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RSC Pharmaceutics

Leading the way in drug delivery, formulation and pharmaceutical technology

What would you like to know about RSC Pharmaceutics?

Editor-in-Chief: Yvonne Perrie

Impact factor: n/a

Gold open access, APCs currently waived

Time to first decision (peer-reviewed only): 47.0 days***

Time to first decision (all decisions): 15 days**

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How can chemistry help build a healthier world?

Chemistry is at the centre of our existence and offers transformative solutions to many global challenges, including health. RSC Pharmaceutics acknowledges how chemistry and related disciplines can make a big difference. This impactful journal provides you with a platform to publish crucial research on pharmaceutics.

This is an area of technical opportunity. We are interested in papers that cover emerging technologies and techniques in pharmaceutics, including drug delivery, precision medicine, and enhanced drug targeting. If your research pushes the boundaries of current thinking, then we want to hear from you.

The publications in RSC Pharmaceutics have the potential to drive real change in worldwide health. Our gold open access policy elevates this potential, making sure that everyone around the planet can access and benefit from our publications. We are also covering article processing charges until mid-2026, so you can publish with us for free. Let’s get started.

Introducing our Editor-in-Chief

RSC Pharmaceutics is a new gold open access journal leading the way in the field of Pharmaceutics. This journal publishes research focused on formulating a drug into a medicine, with the intention of achieving controllable drug delivery with high efficacy.

Research published in RSC Pharmaceutics promotes step-change science in the field of Pharmaceutics, and, as such, all submissions must show clear innovation, be scientifically sound, and have a significant impact on the field. Research sharing new scientific findings from across the areas of chemistry, materials science, biomedical sciences, pharmaceutics and drug delivery are all welcomed.

Topics include but are not limited to :

• Formulation and design of medicines
• Design and characterization of correct dosage forms
• Physicochemical and biological properties of drugs and their carriers
• Drug delivery devices and their mechanisms of release

See who's on the team

Meet  RSC Pharmaceutics 's Editor-in-Chief and board members.

Editorial members

Editor-in-chief University of Strathclyde, UK

Associate Editor University of Strathclyde, UK

Associate Editor China Pharmaceutical University, China

Associate Editor Florida International University, USA

Associate Editor Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, Israel, & Houston Methodist Academic Institute, USA

Laura Fisher , Executive Editor, ORCID: 0000-0002-8761-0383

Sarah Rainford , Deputy Editor

Becky Webb , Editorial Production Manager

Namita Datta , Assistant Editor

Anoushka Handa , Assistant Editor

Patrick de Jongh , Assistant Editor, ORCID: 0000-0003-4201-0824

Claire Mitchell , Assistant Editor, ORCID: 0000-0003-3127-2730

Karina Webster , Editorial Assistant

Rob Griffiths , Publishing Assistant

Neil Hammond , Publisher, ORCID: 0000-0001-6390-8874

Article types

RSC Pharmaceutics publishes:

Communications

Full papers.

• Perspectives

Our Communication format is ideally suited to short studies - which can be preliminary in nature - that are of such importance that they require accelerated publication.

Communications must contain original and highly significant work whose interest to the RSC Pharmaceutics readership and high novelty warrants rapid publication. Authors should supply with their submission a justification of why the work merits urgent publication as a Communication. Referees will be asked to judge the work on these grounds.

Communications are given high visibility within the journal as they are published at the front of an issue. Communications will not normally exceed the length of five printed journal pages.

Full papers in RSC Pharmaceutics present original research that has not been published previously. Although there is no page limit for Full papers, appropriateness of length to content of new science will be taken into consideration.

Reviews, Perspectives & Opinions

These are normally commissioned by the editorial board and editorial office, although suggestions are most welcome – proposals (comprising the title, short synopsis, and key references) should be sent by email to the Editors at [email protected] .

Reviews, Perspectives and Opinions must be high-quality, authoritative, state-of-the-art accounts of a particular facet of pharmaceutics or pharmaceutical technology. They should be timely and add to the existing literature, rather than duplicate existing articles, and should be easily comprehensible and of general interest to the journal's wide readership. All Reviews, Perspectives and Opinions undergo a rigorous and full peer review procedure, in the same way as regular research papers.

All review content should consist of original text and interpretation, avoiding any direct reproduction. If a significant amount of other people's material is to be used, either textual or image-based, permission must be sought by the author in accordance with copyright law and must be made clear in the manuscript.

Review articles report a detailed, balanced and authoritative current account of the selected research field. Please note that Reviews in RSC Pharmaceutics may not contain any original research.

Perspectives are contributions offering the personal account or critical analysis of a topic of current interest. They present a state-of-the-art account with an emphasis on future challenges and opportunities. Perspectives may contain some unpublished research and have no strict length requirements, and they should be written to their natural length.

