 9% ( n  = 18) reported having no any formal education. Moreover, findings revealed that most vendors were educated to primary and secondary education levels as compared to those who had informal education.

The relationship between the education level of the respondents and the level of awareness on SWM ( n  = 196)

Analysis to find out the relationship between the education level of the respondents and their levels of awareness on SWM at the market was done by running cross-tabulation with Chi-square. Findings showed that most vendors who had a lower level of education were less aware of sustainable SWM measuresas compared to those with higher education levels. Thus, there was a statistically significant relationship between the education level of the study respondents with their levels of awareness on SWM ( p  < 0.05) (Table  3 ).

Duration of being in the market doing business at Majengo market, Dodoma city Tanzania

In the current study, duration of doing business at the market was described to be one among the factor which could contribute to vendors' levels of awareness about sustainable solid waste management strategies and techniques. This aspect was categorized into two responses, which were the duration of below one year, in the sense that people could be less oriented and aware of the solid waste management of the market.

Another category was the duration above two years as being oriented to the market and could be aware of the solid waste management strategies and techniques. As shown in Fig.  5 , study findings exposed that 73% ( n  = 144) of the respondents had a duration of above 2 years doing business at the market against the few 27% ( n  = 52) who had less than a one-year duration of doing business at the market.

The relationsh3ip between duration of the vendors being in the market doing the business of and their levels of awareness on SWM

A cross-tabulation with chi-square was done to determine whether there could be an existing relationship between the duration of the vendors being at the market doing business and their levels of awareness on sustainable SWM measures. Findings in Table  4 show that there was a statistically significant relationship between responds’ duration of being at the market doing businesses and their levels of awareness on SWM ( p  < 0.05) (Table  4 ).

The composition of solid wastes generated at Majengo market, Dodoma City Tanzania

The current study also assessed the composition of solid wastes generated at Majengo Market found in Dodoma City. This aspect was categorized into two parts, the first part sought to assess the types of solid wastes generated and the second part sought to assess the amount of solid wastes generated in the market per day.

Types of solid wastes generated at Majengo market, Dodoma City Tanzania

The type of solid waste seen in the market was defined to represent the types of commodities being sold and bought there. These were categorized into organic solid wastes (food remains, livestock products, woods, and papers) and inorganic solid wastes (iron scrapers, plastic bags/buckets). Findings revealed that organic solid wastes were highly generated (86%) at the market than in-organic solid wastes (14%) (Fig.  2 ).

Types of solid wastes generated at Majengo Market, Dodoma City Tanzania ( n  = 196) pg. 17

Composition of solid wastes generated at Majengo market, Dodoma City Tanzania

Figure  3 below indicates that the most generated organic solid wastes were food/crops remains (54.4%), followed by woods/food carrying bags 15.8%) while used papers and livestock wastes being the least (17%) and (12.8%) respectively. The most prominent in-organic solid wastes were plastic bags/buckets (49.1%) followed by iron scrapers (50.9%).

Composition of solid wastes generated at the Majengo market, Dodoma City Tanzania ( n  = 196) pg. 18

The rate of solid waste generation at Majengo market, Dodoma City Tanzania

The aim of the current study was also to assess the solid waste generation rate at the market. Vendors were asked questions, which intended to assess the rate to which solid wastes were generated per day. This category assessed the rate in two dimensions; the frequency of solid waste generation and how much were they generated. The frequency and volume of solid waste were measured through items in the questionnaires, which assessed the number of packaging and rotations of solid waste in the solid waste containers per day.

Moreover, the size of the containers and trucks used to carry and transport wastes from the waste collection center within the market before being transported for treatment and disposal at the main dumpling site were used to assess frequency and volume of solid wastes at the market. 72.4% of the study respondents reported that a lot of solid wastes were generated daily as compared to 6.1% who reported solid wastes to be less generated per day while 21.4% of the study respondents reported monthly generation of solid wastes (Fig.  4 ). During an individual interview, one vendor reported that:

“ Solid waste generation at the market is very high to the level that, all solid waste containers can be filled in one day. The rate is contributed by the increased products which are sold and limited number of consumers who come to buy, as a result, some of the short-term consumable products/materials become spoiled and thus increase the number of wastes” (B5, April 2018)’

The rate and frequency of solid waste generation at Majengo Market, Dodoma City Tanzania ( n  = 196) pg. 19

Available evidence from previous studies shows that per capital, solid wastes generation estimation ranges from 0.5 to 0.8 kg/day for sub-Saharan Africa [ 23 ]. Referring to Yhdego and Kingu [ 12 ] the market waste generation in Dodoma municipal by then was 30 tons (9.8%) to 305 tons per day. The solid waste generation at Majengo Market found in Dodoma City currently was found to be > 2 tons equivalent to more than 2000kgs/day, which is remarkably very high to be generated in only one market.

Techniques used to handle solid wastes generated at Majengo market in Dodoma City Tanzania

Techniques and strategies used to handle solid wastes were seen to be very crucial and an indicator of the effective implementation of solid waste management policy. The current study evaluated this aspect into numerous dimensions including the collection process (frequency, means of the solid waste collection), storage (tools used to store solid wastes before disposal), and disposal strategies (services providers, expenses).

Solid waste collection, service provider, the frequency of SW collection and status of the Majengo market, Dodoma city Tanzania

The findings in Fig.  5 indicate that Municipality (85.7%) had a responsibility to provide collection services of solid wastes at the market followed by some other Community-based Organizations (CBOs) (33.7%). The CBOs were small profit-based organizations involved in the waste collection all over the city including in market areas. The existence of CBOs such as ‘Mazingira Women Group’, which reside at the Majengo ward, was acknowledged because it was also involved in solid waste collection and disposal by official contracts with the market. The organization operates based on the market schedule of waste collection and disposal especially when the city trucks were not functioning. Private organizations (18.4%) and the vendors themselves (31.1%) had a little contribution in collecting solid waste at the market.

Service provider of SWM at Majengo Market, Dodoma city Tanzania (n = 196) pg. 21

Findings were supported by some answers, which were collected during an interview in which one vendor said:

“ Solid waste collection in the market is done by the Municipal council because we normally pay them for the service. They have a special motor vehicle that helps them to provide the service that I as an individual vendor cannot afford to do” (B99, April 2018)”

Another vendor explained that:

“ The one who is responsible and accountable for solid waste collection in the market is the Municipal Council. Sometimes if they fail to provide the service in time, we ask Community based Organizations and sometimes ourselves to do it” (B5, April 2018)”

Findings above are supported by the vendors’ quotes, which were noted during the interview in which one of the businesses men depicted that:

“ Collection of solid waste in the market is not good because there is an irregularity in collecting them. No specified timetable has been set and strictly followed by the City council. They just provide the service at their convenience despite the truth that we are paying for it” (B187, April 2018)”

Additionally, another vendor was noted saying that:

“ Solid wastes are not collected in time because there is not strictly followed timetable to collect them. A lot of solid waste is accumulated in one place for long, a thing, which endangers the health of people ” (B7, April 2018)”

However, the current study found that 68.4% of the study respondents reported the frequency of solid waste collection at the market to be done at irregular timetable (no fixed schedule for solid waste collection) against 10.2% who reported it to be be done daily (10.2%) and 21.4% of the study respondents who reported solid waste to be collected weekly. Thus, the status of solid waste collection services was found to be unsatisfactory by 55.6%.

Tools/technique used to store solid wastes at Majengo market, Dodoma city Tanzania

The findings in Fig.  6 indicate that containers without lids (88.3%) were observed and reported to be more commonly used for storing solid wastes at the market as compared with others tools including plastic bags (37.8%), containers without lids (13.3%) and rubbish pits (12.2%). During an interview, most vendors were quoted narrating that:

“ The most used solid waste storage tool is containers without lids. They are commonly used because they are the ones, which are provided by the City council. Generally, there is a scarcity of other tools for storing solid wastes before disposal” (B120, April 2018)”

Despite that, few vendors said that:

“ Solid wastes generated in the market are stored in containers with lids, plastic bags and sometimes if the containers are not available or they are full of wastes, we dispose them into the rubbish pits available within the market premises. This cause a large accumulation of solid wastes which at the end produce bad smell” (B77, April 2018)”

Tools/technique used to store solid wastes at Majengo Market, Dodoma city Tanzania ( n  = 196) pg. 22

On top of that, other vendors reported that:

“ There is a scarcity of tools/equipment which helps to store solid waste at the market. The supplied buckets or containers are not enough as compared to the rate and amount of solid wastes generated at the market. This cause a lot of solid wastes to be scattered within the market premises especially when wind or rain comes (B10, April 2018) ”

Solid waste disposal at Majengo market, Dodoma city Tanzania

The researcher of the current study was also interested in finding out where do the solid wastes generated at the market are disposed of. As shown in Table  5 , dumpsite was the commonly used place (80.1%) for disposing of wastes as compared to other places including incinerators (1.0%) and burning (18.9%) (Table  5 ).

The most commonly used solid waste disposal site was observed to be at the dumpsite. Even though solid wastes were disposed at the dumpsite, some of the vendors said that:

“ Solid wastes are normally dumped at the dumpsite found within Dodoma City but the frequency of taking them for disposal is not satisfactory. The presence of improper collection and disposal of solid waste leads to the large accumulation of them at the market place. If we ask them why they do not collect wastes in time, they say the trucks that used to collect wastes sometimes become malfunctioning” (B16, April 2018)”

Solid waste management strategies at Majengo market, Dodoma city Tanzania

Under this aspect, the researcher was interested to assess the presence, utilization, and effectiveness of solid waste management strategies against improper solid waste generation, collection, storage, and disposal at the market. Findings in Table  6 show that there were an existing solid waste management policy, strategies, and rules (92.9%). Despite their existence, most vendors (72.4%) reported there to be not proper tracking of people who dispose of wastes improperly in the market premises (whether market members or customers). In addition to that, most of the vendor’s opinions (82.1%) revealed that solid waste management strategies used at the market were not effective enough to control solid waste generation, collection, storage, and disposal (Table  6 ).

Most vendors were quoted during the interview saying that:

“ We heard that solid waste management strategies are existing in the market, but in fact, they are not adequately implemented. The authorized personnel are not applying them effectively and efficiently to the level people are disposing wastes improperly or wastes are spread by wind, rain or sometimes birds and other animals such as dogs to other places” (B6, April 2018)”

Nevertheless, other vendors depicted that:

“ Solid waste management strategies are there, but they are less effective in controlling the solid waste generation, collection, storage, and disposal. Leaders do not strongly stand for them as a result, the Market is very dirty, people dispose of solid waste roughly, there are a lot of flies and bad smell around the Market” (B7, April 2018)”

On top of that, one vendor spoke:

“ Solid waste management policy, strategies, rules, and regulations are existing in the market but they are less effective in managing the wastes. Everyone in the market can dispose of solid waste roughly. This applies to customers too; they dispose of solid wastes at any place in the market and now have turned into normal behavior” (B13, April 2018)”

In addition to that, another vendors was quoted saying that:

“ The existing solid waste management policy, strategies, and rules used at the market are dormant because they are not strictly implemented. It could be better if they are changed or alternated with other rules, or else the leader be charged or changed regularly ” ( B15, April 2018 )”

Levels of awareness on SWM among vendors at Majengo market in Dodoma City Tanzania

Findings showed that the majority of vendors who participated in this study were males, which implied that they were the ones whom most of the time engaged themselves in doing business at the market place. Based on the levels of awareness about SMW, findings of this study differ with those found by Mussa [ 14 ] and Solomon [ 24 ] who did a study on solid waste management at the households and community level. They found that people were aware of the solid waste management but only, they were not willing to pay for the service.