Opinions provide a short, personal viewpoint or hypothesis on a topic of current interest to the scientific community. They can be speculative in nature and stimulate counter-opinion, provided that they are not defamatory to the work of others. They should contain rigorous, evidence-backed scientific justification, and bring significant and valuable insights to the field.

Comments and Replies are a medium for the discussion and exchange of scientific opinions between authors and readers concerning material published in RSC Pharmaceutics .

For publication, a Comment should present an alternative analysis of and/or new insight into the previously published material. Any Reply should further the discussion presented in the original article and the Comment. Comments and Replies that contain any form of personal attack are not suitable for publication.

Comments that are acceptable for publication will be forwarded to the authors of the work being discussed, and these authors will be given the opportunity to submit a Reply. The Comment and Reply will both be subject to rigorous peer review in consultation with the journal’s Editorial Board where appropriate. The Comment and Reply will be published together.

Author Guidelines

For general guidance on preparing an article please visit our Prepare your article page , the content of which is relevant to all our journals. Please note that RSC Pharmaceutics does not require authors to submit using a specific template, but there are templates available if you wish to use them.

To learn more about the Royal Society of Chemistry's policies and processes, including licensing, experimental data guidelines, peer review and formatting, please refer to our Resources for authors and Experimental data guidelines pages.

Peer review and editorial process

All articles published in RSC Pharmaceutics are subject to external peer review by experts in the field and all manuscripts submitted are handled by a team of internationally recognised Associate Editors, who are all practicing scientists in the field.

The peer review for all articles submitted to the journal consists of the following stages:

Phase 1 : Your manuscript is initially assessed by an associate editor to determine its suitability for peer review.

Phase 2 : If the manuscript passes the initial assessment process, the associate editor solicits recommendations from at least two reviewers who are experts in the field. They will provide a report along with their recommendation.

Phase 3 : The associate editor handling your manuscript makes a decision based on the reviewer reports received. In the event that no clear decision can be made, another reviewer will be consulted.

RSC Pharmaceutics is committed to a rigorous peer review process and expert editorial oversight for all published content. Please refer to our processes and policies for full details including our appeals procedure.

Transparent peer review

To support increased transparency, we offer authors the option of transparent peer review, where the editor’s decision letter, reviewers’ comments and authors’ response for all versions of the manuscript will be published alongside the article under an Open Access Creative Commons licence (CC-BY) . Reviewers are anonymous unless they choose to sign their report.

Find out more about our transparent peer review policy .

Publication frequency

Articles accepted for publication in  RSC Pharmaceutics are published online with citeable DOIs as Advance Articles after they are edited and typeset. Articles are then assigned page numbers and published in an issue. Issues of  RSC Pharmaceutics are published every other month.

See our most recent issue .

Ethical Requirements

RSC Pharmaceutics authors, editors, reviewers and published works are required to uphold the Royal Society of Chemistry’s ethical standards . The Royal Society of Chemistry is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and our ethical standards follow COPE’s core practices and best practice guidelines . In cases where these guidelines are breached or appear to be so, the Royal Society of Chemistry will consult with COPE guidelines and act accordingly.

When a study involves the use of live animals or human subjects, authors must include in the 'methods/experimental' section of the manuscript a statement that all experiments were performed in compliance with the author’s institute’s policy on animal use and ethics; where possible, details of compliance with national or international laws or guidelines should be included. The statement must name the institutional/local ethics committee which has approved the study; where possible, the approval or case number should be provided. A statement that informed consent was obtained for any experimentation with human subjects is required. Reviewers may be asked to comment specifically on any cases in which concerns arise.

For further guidance on author responsibilities and code of conduct, which apply to RSC Pharmaceutics and to all manuscripts submitted to Royal Society of Chemistry journals, please visit our author hub .

Open Access

As a gold open access journal, RSC Pharmaceutics  can maximise the potential and visibility of your publications. Our articles are free to read, access and cite by anyone around the world. We are also covering all article processing charges until mid-2026, so you can publish with us for free.

We offer RSC Pharmaceutic s authors a choice of two Creative Commons licences: CC BY or CC BY NC. Publication under these licences means that authors retain the copyright of their article, but users are allowed to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of articles, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without asking prior permission from the publisher or the author. Read our open access statement for further information.

All published articles are deposited with LOCKSS, CLOCKSS, Portico and the British Library for archiving.

Dive into the benefits of open access publishing:

Find out more about open access publishing routes

Explore Royal Society of Chemistry open access journals

Read our Researchers’ voice report in response to Plan S

Subscription information

RSC Pharmaceutics is fully gold open access – articles can be downloaded free from the website with no barriers to access.

Online only: ISSN 2976-8713

Copyright is retained by authors when an open access licence is accepted, as with our standard licence to publish agreement. Full and accurate attribution to the original author is required for any re-use of the work. Find out more about copyright, licences and re-use permission .

**The median time from submission to first decision including manuscripts rejected without peer review from the previous calendar year

***The median time from submission to first decision for peer-reviewed manuscripts from the previous calendar year

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Volumes and issues

Volume 57 april 2023 - march 2024 apr 2023 - mar 2024.

• Issue 12 March 2024
• Issue 11 February 2024
• Issue 10 January 2024
• Issue 9 December 2023
• Issue 8 November 2023
• Issue 7 October 2023
• Issue 6 September 2023
• Issue 5 August 2023
• Issue 4 July 2023
• Issue 3 June 2023
• Issue 2 May 2023
• Issue 1 April 2023

Volume 56 April 2022 - March 2023 Apr 2022 - Mar 2023

• Issue 12 March 2023
• Issue 11 February 2023
• Issue 10 January 2023
• Issue 9 December 2022
• Issue 8 November 2022
• Issue 7 October 2022
• Issue 6 September 2022
• Issue 5 August 2022
• Issue 4 July 2022
• Issue 3 June 2022
• Issue 2 May 2022
• Issue 1 April 2022

Volume 55 April 2021 - March 2022 Apr 2021 - Mar 2022

• Issue 12 March 2022
• Issue 11 February 2022
• Issue 10 January 2022
• Issue 9 December 2021
• Issue 8 November 2021
• Issue 7 October 2021
• Issue 6 September 2021
• Issue 5 August 2021
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• Issue 1 April 2021

Volume 54 April 2020 - March 2021 Apr 2020 - Mar 2021

• Issue 12 March 2021
• Issue 11 February 2021
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Volume 53 April 2019 - March 2020 Apr 2019 - Mar 2020

• Issue 12 March 2020
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• Issue 10 January 2020
• Issue 9 December 2019
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Volume 52 April 2018 - March 2019 Apr 2018 - Mar 2019

• Issue 12 March 2019
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Volume 51 April 2017 - March 2018 Apr 2017 - Mar 2018

• Issue 12 March 2018
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Volume 50 April 2016 - March 2017 Apr 2016 - Mar 2017

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Volume 49 April 2015 - March 2016 Apr 2015 - Mar 2016

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Volume 47 April 2013 - March 2014 Apr 2013 - Mar 2014

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Volume 46 April 2012 - March 2013 Apr 2012 - Mar 2013

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Volume 45 April 2011 - March 2012 Apr 2011 - Mar 2012

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Volume 44 May 2010 - March 2011 May 2010 - Mar 2011

• Issue 12 March 2011
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Volume 43 January - December 2009 Jan - Dec 2009

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Volume 42 January - December 2008 Jan - Dec 2008

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Volume 41 January - December 2007 Jan - Dec 2007

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Volume 40 January - December 2006 Jan - Dec 2006

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Volume 39 January - December 2005 Jan - Dec 2005

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Volume 37 January - December 2003 Jan - Dec 2003

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Volume 36 January - December 2002 Jan - Dec 2002

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Volume 35 January - December 2001 Jan - Dec 2001

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Volume 34 January 2000 - July 2004 Jan 2000 - Jul 2004

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Volume 33 January - December 1999 Jan - Dec 1999

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Volume 32 January - December 1998 Jan - Dec 1998

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Volume 31 January - December 1997 Jan - Dec 1997

• Issue 12 December 1997
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Volume 30 January - December 1996 Jan - Dec 1996

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Volume 29 January - December 1995 Jan - Dec 1995

• Issue 12 December 1995
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Volume 28 January - December 1994 Jan - Dec 1994

• Issue 12 December 1994
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Volume 27 January - December 1993 Jan - Dec 1993

• Issue 12 December 1993
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Volume 26 January 1992 - November 1993 Jan 1992 - Nov 1993

• Issue 11-12 November 1993
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• Issue 7-8 July 1992
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Volume 25 January - December 1991 Jan - Dec 1991

• Issue 12 December 1991
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Volume 24 January - December 1990 Jan - Dec 1990

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Volume 23 January - December 1989 Jan - Dec 1989

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Volume 22 January - December 1988 Jan - Dec 1988

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Volume 21 January - December 1987 Jan - Dec 1987

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Volume 17 January - December 1983 Jan - Dec 1983

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Volume 16 January - December 1982 Jan - Dec 1982

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Volume 15 January - December 1981 Jan - Dec 1981

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Volume 14 January - December 1980 Jan - Dec 1980

• Issue 12 December 1980
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Volume 13 January - December 1979 Jan - Dec 1979

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Volume 12 January - December 1978 Jan - Dec 1978

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Volume 11 January - December 1977 Jan - Dec 1977

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Volume 10 January - December 1976 Jan - Dec 1976

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Volume 9 January - December 1975 Jan - Dec 1975

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Volume 6 January - December 1972 Jan - Dec 1972

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Volume 5 January - December 1971 Jan - Dec 1971

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Volume 2 January - December 1968 Jan - Dec 1968

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Chemistry researchers showcase new method to aid in pharma, agrochemical compound development

by Colorado State University

Researchers at Colorado State University have published findings in Nature that could be useful to speed the development of new pharmaceuticals and pesticides.