The findings of this study revealed that majority of vendors were not aware of SWM at the market, which impressed that, they had either little access to the information on solid waste management or fully involved in managing wastes at the market. On the other hand, their levels of awareness might either be attributed to a lack of sustainable and ongoing education programs about solid waste management at the market. The difference in the findings could be attributed to the fact that the current study was a market –based and included vendors only while others were community-based.

Needless, it was observed that being educated influenced the level of awareness on SWM among vendors and thus, the more vendors could advance their academic status, the more they could become aware of how to manage solid wastes at the market places. Therefore, education was considered as an important predictor of the level of awareness of SWM among vendors at the market. Moreover, the study findings on the duration of vendors being at the market doing their business, found that most of them were experienced in doing business at the market for more than two years and they were aware of the solid waste management measures at the market.

Thus, doing business at the market place for a long time could predict improved awareness on how to manage solid wastes among vendors in market places and the current study considered this aspect as an important predictor of the level of awareness on SWM among vendors.

The observed findings of the types of solid wastes entail that, most sold and bought goods at the market were consumed organic materials than inorganic ones. The findings were not surprising because the researcher studied about sustainable SWM measures specifically at the market where organic solid wastes (crops and livestock products) were sold. Nevertheless, most respondents reported that the rate of solid waste generation to be more than 2 tons per day as compared to those who reported 1 ton per day. The trend was discussed in the current study to be contributed by the increased number of vendors (approximately 2650) at the market and consumers who are served by the market as they come to sell and buy commodities.

The findings of this study do not match with those, which were found by Squire [ 25 ] who studied pollutants, and solid wastes in urban areas. It was revealed that biomedical pollutants were the major waste as compared to others. The differences could be contributed to the study settings, approaches, and population involved in the study.

Solid waste Management at Majengo Market, Dodoma City Tanzania

The findings presented above revealed that Dodoma City Council takes a great part and largely tries to fulfill its responsibilities of making the market and other premises clean and attractive by providing waste containers and trucks to carry them to the dumpsite. The City council was responsible for solid waste collection, storage, transportation, treatment, and disposal. However, most of the vendor’s opinions revealed that solid waste management strategies used at the market were not effective enough to control solid waste generation, collection, storage, and disposal. Vendors reported scarcity of waste collection tools and vendors at the market reported the absence of fixed and regular timetable of providing those services. They also reported it to be among others, the factor leading to unsafe and inappropriate means of storing solid wastes, which would endanger the health of vendors and other people within and outside market premises.

The findings above tally with those found by Chirico [ 26 ] who assessed barriers to the sustainability of solid waste management. The findings revealed that inadequate containers to store and dispose of solid wastes, and financial constraints were the factors to improper implementation of solid waste management policy, regulations, and rules. Furthermore, despite the differences in study population and setting, Shabani [ 27 ], did a study on factors affecting community participation in solid waste management. Findings revealed that there was no proper place or tools/equipment, which was used for solid waste storage a thing that caused people to discard waste inappropriately. This is to say, failure of solid waste management also exists not only Dodoma but also elsewhere within the country.

This study has been able to find that the majority of vendors were not aware of the management of solid wastes in the market. Several management factors, which were, adversely affected cleanliness: insufficient allocation of lidded containers both in number and in quality that led them to be overfilled and cause the wastes to be scattered all around the market premises. The study further observed the insufficient provision of the regular solid collection, storage, transportation and disposal services; and inadequate supervision of proper solid waste collection, storage, and transportation and disposal process. Customers were less involved in solid waste management at the market and thus they rarely have to participate to prevent improper disposal of solid waste around the market premises.

Variation in the implementation of sustainable solid waste management strategies in the sampled market could not easily be related to studied solid waste management factors. It was conditional that the implementation process was influenced by several factors apart from management factors including poor wastes segregations, inadequate market leaders and vendors’ commitments, inadequate customer involvement in the solid waste management process and the unsatisfactory availability of non-human resources.

Moreover, solid waste segregation was observed in the current study to be not performed in the market as the ever-stored SW were mixtures of different materials including metal and plastic material, food and animal remain, papers, disposable carrying bags for the purchase and other related waste materials. A source-separation of wastes was not common at the market, something that was discussed in this study to probably be the reason why varieties of SW were found mixed. Based on that, there were no tools or infrastructures available at the market, which could be used to facilitate the separation of the SW at the source.

The current study recommends that there would be regular and periodic awareness-raising mentorships sessions among vendors on the sustainable solid waste management, emphasize the solid waste management service providers to timely, and regularly provide the services to make the market clean, attractive, and safe for the well-being of vendors and consumers.

Limitations of the study

This study was only limited to the Majengo market found at Dodoma City; therefore, the findings were not generalized to other places. Data were only collected on solid wastes thus liquid wastes data were not included during data analysis and so missing the general information about wastes management measures in Dodoma City. The financial constraint of the researcher hindering the wide coverage of data collection.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable due to the involved University’s’ ethics/consent as well as participant’s confidentiality’; if required permission will first need to be sought from the University of Dodoma (UDOM).

Abbreviations

Community-based Organizations

College of Environmental Sciences

Environment Management Act

Institutional Research Review Committee

National Environmental Policy

National Environment Management Council

Management of Solid Waste

Statistical Product for Service Solution (SPSS version.23)

Solid Waste

Solid Waste Management

University of Dodoma

United Nations

MOHSW. Population Distribution by Administrative Units, United Republic of Tanzania [Internet]. Nbs.go.tz ; 2013 [cited 2017 Jan 25]. 2–6 p. Available from: http://www.nbs.go.tz/sensa/PDF/Census General Report - 29 March 2013_Combined_Final for Printing.pdf.

Davis MW. Examining the efficiency and equity of solid waste service production at the City level; 2014.

Google Scholar  

Aluko OE. Environmental degradation and the lingering threat of refuse and pollution in Lagos state. J Manag Sustain. 2012;2(1):217–26 Available from: http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/jms/article/view/15424 .

Abarca L, Maas G, Hogland W. Solid waste management challenges for cities in developing countries. Waste Manag. 2013;33:220–32.

Article   Google Scholar  

Ravindra K, Kaur K, Mor S. System analysis of municipal solid waste management in Chandigarh and minimization practices for cleaner emissions. J Clean Prod. 2015;89:251–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.10.036 .

Babyebonela TW. Local resources management towards sustainable solid waste management: A case of Kinondoni municipality, Dar Es Salaam city; 2013.

Starr J. Patterns in Trash : Factors that Drive Municipal Solid Waste Recycling; 2014.

Taiwo AM. Composting as a sustainable waste management technique in developing countries. J Environ Sci Technol. 2011;4(2):93–102.

Article   CAS   Google Scholar  

Ndum AE. Bottom-up approach to sustainable solid waste Management in African Countries; 2013.

SMEC. The United Republic of Tanzania Environmental and Social Impact Assessment (ESIA) for. 2017; SMEC International PTY LTD (October 2016): 2015–7. Available from: http://www.cda.go.tz .

Kassim SM. Solid waste collection by the private sector: Households’ perspective— Findings from a study in Dar es Salaam city, Tanzania. Habitat Int. 2006;30(4):769–80 Available from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0197397505000469 . [cited 2017 Dec 5].

Dhokhikah Y, Trihadiningrum Y. Solid waste Management in Asian Developing Countries: challenges and opportunities. J Appl Environ Biol Sci J Appl Environ Biol Sci [Internet]. 2012;2(7):329–35 Available from: www.textroad.com .

Ntakamulenga R. The Status of Solid Waste Management in Tanzania; 2012.

Mussa J. Residents’ willingness to pay for improved solid waste Management in Dodoma Municipality, Tanzania; 2015.

Nicodemus, Rebecca A. et al. “Collective Hydrogen Bond Reorganization in Water Studied with Temperature-Dependent Ultrafast Infrared Spectroscopy.” J Phys Chem. 2011;B 115.18:5604–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jp111434u .

Katusiimeh MW, Mol APJ, Burger K. The operations and effectiveness of the public and private provision of solid waste collection services in Kampala. Habitat Int. 2012;36(2):247–52.

Bryman A. Social research method. New York: Oxford University Press; 2001.

Denscombe M. The good research guide for small scale social projects. 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2010.

Kombo DK, Tromp D. Comparison of quantitative and qualitative research traditions: epistemological, theoretical, and methodological differences. Eur J Educ. 2006;48(2):311–25.

Cohen L, Manion L, Morrison K. Research methods in education. 5th ed. New York: Routledge Falmer; 2000.

Measures R. Experimental Designs : Preliminary Info. Experimental Designs : Preliminary Info. Design Problems : Internal Validity; 2010. p. 1–13.

Kumar R. Research methodology. 3rd ed; 2011.

Breeze R. Municipal Solid Waste Management in Dar es Salaam Prepared By; 2012.

Solomon AO. The role of households in solid waste management in East Africa capital cities [Internet]. Vol. 4, Environmental Policy. 2011. 210 p. Available from: doi: https://doi.org/10.3920/978-90-8686-747-9 .

Squire JN. Biomedical pollutants and urban waste Management in the Accra Metropolitan Area, Ghana : A framework for Urban Management of the environment (FUME); 2012.

Chirico JM. Solid Waste Management Policy: The Barriers to Sustainability on Remote Islands; 2011.

Shabani RA, A. Factors affecting community participation in solid waste Management in Lindi Municipal Council Tanzania; 2015.

Download references

Acknowledgments

sincerest gratitude goes to Prof. W.J.S. M1. for his patience, encouragement, and moral support. Sincere thanks also go to Walter C. Millanzi from College of Health Sciences (UDOM) for his endless academic support and courage he offered to me throughout this work. The Majengo Market leaders who by their permission and assistance with the recruitment of respondents made it easy for me to get access to the vendors in their respective market premises. My thankfulness goes to my parents, relatives, and friends for their endless prayers, financial support cheering me on every step of the way to accomplish my research.

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or non-profit sectors.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Environmental and Engineering Management, College of Earth Sciencess, The University of Dodoma, Dodoma, Tanzania

Kepha Nyampundu & William J. S. Mwegoha

College of Health Sciences, The University of Dodoma, Dodoma, Tanzania

Walter C. Millanzi

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

K.N conducted research and collected data and, W.J.S.M1, designed, conceptualized, directed, advised, corrected, organized, and approved the work; W.M2 analyzed data and wrote this article and H.B. edited the work. All the authors have read and approved the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Walter C. Millanzi .

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate.

applicable, approved by the University of Dodoma (UDOM) IRRC through the College of Environmental Sciences (CoES); study respondents gave written informed consent before the commencement of data collection.

Consent for publication

Not applicable’.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ . The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver ( http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ ) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Nyampundu, K., Mwegoha, W.J.S. & Millanzi, W.C. Sustainable solid waste management Measures in Tanzania: an exploratory descriptive case study among vendors at Majengo market in Dodoma City. BMC Public Health 20 , 1075 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-08670-0

Download citation

Received : 24 April 2019

Accepted : 07 April 2020

Published : 08 July 2020

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-08670-0

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Solid waste
• Sustainable

BMC Public Health

ISSN: 1471-2458

• General enquiries: [email protected]

Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer.

To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to  upgrade your browser .

Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link.

• We're Hiring!
• Help Center

ASU research proposal waste management

proposal for waste management

Related Papers

reyniño richard Clarin

Integrated Waste Management - Volume II

Dennis Iyeke Igbinomwanhia

Atang Arumbinang

Asian developing countries have increased their population, urbanization and industrialization which contribute to solid waste (SW) generation. For example, in India it was between 0.2 kg/capita/day and 0.5 kg/capita/day with 217 million people . Most of SW composition in the cities of developing countries is biodegradable organics. For examples, it was 65% in Jakarta and 72.41% in Surabaya . Whereas, in the Asian developed countries, such as in Japan, Singapore, Taiwan, and South Korea, these values were generally less than 45% . The World Bank classified countries in the world based on Gross National Income (GNI) per capita. The classification of countries were low income (GNI of $1,005 or less); lower middle income (GNI of $1,006 - $3,975); upper middle income (GNI of $3,976 - $12,275); and high income country (GNI of $12,276 or more). Some developing countries in Asia, such as Sri Lanka, India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Vietnam, Iran, and Nepal, were commonly in the range of low- income to lower middle income. Developing countries in Asia have the same existing conditions. The SW generation was high, because of the population and the main component of SW is decomposable organic. For examples, the decomposable organic was 61.5% in Malaysia, and in Indonesia of 68.12% to 72.41% . On the other hand, the common problems are lack of collection coverage, and open dumped landfill as the final disposal method. This disposal method gave the environmental pollution, such as the pollution of soil, surface and groundwater caused by leachate and GHGs emission caused by the waste decomposition process. The main objective of this paper is to review the condition and current problems of solid waste management (SWM) in Asian developing countries, and to find out alternative solutions to reduce the waste generation. The population growth in Indonesia is one of the highest in ASEAN countries, about 235 million and growth rate of 1.3% per year based on the central statistic agency. In 2008 Indonesian population is increase in most major city in Indonesia, based on data source from Ministry of Environment. The population growth brings about the increasing amount of the waste which becomes a problem facing the government also it has created poor environmental living conditions that significantly affect sanitary conditions. The Government Regulation No. 81 of 2012 Concerning Waste Management gives definition about waste management. From Article 1 point 3 states that waste management is the activity that systematic and continuously which included reduce and waste handling. One of the factors that cause environmental damage that is still remains a major problem for Indonesia is a garbage disposal. The rubbish was transported by special trucks and dumped or stacked away in a place that has been provided without any unharmed again. It certainly affects the environment in which the environment becomes dirty and rotting garbage would be the seeds of disease in later life. Although it proved trash can harm if not managed properly, but there are side benefits. This is because in addition can be disastrous for the people, rubbish can also be converted into useful goods. The usefulness of this waste is inseparable from the use of science and technology in handling and also the awareness of the people to manage it.

hammad javaid

Michael Ajufoh

Bupe G Mwanza, PhD

Of all environmental problems that educational Institutions face, Institutional solid waste management has been most acute. This has been primarily due to defragmented systems approach resulting in the lack of a holistic direction and regulatory mechanisms. The research work was directed towards examining the current waste management practices at a local university in Zimbabwe, characterization of the waste generated into waste types and identification of the current projects and equipment which can be used for value addition to the type of waste generated at the institute for the purpose of waste management. The purpose of the research work was to design an integrated solid waste management (ISWM) model for the institute. Literature pertaining to innovative ways of waste management in learning institutions, design of waste management models and environmental impacts of solid waste was reviewed. Using questionnaires, face to face interviews and direct observations, the types of waste generated from various departments of the Institute were determined and characterized. The evaluation of the data obtained from questionnaires and interviews resulted in the determination of waste management practices that were then captured in the designed model which would result in financial savings, value addition as well as environmental protection. Further analysis of the results showed that from current waste management practices, approximately 70% of monetary costs on waste management can be saved if the whole Institute is involved in the implementation of the proposed waste management model.

International Journal for Research in Applied Science & Engineering Technology (IJRASET)

IJRASET Publication

Uncontrolled population growth, fast urbanism, and industrialism have come from environmental challenges in recent decades. One of the most serious issues is waste as a result of poor management methods. This article provides an overview of current waste management strategies and how waste management techniques are being use by startups to generate cash. Resources are finite, so their use should be maximized, and good waste management is a critical component of achieving this aim. Local governments are being compelled to identify and implement innovative waste management strategies as public awareness of the environment grows. Separation at source, collection, sorting, recycling, composting, and sanitary landfilling are all part of the advised method for maximizing recycling and reducing landfilling of municipal solid waste. The practicality and economics of the recommended approach were also examined in this article.

Anis Shahirah

mahmud rahman

RELATED PAPERS

Miguel Sanson

Pearaya Eiampikul

Cytotherapy

Angie Sandoval

Psychology, Community &amp; Health

Graça Esgalhado

Universidad César Vallejo

Orlando Burga Cruzado

Jurnal Aplikasi Bisnis dan Manajemen

Fanny Martdianty

Fabrice Dagrain

Norlia Mustaffa

Gerard Anderson

Murat Pasa Uysal

Cloning and Stem Cells

Teija Peura

Ahmed El-Medany

Fungal Biology

Chulong Zhang

Soft Computing

Laura Fortunato

International Research Journal of Multidisciplinary Technovation

desalegn wogaso

Seliz Gulsen Karadogan

Sandip Nandy

Cell Reports

Martine Roussel

Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing

Social Sciences

Patricia Sanchez

Scientific reports

anderson soares gomes

Bebek Lumpuh

Mochammad Rizal Chamdi

RELATED TOPICS

•   We're Hiring!
•   Help Center
• Find new research papers in:
• Health Sciences
• Earth Sciences
• Cognitive Science
• Mathematics
• Computer Science
• Academia ©2024

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

• View all journals
• My Account Login
• Explore content
• About the journal
• Publish with us
• Sign up for alerts
• Open access
• Published: 14 May 2024

Characteristics and management of municipal solid waste in Uyo, Akwa Ibom state, Nigeria

• Uduak Bassey 1 , 2 ,
• Abasi-ofon Tom 4 ,
• Udemeobong Okono 3 ,
• Mbetobong John 3 ,
• Maja Sinn 5 ,
• Ayoge Bassey 6 ,
• Uduak Luke 3 &
• Satyanarayana Narra 1  

Scientific Reports volume  14 , Article number:  10971 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

379 Accesses

Metrics details

• Environmental impact
• Environmental sciences
• Sustainability

Increased urbanization and population lead to increased consumption of manufactured goods. This ultimately results in increased production of waste. Identifying its composition is crucial for planning an effective solid waste management strategy. This study assesses the characteristics and composition of the waste generated within the Uyo Capital City Development Area of Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. This is to aid in developing a scientifically supported waste management pilot system for the state. Direct waste sorting and characterization were conducted on the municipal solid waste arriving at the landfill during the study period. Over 50% of the generated wastes are recyclables and composed of plastics, metals, and paper, while the fraction of organic waste is over 30%. Similarly, the waste generation per capita is 1.34 kg/person/day, while the generation forecast over the next ten years is estimated to increase by approximately 40%. Furthermore, over 9,000 surveys were completed by residents to establish a problem statement about the existing waste collection and disposal system, and possible solutions. Importantly, a majority of survey respondents were willing to source-separate their wastes and supported paying a fee for adequate waste collection. This strongly indicates that an integrated waste management system could be established to generate value from the collected waste. Supplementary revenue can be generated through composting, recycling, and land reclamation.

Similar content being viewed by others

Household practices and determinants of solid waste segregation in Addis Ababa city, Ethiopia

Influencing factors and reduction of domestic solid waste at university dormitory in Shanghai, China

Multi criteria analysis of municipal solid waste management and resource recovery in Poland compared to other EU countries

Introduction.

Increasing population and rural-to-urban migration in developing countries is bound to result in increased municipal solid waste (MSW) generation, an effect already established in Nigeria. The annual worldwide MSW generation is projected to increase steadily from about 2.0 billion metric tons in 2016 to 3.4 billion metric tons in 2050 as shown in Fig.  1 . Similarly, Nigeria generates about 25 million tons of municipal solid waste annually, and this number is expected to double by 2040 1 . Several waste management methods are practiced around the world today. Waste, by definition unwanted or unusable materials, can range from solids to liquids and gases. Municipal solid waste consists of unwanted solid remains retrieved from household & office residents, and retail and commercial business establishments in a municipality. MSW poses a great challenge with regards to its management and has been identified as one of the major challenges to reaching sustainability targets 3 . Several classes of municipal solid wastes, based on the sources of the waste generation, have been presented in literature 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 . Across regions and municipalities, there is great variation of MSW in composition and it can be generally divided into biodegradable and non-biodegradable components. Nevertheless, typical MSW streams consist of metals, rubbers and plastics, kitchen waste, glass waste, yard waste, electronic waste, paper, cardboard, and others 2 . In Nigeria, very limited literature on the characteristics of MSW exists, as any existing effort is hampered by the difficulty in management of waste. These sources have been attributed to improper waste disposal, inefficient method of waste collection and insufficient coverage of waste existing collection systems 9 . Furthermore, the rate of waste generation in Nigeria has been relatively unknown as a result of limited studies; however, a decade and a half ago, it was reported that the rate of waste generation is Nigeria was in the range between 0.44 and 0.66 kg/capita/day with the waste density ranging between 200 and 400 kg/m 3 , 9 , 10 . Ever since, there has been some reluctance in characterizing the wastes generated in Nigeria. However, with the population of Nigeria increasing at an incline, coupled with increased industrialization and commercialization of Nigeria’s economy, it has been noted that more waste is also being generated 11 , 12 . Consequently, this study seeks to address the waste management situation in Nigeria by analyzing characteristics and composition of the waste generated in the city of Uyo in Akwa Ibom state. The specific waste management methods are reviewed in the next section, and the MSW of the study area is characterized following the methodology described below. Furthermore, suggestions on ways of improving waste management in Uyo are presented.

Projected generation of municipal solid waste worldwide from 2016 to 2050 (in billion metric tons) (source: Statista 2023).

Municipal solid waste management strategies

MSW management approaches in different regions and countries are connected to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), income and population of the assessed country. It describes the process of waste management from generation to disposal. Hence, there is significant variation in MSW management between developed and developing countries. Nanda & Berutti 2 summarizes the MSW management stages as:

Waste generation;

Waste retrieval (collection) and handling; and

Waste disposal, including waste treatment and processing.

Furthermore, MSW management methods are summarized as:

Mechanical recycling or diversion;

Waste-to-energy (WTE) conversion;

Landfilling;

Incineration; and

The following section summarizes the principles of the methods highlighted above.

Mechanical recycling

Mechanical recycling involves the conversion of solid waste into a purified or different form without necessarily altering the chemical composition of the parent material 13 . A typical instance could be the integration of ground water sachets (made from low-density polyethylene materials) into molded bricks to improve brick strength and toughness. These granules from the water packaging material represent a form of recycled material devoid of alteration in chemical composition. The application of similar sorts of recycling methods is limited, hence, this method of MSW measurement is uncommon and not suitable to make use of a significant amount of the MSW bulk.

Waste-to-energy conversion

This is the transformation of waste to useful energy such as electrical, biological, chemical and others. There exist various methods of converting waste to energy such as organic or food waste using biogas, plastics and other combustibles using thermochemical methods and to solid residual fuels (SRFs). Popular thermochemical conversion methods include pyrolysis and gasification. Pyrolysis involves thermal degradation of materials at high temperatures in the absence of oxygen. Typical pyrolysis products depend on the feed stream composition and usually include pyrolysis oil, char, tar, and gases 6 . Detailed descriptions of pyrolysis of MSW are presented in literature 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 . On the other hand, gasification is a process whereby a carbon-containing material (CCM) is converted into syngas under limited oxygen conditions and at high temperatures. Like pyrolysis, product composition depends on the composition of the feed stream 6 . Detailed description of thermochemical treatment is presented in literature 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 . Various variations in the thermochemical processes mentioned exist, and a detailed description of these variations are presented in literature 6 . It is worthy to note that these technologies are common in developed economies and are gradually being introduced in developing ones.

Incineration

Incineration is a widely used method to treat waste due to its potential of reducing waste by over 90% volume 6 . It is the combustion of waste materials in the presence of oxygen and is usually performed in specially designed incineration plants in developed countries. In underdeveloped countries, this can be performed in open dumps. While it usually presents a cheaper mode of waste destruction, it is strongly plagued by environmental pollution, i.e., the release of harmful substances and toxins, and is hence not an advisable method except when sufficient pollution abatement procedures are put in place 34 , 35 . MSW incineration has been reported as an energy recovery method, although this is no longer commonly practiced. However, sufficient literature on MSW incineration exists 36 , 37 , 38 .

Landfilling

Landfilling has been a dominant MSW disposal method, which stems from the comparatively high cost of alternative treatment or disposal alternatives. Similarly, this has been the dominant waste disposal method in developing countries 39 . It refers to the process of dumping solid waste on a site reserved for such purposes. There exist various classifications of landfills depending on the source of waste, e.g. a MSW landfill. Some additional features that may be integrated into the management process include equipment, staff, high-level control engineering, pollution abatement controls, leachate containment capabilities, etc. Various classifications exist, and these are based on conventions defined using characteristics of the landfill. The prominent classifications are those set out by the Malaysian Ministry of Housing and Local Government and the United Nations. More details for this convention can be obtained from literature 40 , 41 , 42 . A summary of the modified application of the classification system adapted from Idowu et al., 2019 is presented in Table 1 below. While landfills have existed from early ages, the concept has been modernized in well-managed and engineered facilities for solid waste disposal 43 . Another aspect of modern landfills is monitoring and management of landfills after closure with particular focus on aftercare strategies. A full description of this can be seen in literature 44 . A summary of the management procedures over the lifetime of a landfill is illustrated in Fig.  2 .

Various management phases over MSW landfill life cycle. Adapted from Laner et al. 44 .

Current state of waste management in Uyo, Akwa Ibom State

The Environmental Protection and Management Agency of the state of Akwa Ibom (AKSEPWMA) uses landfills as its main waste management method, with minimal resource recovery effort. There is no recorded home-waste collection system in place in most neighbourhoods; rather, general disposal bins are provided in central locations spread out within the capital city of Uyo. The waste containers are subsequently emptied into the landfill facility. Based on the various landfill classification types presented in Table 1 , the classification of the landfill under study is Low class—Semi controlled—facility evidenced by presence of staff onsite, but absence of proper high-level control systems and devices. This section highlights the procedure for this waste management method.

Factors affecting waste generation

Waste generation is affected by several factors. Afroz et al., in their work noted the following (with the first two as most important), using Dhaka city, Bangladesh as case study 45 :

Income: Here, a positive relationship was observed, and it was argued that from reason, increased income will result in greater demand for goods and services for convenience purposes.

Household size: Here, a positive relationship was observed with reasonable implication that a direct proportionality exists between household size and waste generation.

Willingness to separate the waste: Here, the contribution of this factor was significant and Afroz et el., presented that this could be explained by the fact that households willing to separate wastes (for reuse) at home will ultimately generate less waste.

Environmental concern: Here, this factor was observed to be significant and supported the hypothesis by Afroz et al., that the respondents who cared about environmental sustainability will generate less waste and ultimately improve the waste management program.

Additionally personal attitudes and other factors like education, average living cost, cultural patterns, age structure of households, and population have also been observed in literature to affect waste generation 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 .

Methodology

Uyo is the capital of Akwa Ibom state in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. It lies approximately on latitudes 4°58'N and 5°04'N and longitudes 7°51'E and 8°01'E. The capital city shares a boundary to the north with Ikono, Itu and Ibiono Ibom Local Government Areas (LGA). To the east and west, it shares boundaries with Uruan and Abak LGA respectively. In the south, it is bounded by Ibesikpo-Asutan, Etinan and Nsit-Ibom LGAs (see Fig.  3 b). Uyo Capital City Development Area (UCCDA) (see Fig.  3 a) is made up of Uyo and parts of eight other LGAs 52 . For a detailed overview of the LGAs included in the definition of UCCDA for the purposes of this study, in which these parts of other LGAs contribute to the waste at the landfill in question, see Supplementary Table 1 . The last population census in Nigeria took place in 2006. The current projected population of UCCDA is estimated to be about 1,412,000, with an average annual growth rate of 3.4% 52 , 53 . Uyo has a tropical humid climate with annual rainfall estimated to be 1000 mm. Additionally, there is little variation in season and temperature 53 .

( a ) Area within the enclosed circle indicates the mapped area of UCCDA including the contribution of the surrounding LGAs; ( b ) Map highlighting Uyo local government area 52 .

Waste characterization study design

Sampling design.

The study was carried out at the central landfill situated along the Uyo Village Road in Uyo, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. This landfill, which is operated by the AKSEPWMA, serves as the destination for the disposal of all the waste generated within the Uyo metropolitan area. Therefore, it is a suitable and representative location for assessing the characteristics and management of municipal solid waste in the area.

The AKSEPWMA is the regulatory body responsible for the management of waste collection, transportation, and disposal in the city. The landfill receives waste from a variety of sources, including residential, commercial, and industrial sources. Waste is typically transported to the landfill via open trucks and compactors and is subsequently dumped in designated areas. Given its critical role in the waste management system of Uyo, the Uyo Village Road landfill was deemed appropriate for conducting this study. The selection of this landfill as the study site was based on its operational characteristics, which are representative of other landfills in Nigeria. By selecting this location, the authors were able to obtain a representative sample of municipal solid waste that accurately reflects the overall composition of waste generated in the area and is essential for developing effective waste management strategies.

Waste characterization

Waste in this study was sampled using the quartering technique. This is a sampling method often used to sample heterogeneous materials such as municipal solid waste, often used when the sample is too large to be analyzed in its entirety. The entire sample is divided into four equal parts, and two opposing quarters are discarded while the remaining two quarters are combined and mixed. This process is then repeated until the desired sample size is achieved, which is usually a smaller, more manageable portion.

In this study, the waste samples were collected from “undisturbed waste,” immediately after it was unloaded at the landfill, this was carried out using a payloader. The sample size was critical in ensuring the accuracy and reliability of research findings. To obtain this, the sampling formula for continuous variable measurements (Eq.  1 ) was utilized 64 , which was applied by Gomez et al. 65 and Miezah et al. 66 .

where n  = the sample size, Z  = value for a selected alpha level of each tail = 1.96; P  = estimated population standard deviation based on a pre-study, and D  = acceptable margin of error (0.05). From the calculation, the total waste analyzed was 9308.7 kg. The waste sample was manually divided by utilizing the coning and quartering method 67 , 68 , 69 . Here, the entire sample was mixed using a payloader and spread into a cone. The cone was then divided into four parts using a metal square pipe and spade. Two quarters, diagonally placed, were extracted and the remaining two quarters were mixed and quartered again. This procedure was repeated six times until the desired and manageable sample size of 120–150 kg was acquired. The characterization effort for this study was repeated over a period of seven days consecutively. As the desired sample size was obtained, the waste was moved from the main landfill to a nearby location for sorting and characterization.

Waste classification

For ease of recognition, the wastes in the landfill were classified by grouping similar wastes into the following groups:

Ferrous and non-ferrous metals

Population determination and forecasting

Data published by the Nigerian National Bureau of Statistics 53 on Nigeria’s population by region with forecast values up to 2033 was utilized in this study. These values served as basis for further prediction, and they are close to the values presented by PopulationStat 54 .

Determination of overall waste collection

Data on the average types and numbers of trucks that deliver waste to the site together with the average number of trips for each truck daily were recorded. To determine the total waste collected at the site, the weighbridge method was employed following global standards found in literature 55 , 56 , 57 . However, in absence of a weighbridge, the following equation ( Eq.  2 ) was employed to determine the overall quantity of waste collected.

Furthermore, the amount of waste generated per day was calculated based on a rule of thumb 58 , where approximately 74% of waste generated in developing countries is efficiently collected for disposal. Hence, a modification to Eq.  2 as presented by Ibikunle 59 resulted in Eq.  3 .

MSW generation rate was estimated using Eq.  4 as presented by Atta et al. 60

Survey data collection

Google Forms was used to create online questionnaires that were accessible via a unique URL. Survey workers used either their mobile phones displaying the Google form, or paper survey forms with identical questions, to obtain survey responses from four different groups of Uyo residents: (a) people living in residential households more than a kilometer from the landfill, (b) residential households located within one kilometer of the municipal landfill, (c) market sellers at several markets with temporary stalls, and (d) employees at permanent businesses in buildings around town. There was a specific survey for each group, with some questions being identical. Grouping was done to assess whether different profiles of waste generation, and specific better options for waste management, exist in the context of this location. Data entered digitally by the surveyors into Google Forms was automatically recorded. Data recorded on the paper forms was entered manually into Google Forms according to each survey group, and automatically added to the other data from each respective group. As each questionnaire (digital or paper) was filled out face-to-face with the surveyor, there were no unanswered surveys. The time frame for each group was roughly one week in February 2023.

Results and discussions

Landfill operation and quantification of waste.

The landfill is in operation from 6 AM to 6 PM daily. On a typical business day, the disposal facility closes to waste delivery trucks at 5 PM and the next hour is used for site-tidying activities. Typically, waste collection in the city begins early in the morning, typically at 7 AM. These generated wastes are dumped in publicly provided receptacles as presented in Figs.  4 A–C. For collection, various types of vehicles such as compactors, tipper trucks, and utility vehicles are used (see Fig.  4 D), which represent the origin of the waste. Specifically, compactors collect waste from the roadside, which is mainly around residential areas, whereas tipper trucks collect waste from the market area, while utility vehicles, also referred to as “house-to-house” collect waste from individual homes. The latter takes place only in high-income residential areas within Uyo, where residents are subscribed to a waste collection service either at a bi-weekly or monthly rate. At about 8:30–9:00 AM, the trucks start arriving at the landfill. Through interaction with the workers in the landfill, an estimated average of 30–50 trucks are emptied at the landfill daily. Similarly, each truck is expected to make an average of 3–5 trips daily, and this results from the high amount of daily waste generated in the city. At regular intervals within the day, already deposited solid waste is compacted using a bulldozer and a compactor. As is a common phenomenon in many developing countries, informal waste picking is carried out by people who scavenge through the waste stream in search of potentially valuable recyclable materials, such as scrap metal and plastic bottles, for the purposes of subsequent resale. The activities of these informal waste pickers have been critical in powering the recycling industry. At the landfill in Uyo Village Road, about 40 informal waste pickers rely on the collection and recovery of recyclable waste materials to support their livelihoods.

( A – D ) Waste collection at various collection sites in Uyo.

The total MSW collected and generated were calculated using Eqs. ( 2 ) and ( 3 ). Similarly, it was observed that each truck delivery is usually almost filled, but only to the brim of the lower end of the truck, and with uncompacted waste. Hence, it was assumed that trucks normally operate at 50% theoretical loading capacity. The result is presented in Table 2 below. The annual quantity of MSW generated in UCCDA, obtained by dividing by 0.74 based on the hypothesis that only 74% of waste is actually collected, was determined to be 690,541 tons. This figure represents approximately half of the MSW generated from more populous (approximately double) Nigerian states like Lagos and Kano considering dry seasons only. Hence, this presents an validation, and confirmation, of the effect of population on the quantity of MSW generated in a metropolis. Furthermore, the average MSW generation rate per capita was computed using Eq.  3 ; the value obtained was approximately 1.34 kg/person/day, which is in contrast to an approximate value of 0.66 kg/capita/day for comparable cities presented in literature a decade and a half ago. A reasonable explanation for this could be, among other factors, the increasing population size or the fact that residents of urban areas, as opposed to rural areas, tend to generate more recyclable waste that would end up in a landfill, rather than biodegradable waste that can be disposed of in nature 9 , 11 , 61 .

The MSW composition result of the landfill site obtained via the quaternary method described in the methodology is summarized in Fig.  5 .

Waste composition in Uyo landfill serving UCCDA.

It is shown that the largest waste component of the landfill was mixed organic waste. This can partly be attributed to the agricultural and cultural pattern of the region, where agriculture is the dominant activity even among working-class households. On the other hand, the combined plastics and paper fractions made up approximately 38%. Partly, this can be attributed to the following: (1) increased packaging material consumption significantly influenced by increasing sales and trading activity dominant in the region, and (2) increasing population controlled by significant rural-to-urban migration rates experienced in recent times. Furthermore, from Fig.  5 , the total recyclable solid wastes (plastics + metal + paper wastes) fraction exceeds 45% of the total waste. This presents an opportunity for integrating thermochemical waste conversion methods. Existing established methods provide an avenue to increasing the energy generation capacity of the region, noting that there is still insufficient consistent power supply for the entire region.

Estimated waste generation forecast

By considering the waste generation rate for 2023, Fig.  6 presents the waste generation trend over the next ten years. The calculated yearly amount of waste generated in all of UCCDA was extrapolated based on the assumption of an annual population growth rate of 3.4%.

Yearly waste Generation Forecast in Uyo Capital City Development Area.

The forecast indicates that the amount of generated waste in ten years is bound to increase by approximately 40%, from 690,541 to 964,705 tons per year. Hence, adequate measures need to be put in place to ensure that these wastes are efficiently handled.

Waste disposal survey

Four groups of people in the city of Uyo were questioned about their waste-disposing habits, composition of their waste, and the issues they are encountering among other things. The respondents were from residential households in average residential areas, residential households next to the landfill, market sellers at several markets with temporary stalls, and lastly employees at permanent businesses in buildings around town. The number of respondents in each group were 3632, 1407, 2019 and 2261, respectively, resulting in over 9000 completed surveys.

Grouping the people polled allows for a more nuanced assessment of current issues and potential measures of addressing them. It was found that issues were shared between groups, but at different levels. Figure  7 shows selected results of this survey; firstly, from a multiple-choice question (“ What is the main problem you have disposing of your waste? ”), which posits that the main issues that respondents have with waste disposal in their respective situations (Fig.  7 A) are presented. More than two thirds of respondents (68.8%) currently have one or more significant issues with waste disposal which are grouped as attitudinal (or willingness); namely, their waste collection point is too far away (‘distance’), they have too much waste to completely dispose of in an orderly fashion (‘waste amount’), they do not know where the closest collection site is located (‘no collection site’), or the site is always too full (‘full receptacles’). The foregoing agrees with a similar observation by Afroz et al 45 where willingness to separate waste was traced to similar factors to those observed with our respondents. The distance from the disposal point is the biggest issue for average residents and businesses, with 37.0% and 29.3% citing this as their main issue; these same groups are most affected by the fact that there is too much waste for them to handle (23.2% and 22.8%, respectively). Roughly one fifth of all respondents encounter the problem of overflowing waste collection sites. The problem that seems to be the least prevalent is not knowing appropriate collection points to dispose of waste or the absence of a collection site, as less than 15% of respondents in each group named this factor. Still, this is a relevant factor that needs to be addressed. Market sellers reportedly had the least issues (41% responded not to have any problem), which ties in well with the fact that they dispose of their waste at the end of each day, and the collection site is always at the same market, if not very close to their stall. Residents at the landfill scored the second highest for this question, since they live very close to the waste disposal site.

Survey responses from four different waste-producing groups in the city of Uyo; ( A ) main issues with waste disposal for the four different groups, in which more than one response was possible; ( B ) willingness of respondents to separate their waste at their homes or business sites, and to pay a fee for a government waste collection service.

Obtaining answers from discrete groups has the potential to provide better insights into how well certain waste management strategies will work to address the issues presented. It was found, however, that large parts of all groups were ready to cooperate with such measures. Two subsequent questions in the survey ( “If the government gave you two different bins (one for food waste, and one for everything else), to sort your waste into, would you sort it?” and “Would you pay a small fee if someone came to your house to collect your waste?” ) assessed the willingness of respondents from all groups to separate their waste at the source, and the willingness to pay a small fee for a waste collection service (Fig.  7 B). The majority in each scenario were willing to cooperate (83.2% and 62.5%, respectively). This was in agreement with the result of a similar question posed by Patrick et al. 62 using the same study area. However, there is the caveat that the cost of collection may not be affordable at present, and in the future, due to the rising cost of living (which is a factor affecting waste generation) as observed in literature 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 .

The issues the respondents have with waste disposal, and their readiness to support potential future efforts to curb these issues, suggest that better waste management practices through collecting waste closer to its source, then sorting and valorizing it, would be successful, and present a meaningful improvement in the livelihood of the people.

Statistical significance and analysis of survey responses

To observe if there were variations in challenges faced by respondents on existing waste management, an ANOVA test was utilized. Here, we determined if there were variations between responses obtained from the various survey groups (residential, landfill, market-sellers, businesses). Table 3 summarizes the percentage of responses obtained for each underlying issue.

The analysis was premised on the following:

Both variables (dependent and independent) were independent of one another, hence, not skewed.

There is homogeneous variation of the means for each set of data for all groups.

The data were made up of independent observations.

The Null hypothesis (H OS ) formed is:

H OS : There is no variation among the respondent groups with respect to the waste management issues.

The alternative hypothesis (H OT ) is thus:

H OT : There is a variation among the respondent groups with respect to the waste management issues.

Additionally, the analyses were performed with the significance value, α, set at 5% (0.05), which signifies that the permissible upper limit of the risk associated with rejecting a true null hypothesis. The ANOVA revealed that there was no statistically significant difference in the responses. This is indicated by the small F-value and high P -value > 0.05) in Table 4 , which summarizes the ANOVA statistical values. Hence, we will fail to reject the Null hypothesis, proving that there was no statistical significance variation. This means that all the survey groups faced similar challenges with the existing waste management.

Proposed waste management options

As the current waste management system practiced in the region involves manual handling, inefficient collection and sorting, limited recycling, and landfilling as final disposal method, present-day developments in waste management strategies hold better opportunities for valorization of the waste generated in the region. With the forecast waste quantities projected to increase by approximately 40% (see Fig.  6 ), there is a need to propose a more efficient and proper management strategy. Figure  8 summarizes a more valuable technique with potential opportunities for revenue generation.

Schematic of the proposed improved waste management in Uyo.

Waste collection and sorting

One of the challenges typically faced by waste handling facilities is the problem of mixed or combined waste fractions. This becomes increasingly challenging when dealing with waste in bulk quantities such as in large landfills like the one operated by the region in view. Scaling down waste sorting and relegating the sorting process to the source is one way to ease the process. Hence, a subscription-based model should be adopted which strictly requires that households in the region sort their wastes into different collection bins. The sorted fractions can be according to their recyclability, that is, food waste, recyclable, non-recyclable and hard paper/carton. Such a model will be convenient and offer several advantages over the current general city-wide waste collection. Additionally, monetary fines by the collection service can be implemented to ensure compliance, which is an incentive for proper waste sorting.

Valorization

Waste valorization has become integral, with a focus on attaining global sustainability in 2030. For the region in view, the valorization methods employed are reusing and partly downcycling. Here, homes practice the reuse of glass or tin packages to store food or other items, especially in the rural areas. Also, local waste pickers scavenge through the waste stream at the landfills, in search of potentially valuable recyclable materials, such as scrap metal and plastic bottles, for the purposes of subsequent resale to mechanical recyclers. The downstream use of these resold materials usually involves reuse for the same purpose or downcycling for lower grade materials. This mostly involves non-transformation of the chemical state of the materials. However, these efforts by waste pickers are insufficient to effectively reduce the quantity of available waste in the landfills. Hence, other valorization methods are desirable, which are summarized in Fig.  9 .

Simplified summary of the waste valorization methods.

Waste-to-energy recovery

This involves thermochemical conversion of the waste materials into other chemical products. It can be employed to generate more valuable products, especially those with high energy content which could help to address the power shortage experienced in the region. As reviewed earlier, thermochemical valorization processes include pyrolysis, gasification, and others. The significant amount of plastics fraction in the waste characterization results ( see Fig.  5 ) presents enormous potential for setting up medium-scale thermochemical conversion plants. This could be based on the aforementioned processes, where the rejected fractions are utilized as feedstock to produce high-energy products like bio-oils, biofuels, syngas, and pyrolytic oil, thereby supplementing energy for the region. These technologies have been extensively reviewed in literature, and there exist several process technology licensors and plants in operation 13 , 63 .

Waste-agriculture integration

The organic waste fraction in the landfill is composed mainly of food wastes from the restaurants, markets and homes. These organic wastes undergo continuous decomposition, though at a slow rate, but the compost is not utilized in any form. Hence, one proposal would be to collaborate with the agricultural sector to develop proper composting dumps integrated with large scale commercial farming in the region. These commercial farms could generate income from sales or generate feedstock for small and medium enterprise-based manufacturing facilities.

Conclusion and recommendations

This article was focused on characteristics and management of municipal solid waste in Uyo, Akwa Ibom state, Nigeria. The current waste management system in Uyo was assessed, a sampling design performed, an estimated waste generation forecast was calculated, and improved waste management options were identified based on the waste characterization and results from surveys. Hence, the following conclusions were drawn:

Plastic, paper, glass and metal wastes made up over half (> 51%) of the waste collected in Uyo municipality, meaning there is a large potential of valorizing the recyclable fraction of the waste.

The current waste management approach is inefficient in handling the quantity of waste generated in the municipality, most of which is disposed of in the landfill. This will be exacerbated in ten years, at which point potential waste generation is estimated to increase by 40%.

Currently, most of the potential of the waste is lost in the landfill. However, an enormous energy and revenue generation potential exists if the strategies outlined in the previous section are properly harnessed.

It is imperative to gradually reduce and eliminate the landfilling system. This can be achieved through synergy between private actors and the municipality. In addition, incentivization strategies need to be developed to encourage the citizens to participate in an integrated waste management scheme.

Ethical approval

Ethical approval was not required for this study.

Consent to participate

Survey participants were informed on the purpose of the survey as follows, ‘This is an anonymous survey to help inform our state government on the needs of the citizens of Uyo with regards to their waste. The survey is being conducted privately. It contains less than ten questions about your experience managing your waste and you are free to participate as you choose.’ Verbal consent was then given by survey participants.

Data availability

The original data used in this work is available upon request. This can be requested from: Corresponding author: Uduak Bassey. Email: [email protected].

Ezeudu, O. B., Agunwamba, J. C., Ugochukwu, U. C. & Ezeudu, T. S. Temporal assessment of municipal solid waste management in Nigeria: Prospects for circular economy adoption. Rev. Environ. Health 36 , 327–344. https://doi.org/10.1515/reveh-2020-0084 (2021).

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Nanda, S. & Berruti, F. Municipal solid waste management and landfilling technologies: A review. Environ. Chem. Lett. 19 , 1433–1456. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-020-01100-y (2021).

Article   CAS   Google Scholar  

Cucchiella, F., D’Adamo, I. & Gastaldi, M. Sustainable waste management: Waste to energy plant as an alternative to landfill. Energy Convers. Manage. 131 , 18–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2016.11.012 (2017).

Adedibu, A. A. A comparative analysis of solid waste composition and generation in two cities of a developing nation. Environmentalist 5 , 123–127 (1985).

Article   Google Scholar  

Heinen, J. T. A review of, and research suggestions for, solid-waste management issues: The predicted role of incentives in promoting conservation behaviour. Environ. Conserv. 22 , 157–166 (1995).

Hockett, D., Lober, D. J. & Pilgrim, K. Determinants of per capita municipal solid waste generation in the Southeastern United States. J. Environ. Manag. 45 , 205–218 (1995).

Dallas, M. D. et al. An indicator of solid waste generation potential for Illinois using principal components analysis and geographic information systems. J. Air Waste Manag. Assoc. 46 , 414–421 (1996).

Article   CAS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Brunner, P. & Ernst, W. Alternative methods for the analysis of municipal solid waste. Waste Manag. Res. Waste Manage. Res. 4 , 147–160. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734242X8600400116 (1986).

Ogwueleka, T. Municipal solid waste characteristics and management in Nigeria. J. Environ. Health Sci. Eng. 6 , 173–180 (2009).

Google Scholar  

Amber, I., Kulla, D. M. & Gukop, N. Generation, characteristics and energy potential of solid municipal waste in Nigeria. J. Energy Southern Africa 23 , 47–51 (2012).

Babayemi, J. & Dauda, K. Evaluation of solid waste generation, categories and disposal options in developing countries: A case study of Nigeria. J. Appl. Sci. Environ. Manag. https://doi.org/10.4314/jasem.v13i3.55370 (2010).

Nabegu, A. B. An analysis of municipal solid waste in Kano metropolis, Nigeria. J. Human Ecol. 31 , 111–119 (2010).

Solis, M. & Silveira, S. Technologies for chemical recycling of household plastics–A technical review and TRL assessment. Waste Manag. 105 , 128–138 (2020).

Garcia-Nunez, J. A. et al. Historical developments of pyrolysis reactors: A review. Energy & fuels 31 , 5751–5775 (2017).

Gollakota, A. R. K., Reddy, M., Subramanyam, M. D. & Kishore, N. A review on the upgradation techniques of pyrolysis oil. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 58 , 1543–1568 (2016).

Wang, G. et al. A review of recent advances in biomass pyrolysis. Energy Fuels 34 , 15557–15578 (2020).

Peng, Y. et al. A review on catalytic pyrolysis of plastic wastes to high-value products. Energy Convers. Manag. 254 , 115243 (2022).

Sharuddin, S. D. A., Abnisa, F., Daud, W. M. A. W. & Aroua, M. K. A review on pyrolysis of plastic wastes. Energy Convers. Manag. 115 , 308–326 (2016).

Wampler, T. P. Applied pyrolysis handbook . (CRC press, 2006).

Soltes, E. J. & Elder, T. J. in Organic chemicals from biomass 63–99 (CRC Press, 2018).

Zhang, Y. et al. in Sustainable Resource Recovery and Zero Waste Approaches (eds Mohammad J. Taherzadeh, Kim Bolton, Jonathan Wong, & Ashok Pandey) 193–206 (Elsevier, 2019).

Cao, C. et al. Co-gasification of plastic wastes and soda lignin in supercritical water. Chem. Eng. J. 388 , 124277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2020.124277 (2020).

ElGhamrawy, I. Co-gasification of biomass and plastic waste in a bubbling fluidized bed reactor , The University of Western Ontario (Canada), (2022).

Wilk, V. & Hofbauer, H. Co-gasification of plastics and biomass in a dual fluidized-bed steam gasifier: Possible interactions of fuels. Energy Fuels 27 , 3261–3273 (2013).

Pinto, F. et al. Co-gasification study of biomass mixed with plastic wastes. Fuel 81 , 291–297 (2002).

Shahbaz, M. et al. A critical review on the influence of process parameters in catalytic co-gasification: Current performance and challenges for a future prospectus. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 134 , 110382. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2020.110382 (2020).

Hoque, M. E., Rashid, F. & Aziz, M. Gasification and power generation characteristics of rice husk, sawdust, and coconut shell using a fixed-bed downdraft gasifier. Sustainability 13 , 2027 (2021).

Saebea, D., Ruengrit, P., Arpornwichanop, A. & Patcharavorachot, Y. Gasification of plastic waste for synthesis gas production. Energy Rep. 6 , 202–207 (2020).

Alvarez, J. et al. Hydrogen production from biomass and plastic mixtures by pyrolysis-gasification. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 39 , 10883–10891 (2014).

Frolov, S. M. Organic waste gasification: A selective review. Fuels 2 , 556–650 (2021).

Lopez, G. et al. Recent advances in the gasification of waste plastics. A critical overview. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 82 , 576–596. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.09.032 (2018).

Shen, Y. & Yoshikawa, K. Recent progresses in catalytic tar elimination during biomass gasification or pyrolysis—A review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 21 , 371–392 (2013).

Yang, R.-X., Jan, K., Chen, C.-T., Chen, W.-T. & Wu, K. C. W. Thermochemical conversion of plastic waste into fuels, chemicals, and value-added materials: A critical review and outlooks. ChemSusChem 15 , e202200171. https://doi.org/10.1002/cssc.202200171 (2022).

Chew, K. W. et al. Abatement of hazardous materials and biomass waste via pyrolysis and co-pyrolysis for environmental sustainability and circular economy. Environ. Pollut. 278 , 116836 (2021).

Mani, M. & Nagarajan, G. Influence of injection timing on performance, emission and combustion characteristics of a DI diesel engine running on waste plastic oil. Energy 34 , 1617–1623 (2009).

Nie, Y. Development and prospects of municipal solid waste (MSW) incineration in China. Front. Environ. Sci. Eng. China 2 , 1–7 (2008).

Lu, J.-W., Zhang, S., Hai, J. & Lei, M. Status and perspectives of municipal solid waste incineration in China: A comparison with developed regions. Waste Manag. 69 , 170–186 (2017).

Quina, M. J., Bordado, J. C. & Quinta-Ferreira, R. M. Treatment and use of air pollution control residues from MSW incineration: An overview. Waste Manag. 28 , 2097–2121 (2008).

Brunner, P. H. & Fellner, J. Setting priorities for waste management strategies in developing countries. Waste Manag. Res. 25 , 234–240 (2007).

Idris, A., Inanc, B. & Hassan, M. N. Overview of waste disposal and landfills/dumps in Asian countries. J. Mater. Cycles Waste Manag. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163-004-0117-y (2004).

MHLG. (Ministry of Housing and Local Government, Malaysia, Malaysia, 1990).

Idowu, I. A. et al. An analyses of the status of landfill classification systems in developing countries: Sub Saharan Africa landfill experiences. Waste Manag. 87 , 761–771. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2019.03.011 (2019).

(EPA), U. E. P. A. Basic Information about Landfills. (2023). < https://www.epa.gov/landfills/basic-information-about-landfills >.

Laner, D., Crest, M., Scharff, H., Morris, J. W. F. & Barlaz, M. A. A review of approaches for the long-term management of municipal solid waste landfills. Waste Manag. 32 , 498–512. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2011.11.010 (2012).

Afroz, R., Hanaki, K. & Tudin, R. Factors affecting waste generation: a study in a waste management program in Dhaka City. Bangladesh. Environ. Monit. Assess. 179 , 509–519. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-010-1753-4 (2011).

Bandara, N. J. G. J., Hettiaratchi, J. P. A., Wirasinghe, S. C. & Pilapiiya, S. Relation of waste generation and composition to socio-economic factors: a case study. Environ. Monit. Assess. 135 , 31–39 (2007).

Medina, M. The effect of income on municipal solid waste generation rates for countries of varying levels of economic development: a model. J. Solid Waste Technol. Manag. 24 (1997).

Wertz, K. L. Economic factors influencing households’ production of refuse. J. Environ. Econ. Manag. 2 , 263–272 (1976).

Richardson, R. A. & Havlicek, J. Jr. Economic analysis of the composition of household solid wastes. J. Environ. Econ. Manag. 5 , 103–111 (1978).

Grossman, D., Hudson, J. F. & Marks, D. H. Waste generation models for solid waste collection. J. Environ. Eng. Div. 100 , 1219–1230 (1974).

Al-Momani, A. H. Solid-waste management: Sampling, analysis and assessment of household waste in the city of Amman. Int. J. Environ. Health Res. 4 , 208–222 (1994).

Ministry of Economic Development Uyo, Akwa Ibom State annual report: projected population (2014).

National Bureau of Statistics: Nigerian Demographic Statistics Annual Bulletin 2013 (2014)

Population Stat, 2023. http://www.https://populationstat.com/nigeria/uyo/ (Accessed Nov. 30, 2023).

Titiladunayo, I. F., Akinnuli, B. O., Ibikunle, R. A., Agboola, O. O. & Ogunsemi, B. T. Analysis of combustible municipal solid waste fractions as fuel for energy production: Exploring its physicochemical and thermal characteristics. Int. J. Civil Eng. Technol. 9 , 1557–1575 (2018).

Ibikunle, R. A., Titiladunayo, I. F., Lukman, A. F., Dahunsi, S. O. & Akeju, E. A. Municipal solid waste sampling, quantification and seasonal characterization for power evaluation: Energy potential and statistical modelling. Fuel 277 , 118122 (2020).

Kawai, K. & Tasaki, T. Revisiting estimates of municipal solid waste generation per capita and their reliability. J. Mater. Cycles Waste Manag. 18 , 1–13 (2016).

Ogunjuyigbe, A. S. O., Ayodele, T. R. & Alao, M. A. Electricity generation from municipal solid waste in some selected cities of Nigeria: An assessment of feasibility, potential and technologies. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 80 , 149–162 (2017).

Ibikunle, R. A. Exploration and prediction of wet season municipal solid waste for power generation in Ilorin metropolis, Nigeria. J. Mater. Cycles Waste Manag. 24 , 1591–1602. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163-022-01395-9 (2022).

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Atta, A. Y. et al. Potentials of waste to energy in Nigeria. J. Appl. Sci. Res. 12 , 1–6 (2016).

Nkwachukwu, O. I., Chidi, N. I. & Charles, K. O. Issues of roadside disposal habit of municipal solid waste, environmental impacts and implementation of sound management practices in developing country" Nigeria". Int. J. Environ. Sci. Dev. 1 , 409–418 (2010).

Patrick, I.-M.V., Okon, U. E. & Solomon, U. U. Households’ willingness to pay for improved solid waste management in Uyo metropolis, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. Am. J. Environ. Protect. 5 , 68–72 (2017).

Bassey, U. et al. Experimental investigation of products from thermal treatment of real-world mixed single-use and multi-layered waste plastics. Environ. Res. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2024.118244 (2024).

Cochran W. G., Sampling Techniques Third Edition, (1977).

Gomez, G., Meneses, M., Ballinas, L. & Castells, F. Seasonal characterization of municipal solid waste (MSW) in the City of Chihuahua. Int. J. Waste Manag. 29 (9), 2018–2024 (2009).

Miezah, K., Obiri-Danso, K., Kádár, Z., Fei-Baffoe, B. & Mensah, M. Y. Municipal solid waste characterization and quantification as a measure towards effective waste management in Ghana. Waste Manag. 46 , 15–27 (2015).

Patil, C. B., Khan, A. Sustainable Solid Waste Management; Case study of Nagpur, India. Int. J. Eng. Res. Technol. 9 (2020).

Trulli, E. et al. Sustainable mechanical biological treatment of solid waste in urbanized areas with low recycling rates. Waste Manag. 71 , 556–564 (2018).

Gerlach, R.W., Dobb, D.E., Raab, G.A., & Nocerino, J.M., Gy sampling theory in environmental studies. 1. Assessing soil splitting protocols. J. Chemom. 16, (2002).

Download references

Open Access funding enabled and organized by Projekt DEAL. This research was supported and funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research within the project “Waste to Energy: Hybrid Energy from Waste as a Sustainable Solution for Ghana” (03SF0591E). Additionally, the investigation received support from Orchid Springs Limited, Nigeria.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Waste and Resource Management, Faculty of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of Rostock, 18051, Rostock, Germany

Uduak Bassey & Satyanarayana Narra

Berlin School of Technology, SRH Berlin University of Applied Science, 10587, Berlin, Germany

Uduak Bassey

University of Uyo, Uyo, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria

Udemeobong Okono, Mbetobong John & Uduak Luke

School of Chemistry, University of Glasgow, G128QQ, Scotland, United Kingdom

Abasi-ofon Tom

Max Planck Institute of Molecular Physiology, Department of Systemic Cell Biology, 44227, Dortmund, Germany

Orchid Springs Limited, Uyo, Nigeria

Ayoge Bassey

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

U. B.: Conceptualization, methodology, writing—original draft. M. J. and U. O.: Investigation and data curation. M. S.: Data curation, writing—review and editing. A. B.: Writing—review and editing. A. T. and U. L.: Methodology and analysis. S. N.: Supervision and funding acquisition. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.  We, the undersigned, give our consent for the publication of this manuscript, including photographs and figures, to be published in Environmental Science and Pollution Research.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Uduak Bassey .

Ethics declarations

Competing interests.

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher's note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary Information

Supplementary information., rights and permissions.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Bassey, U., Tom, Ao., Okono, U. et al. Characteristics and management of municipal solid waste in Uyo, Akwa Ibom state, Nigeria. Sci Rep 14 , 10971 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-61108-0

Download citation

Received : 30 October 2023

Accepted : 02 May 2024

Published : 14 May 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-61108-0

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Waste-composition
• Waste-management
• Municipal-solid-waste
• Waste-forecast
• Waste-collection

By submitting a comment you agree to abide by our Terms and Community Guidelines . If you find something abusive or that does not comply with our terms or guidelines please flag it as inappropriate.

Main Navigation

• Preparation
• Recognition
• Grants and scholarships
• Activities of scholarship holders
• Before arrival
• During your stay
• Before departure
• After your stay
• Alumni Activities
• Teaching and research
• Accommodation
• oead4refugees
• OeAD-Regionalbüro Graz
• OeAD-Regionalbüro Innsbruck
• OeAD-Regionalbüro Linz
• OeAD-Regionalbüro Salzburg
• University preparation programmes
• Volunteering
• Scholarships and internships in Erasmus+
• Scholarships for studying abroad
• Cooperation with Erasmus+
• Service points
• Summer courses
• Vocational education and training
• Adult education
• Lektoratsprogramm
• DaF (Deutsch als Fremdsprache – German as a Foreign Language) internship abroad
• Teaching worldwide
• Digitales Lernen
• ERINNERN:AT
• Extremismusprävention macht Schule II
• Gedenkstättenbesuch
• Calls for proposals
• Schwerpunkte
• Advisory Services
• Archiv und Nachlese
• Publikationen und Praxisleitfäden
• Schnittstellenarbeit und Vernetzung
• Kunst ist Klasse!
• Science, schools and society
• Schulfonds- häufig gestellte Fragen - FAQS
• Bildungsinnovation braucht Bildungsforschung
• Welt im Ohr Podcasts
• Prize for Development Research
• Round Table Higher Education Global
• Euraxess TOP IV
• Bologna-Tag 2024
• Current priorities
• Guidance and implementation
• 3-IN-AT-PLUS 2022 – 2024
• 3-IN-AT 2019 – 2021
• Pro.Mo.Austria 2016 – 2018
• Mitglieder der Begleitgruppe Hochschulstandort Österreich
• Products and Media
• Qualifications and comparability
• TRANSVAL-EU
• Digital Überall
• DigComp Mapping in Austria
• Educational Cooperation: Partner Countries
• EU Strategy for the Danube Region (EUSDR)
• Africa-Uninet
• Bilateral "Aktionen" (Slovakia, Czech Republic, Hungary)
• HERAS Scholarship Programme
• Cooperation Development Research
• Project support within ASEA-Uninet
• Project support within the Eurasia-Pacific Uninet
• Project Funding Taiwan-Austria
• Scientific & Technological Cooperation (S&T Cooperation)
• Science Cooperation offices
• Cooperation projects in Erasmus+
• Mobility projects in Erasmus+
• Centres for Austrian Studies
• Internationalisation, education, quality and transparency
• What we advocate
• How we work
• Our programmes from A to Z
• Interdisciplinary topics
• Europe and us
• Contact form and location map

Integrated Solid Waste Management in African cities for enhanced emission reduction

Globally, about 2,000 million tons of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) are generated annually. In the past, high-income countries were responsible for the largest share of overall waste generated. However, Africa is projected to experience the highest growth in waste generation over the coming decades. It is estimated that the overall generation of MSW in Africa will increase from the current 170 million tons per year to 500 million tons by 2050.

Improper management of MSW in Africa is associated with severe environmental problems, such as waste littering, open burning, and the emission of toxic gases like dioxins, pollution of ground and surface waters, and significant greenhouse gas emissions from dumping and landfilling due to anaerobic waste degradation. Recycling of MSW is practiced to some extent but is largely left to the informal sector, which plays an important role in resource conservation.

The reasons for improper MSW management in African cities are manifold, ranging from limited financial resources and lack of environmental awareness to missing policies, weak enforcement, and limited know-how in waste management. This is further compounded by the fact that universities and educational institutions in Africa provide little to no education or training in solid waste management.

The overall aim of the KoEF project entitled Integrated Solid Waste Management in African cities for enhanced emission reduction was to create a joint knowledge base for waste management among partner institutions to enhance environmental education and research in the African partner institutions. Special focus was given to three relevant topics:

• Evaluation of waste management systems via Material Flow Analysis and Life Cycle Assessment.
• Waste characterization practices in Austria, Egypt, Uganda, and Zambia.
• Bio-waste management.

For evaluating waste management systems, the software WaPla (Waste Management Planning Tool) developed by TU Wien was adapted for African cities and distributed among the partner institutions. Trainings for the application of this software were conducted, enabling its use in teaching and research at these institutions.

In the area of waste characterization, practices and standards for determining the quantities and composition of MSW in different countries were jointly discussed. The results were presented at a workshop during the International Waste Symposium in Sardinia in October 2023. A joint publication on waste characterization in different parts of the world is currently being developed, with an extended regional focus to include Asian and Latin American countries, where cities face similar challenges. For bio-waste management in Africa, current challenges regarding the treatment and utilization of bio-waste were discussed. A literature review on typical pollutants in bio-waste has been completed and is under review for publication. Additionally, PowerPoint presentations on proper bio-waste management for teaching purposes have been produced by the project partners.

The KoEF project has successfully built a foundation for improved waste management practices and education in Africa, paving the way for more sustainable environmental practices in the future.

Latest News

We, the OeAD-GmbH, use both operationally necessary cookies and cookies to provide you with optimal service and to improve our website by means of analyses. Additional cookies are only used if you consent to them. You can revoke your consent at any time using this link. For more information please see our privacy policy .

• Get involved

• UNDP_Report_on_Additional_Burden_of_Covid-19_Disposable_Facemasks_to_Ghanas_Plastic_Management.pdf pdf (1 MB)

Additional Burden of Covid-19 Disposable Facemasks (ABCDF) to Ghana’s Plastic Management

UNDP_Report_on_Additional_Burden_of_Covid-19_Disposable_Facemasks_to_Ghanas_Plastic_Management.pdf

May 26, 2024

This research investigated the impact of disposable face masks on Ghana's environment, revealing a significant increase in microplastics and single-use plastic waste. The research highlights the need for sustainable solutions to mitigate the environmental effects of face mask disposal and plastic waste management.

Document Type

Regions and countries, sustainable development goals, related publications, publications, undp liberia annual report 2023.

UNDP Liberia Electoral Support Project (LESP) with funding from Sweden, Ireland, and the European Union (EU), along with other partners, supported the Liberian ...

Application form for YAI 2nd call for proposals

Navigating towards a nature-positive future: strategic up....

This report outlines the progress of the knowledge uptake efforts in eight countries: Cameroon, Colombia, Ethiopia, Kazakhstan, Kenya, Nigeria, Trinidad and Tob...

UNDP Mauritius Country Programme Document 2024-2028

The UNDP programme in Mauritius is be clustered around two complementary programme areas, using cross-cutting innovation, technology and digitalization to impro...

UNDP Seychelles Country Programme Document 2024-2028

The country programme’s overarching theory of change is that if the agility of the public sector is enhanced through digital transformation; if the structural c...

YAI 2nd call for proposal guidelines

Advertisement

Municipal solid waste management in Ethiopia; the gaps and ways for improvement

• Published: 29 September 2020
• Volume 23 , pages 18–31, ( 2021 )

Cite this article

• Fiseha Bekele Teshome 1  

2919 Accesses

26 Citations

3 Altmetric

Explore all metrics

This study aimed at examining solid waste management systems in Ethiopia, identifying the gaps, and exploring ways for improvement. Expansive literature surveys of journal articles, official reports, state-issued pamphlets, critical review of laws and policies were used to elicit information. Case studies provided insight into challenges while investigations into the waste management system of countries with a better system were made to draw comparisons and pinpoint areas of improvement. The average waste generation (0.32 kg/capita/day) was found to be within the limit of waste generation for low-income countries: however, there is an annual increase in waste generation by 5%. The waste is dominated by organic biodegradables which accounted for 67.4%. Crude open dumping without pre-treatment and traditional open burning of wastes are common practices. only 5% of waste is recycled in an unsafe informal way. The current waste management system can be described by 3 I’s (Irregular, inadequate, and inefficient) which denote sporadic and inconsistent collection, low coverage, technical frailties, and lack of enforcement of laws, respectively. Hence, implementing the new system proposed in this study should be a priority. Political will, institutional reform, finance, and most importantly change in behavior are necessary to ensure sustainable waste management.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price includes VAT (Russian Federation)

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Rent this article via DeepDyve

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Plastic Waste: Challenges and Opportunities to Mitigate Pollution and Effective Management

An overview of the environmental pollution and health effects associated with waste landfilling and open dumping

Municipal solid waste management and landfilling technologies: a review

Abel OA (2009) an analysis of solid waste generation in a traditional African city: the example of Ogbomoso, Nigeria. Environ Urbanis SAGE J 19(2):527–537

Article   Google Scholar  

Kumie A, Ahmed A (2005) An overview of environmental health status in Ethiopia with particular emphasis to its organization, drinking water, drinking water and sanitation. Ethiop J Health Dev 19:89

Google Scholar  

Abiot A, Akhila S, Zuberi MI (2012) Household solid waste generation rate and physical composition analysis: Case of Hosa'ina city, SNNPRS, Ethiopia. J Recent Trends Biosci 2(1):22–28

Ali M, Eyasu E (2017) Domestic solid waste management and its environmental impacts in Addis Ababa city. J Environ Waste Manag 4(1):194–203

Amoah ST, Kosoe EA (2014) Solid waste management in Urban areas of Ghana: issues and experiences from Wa. J Environ Pollut Human Health 2(5):110–117

AUC (2015b) Agenda 2063. First ten-year implementation plan 2014–2023. https://www.un.org/en/africa/osaa/pdf/au/agenda2063-first10yearimplementation.pdf . Accessed 10 Mar 2019

Daniel H, Bhada-Tata P (2012) WHAT A WASTE. A global review of solid waste management. Urban development series knowledge paper

David VE, John Y, Hussain S (2020) Rethiking sustainability. A review of municipal solid waste management systems, status and challenges. J Mater Cycles Waste Manag 22:1299

Desta M (2018) Ethiopia: repi waste-to-energy plant-sunk, misguided. Addis Fortune (Addis Ababa). African Transformative Leapfrogging Advisory Service, Atlas

Duguma E, Tesfaye F, Amaha K, Abel B (2018) Municipal solid waste generation and disposal in Robe town, Ethiopia. J Air Waste Manag Assoc 68(12):1391–1397

Edwards S (ed.) (2010) Ethiopian environment review no. 1. Forum for environment, Addis Ababa

EPA (Ethiopian Environmental Protection Agency) (2004) State of Environment Report for Ethiopia. Addis Ababa

Fenta BA (2017) Waste management in the case of Bahir Dar City near Lake Tana shore in Northwestern Ethiopia. African J Environ Sci Technol 8:393–412

FDRE (1995) The constitution of the federal democratic republic of Ethiopia; Proclamation No 1/1995. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa

FDRE Proclamation No. 513 (2007) Solid Waste Management Proclamation. Federal Negarit Gazeta, p 3524

Federal Negarit Gazeta of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (2007) solid waste management proclamation no. 51312007. 13th year no. 13.Addis Ababa 12th February 2007

Fikreyesus D (2011) Ethiopia solid waste & landfill

Forum for Environment (2010) Assessment of the solid waste management system of bahir dar town and the gaps identified for the development of ISWM plan. Forum for Environment, Beirut

German Environment Agency, UBA (2014) Waste management in Germany. German Environment Agency, Berlin

Getahun T, Mengistie E, Haddis A, Wasie F, Alemayehu E, Dadi D, Van Gerven T et al. (2011) Municipal solid waste generation in growing urban areas in Africa: current practices and relation to socioeconomic factors in Jimma, Ethiopia. Environ Monit Assess. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-011-2423-x

Book   Google Scholar  

Getinet Z (undated) Solid waste management practice and factors influencing its effectiveness: the case of selected Private Waste Collecting Companies in Addis Ababa.

Government of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (GFDRE) (2011) MSEs development, support scheme, and implementation strategies. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Desta H, Worku H, Fetene A (2014) Assessment of the contemporary municipal solid waste management in Urban environment: the case of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. J Environ Sci Technol 7:107–122

Hoornweg D, Thomas L, Otten L (1999) Composting and its applicability in developing countries. Urban waste management working paper series 8. World Bank: Washington, DC.

Kofoworola OF (2007) Recovery and recycling practices in municipal solid waste management in Lagos, Nigeria. Waste Manage 27(9):1139–1143

Koyachew EK (2016) the problem of solid waste management and people awareness on appropriate solid waste disposal in Bahir Dar City: Amhara region, Ethiopia

Meaza C (2016) Solid waste management in addis ababa. A new approach to improving the waste management system. Helsinki Metropolia University of Applied Sciences

Mengist H, Assegid A (2014) Solid waste management in Adama, Ethiopia: aspects and challenges. World academy of science, engineering and technology. Int J Environ Ecol Eng 8(9)

Mesfin A, Muktar M (2017) Solid waste generation rate and characterization study for Laga Tafo Laga Dadi Town, Oromia, Ethiopia. Int J Environ Prot olicy 5(6):84–93. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijepp.20170506.11

Mesfin T, van Meine Pieter D (2013) Private sector participation in solid waste collection in Addis Ababa (Ethiopia) by involving micro-enterprises. Waste Manag Res 32(1):79–87

McCaston MK, Advisor HLS (2005) Updated from M. Katherine McCaston (1998)-Partnership & Household Livelihood Security Unit.

Mohammed AA, van Dijk MP (2017) Practice and determinants of solid waste collection: the case of private collectors in five Ethiopian Cities. Int J Waste Resour 7:280. https://doi.org/10.4172/2252-5211.1000280

Molla A, Abegaz T, Hailu D (2015) Solid waste generation rate and characterization study for 10 towns in Ethiopia

Naveen BP, Malik RK, Kontoni D-P (2018) Municipal solid waste management in india - challenges and feasible solutions

Nguyen U, Schnitzer H (2009) Sustainable solutions for solid waste management in south east asian countries. In: Waste management, vol 29. New York, NY, pp 1982-95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2008.08.03

Escalante N et al (2010) Understanding waste management in a megacity-experiences in Addis Ababa , Ethiopia

Regassa N, Sundaraa R (2011) Challenge and opportunity in municipal solid waste management the case of Addis Ababa city, Central Ethiopia. Hum Ecol 33(3):179–190

Population Reference Bureau (2014) World population data sheet. Population Reference Bureau, Washington, DC

Solomon K (2017) Assessment of practices, challenges and prospects of in-house solid waste management in Addis Ababa; the case of Yeka subcity. Addis Ababa University College of Business and Economics, Department of Project Management

Suhaib A (2018) Waste management outlook for Nigeria. Bioenergy consult powering a Greener Future. Waste Watch Africa

UNDP (2004) Secondary cities; urban poverty participatory action research initiative (ARI). Volume I: reports for Adama, Mekele, Jimma, Bahir Dar, and Hawassa. UNDP Development Assistance Group

UNDP (2004) Urban agriculture: food, jobs, and sustainable cities. New York: UNDP Urban Harvest Working Paper Series, Paper no. 1. United Nations Development Programme, New York

United Nations Environment Programme (2016) Guidelines for framework legislation for integrated waste management. United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi

Vikrant T, Solomon F, Sharma HR (2016) Municipal solid waste management in Debre Berhan City of Ethiopia. J Environ Earth Sci 4(5):2014

Yebalework B (2014) Assessment of municipal solid waste management the case of Hawassa town, Southern nation, nationalities, and people's regional state. College of Social Sciences and Humanities Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, Haramaya University Ethiopia

World Bank (2019) solid waste management, understanding poverty urban development. World Bank, Washinton, DC

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Environmental Science, Hawassa University Wondo Genet College of Forestry and Natural Resources, 128, Shashemene, Ethiopia

Fiseha Bekele Teshome

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Fiseha Bekele Teshome .

Additional information

Publisher's note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Teshome, F.B. Municipal solid waste management in Ethiopia; the gaps and ways for improvement. J Mater Cycles Waste Manag 23 , 18–31 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163-020-01118-y

Download citation

Received : 30 November 2019

Accepted : 30 August 2020

Published : 29 September 2020

Issue Date : January 2021

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163-020-01118-y

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Municipal solid waste
• Waste management
• Recommendations
• Find a journal
• Publish with us
• Track your research

Production of alternative fuels by thermochemical conversion of waste materials

The ongoing combat against climate change and energy transition requires the utilisation of novel and sustainable technologies and energy sources. High penetration of renewable energy sources (RES) like wind and solar for electricity production is a significant step. Still, full decarbonisation requires additional alternative energy sources and fuels to fill the gap where electrification is not a sustainable solution. Alternative fuels may vary by their origin and production process, but the common for all of them is that they are produced through a sustainable and clean procedure without the additional emissions of Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ). There are two main pathways for the synthesis of alternative fuels: direct utilisation of electricity surplus into the production of chemicals or thermo-chemical conversion of waste feedstock into liquid, gaseous and solid products that can be further refined and used where appropriate. Thermochemical conversion methods like pyrolysis and gasification have recently gained much attention since they allow the integration of waste management with power production systems. This integration could bring significant environmental benefits since derived products could be used as a substitute for fossil fuels, simultaneously preventing waste accumulation at landfills and irretrievable loss of valuable resources. Co-pyrolysis is a promising solution since it can process various waste materials, such as plastics, biomass, sewage sludge, etc., into valuable products. Nevertheless, the scaling-up process on a commercial level still faces different challenges. Besides economic viability, significant enhancements are required to better understand product yield and distribution due to feedstock origin and interaction. Furthermore, integration with renewables should be prioritised to reduce environmental burdens and increase process sustainability. Finally, the research focus should be narrowed to the most promising feedstocks to create a standardised procedure that would ensure results repeatability and yield of high-quality products with minimal after-treatment requirements. 

The primary objective of this dissertation was to identify the most promising waste biomass and plastic feedstocks for the co-pyrolysis process with an aim to produce high-quality liquid fraction that could be further refined into alternative fuels compatible with existing standards for conventional fuels. This was done by conducting a detailed literature review of performed investigations, examining the feedstock properties from ultimate and proximate analysis, and running a series of experimental investigations. The results showed that sawdust (SD), polystyrene (PS), and polypropylene (PP) are among the most promising feedstock to be utilised in the co-pyrolysis process. This evaluation is based on product yield quantity and quality from an individual and mixture analysis. 

The secondary objective was to determine the acceptable share of plastic content in the fuel mixture to enhance liquid quantity and quality. This was achieved by varying the plastic content in the investigated mixtures and observing the composition of the collected liquid fraction. Based on obtained results, it was concluded that plastic share in the mixture should be around 50% since this is sufficient to enhance pyrolysis oil properties compared to individual samples. At the same time, this amount of plastic in the mixture, allows achievement of chemical composition similar to conventional fuel requirements. Another important observation is that feedstock pre-treatment is inevitable before introducing the mixture to the process. This is especially important with plastic separation and biomass drying processes. The former allows better product yield prediction and selectivity toward preferred compounds, while the second increases product yield and quality. 

Finally, the research brought deep insight into the environmental assessment of the proposed procedure to ensure process sustainability and compatibility with decarbonisation goals. Life cycle assessment (LCA) showed that most of the process burdens are associated with background processes related to electricity production, while utilisation of waste materials brings mostly credits. The overall process environmental performance depends on the type of end-of-life treatment methods from which waste flows are diverted. For most ecotoxicity impact categories, co-pyrolysis is a much better option than incineration and landfilling, which are currently used. Besides, appropriate after-treatment would allow using obtained products as a substitute for conventional fossil fuels, bringing significant environmental benefits due to the avoided mining and extraction operations. Finally, integration with renewables like photovoltaics or wind to power up the process greatly reduces global warming potential to almost neutral levels, making the process completely compatible with general decarbonisation goals. 

Table of Contents

Awarding institution, degree type, department, centre or school, year of award, principal supervisor, additional supervisor 1, former identifiers, usage metrics.

• Environmentally sustainable engineering