Professors Andy McNally and Robert Paton led the work through the Department of Chemistry at CSU. The paper outlines an approach for deconstructing and then reassembling common compounds known as heterocycles to achieve new characteristics. These compounds are often a starting point for research in a variety of fields, and scientists are constantly working to modify them to improve or optimize medicines, for example.

Usually, creating these compounds is done at the start of the development process, with researchers building off known combinations through multiple steps to arrive at a possible drug candidate for testing. The CSU team instead demonstrates in the paper a way to first break an existing pyrimidine heterocycle and then rebuild it to contain nitrogen rather than carbon along the edge of the structures.

That change at the periphery allows for a new set of beneficial chemical reactions that would have been hard or impossible to achieve with these structures before. This approach, McNally said, removes the need to do extensive and time-consuming synthesis from the original simple precursor compound outward. He said this kind of work is known as molecular editing.

"Our approach is counter intuitive but is more efficient," said McNally, who holds the Albert I. Meyers Chair in Organic Chemistry. "By pulling these compounds apart and rebuilding them at the end, we can rapidly change them into slightly different, more potent versions that can then speed development of the final drug without having to work through a lot of potential combinations—some of which may never work out at all."

McNally's team specializes in synthetic organic chemistry , or the science of creating new and needed molecules in a lab. While his team led the experimental portion of the research, they worked closely with Paton's team to develop and use computational methods to test their approaches and to better describe the transition states. Additional authors on the research from both groups in the department include graduate students Louis de Lescure, Benjamin Uhlenbruck and Celena Josephitis.

McNally said the strategy described in the paper can be used in many fields and builds on a tradition of research excellence in synthetic chemistry at CSU. He said his team is now focusing on how this approach can also be used to better understand drug activity in the body ahead of use by the public.

"Any drug that goes on the market must first go through toxicology reports to ensure it doesn't wind up where it doesn't belong and to better quantify its activity in the body," he said.

"Our approach here can be used to increase the mass of these compounds slightly without changing the chemistry. Doing so allows researchers to use mass spectrometry to better detect its path and activity and would again speed development and understanding of these needed chemicals."

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• v.22(3); 2017 Jul

Melissa officinalis L: A Review Study With an Antioxidant Prospective

Sepide miraj.

1 Shahrekord University of Medical Sciences, Shahrekord, Iran

Rafieian-Kopaei

Melissa officinalis is a plant cultivated in some parts of Iran. The leaves of lemon balm, Melissa officinalis L (Lamiaceae), are used in Iranian folk medicine for their digestive, carminative, antispasmodic, sedative, analgesic, tonic, and diuretic properties, as well as for functional gastrointestinal disorders. This review article was aimed not only to introduce Melissa officinalis (its growth condition, its chemical compounds, and its traditional usages) but also to overview its antioxidant properties in detail. This review was carried out by searching studies in PubMed, Medline, Web of Science, and IranMedex databases up to 2016. The search terms used were “ Melissa officinalis L,” “antioxidant properties,” oxidative stress,” “oxidative damage”, “ROS.” Articles whose full texts were not available were excluded from the study. In this study, firstly, traditional usage of this herb was reviewed, including antimicrobial activity (antiparasitic, antibacterial, antiviral, etc), antispasmodic, and insomnia properties. Then, its antioxidant properties were overviewed. Various studies have shown that Melissa officinalis L possesses high amount of antioxidant activity through its chemical compounds including high amount of flavonoids, rosmaric acid, gallic acid, phenolic contents. Many studies confirmed the antioxidative effects of Melissa officinalis ; thus, its effect in preventing and treating oxidative stress-related diseases might be reliable.

The use of medicinal herbs and herbal medicines is an age-old tradition, and the recent progress in modern therapeutics has stimulated the use of natural products worldwide for diverse ailments and diseases. 1 – 11 In traditional medicine, folk people used medicinal plants in diverse manners to treat diseases. 12 – 24 Traditional medicine is popular in all regions of the world, and its use is rapidly expanding even in developed countries. 25 – 35 For example, in China, traditional herbal preparations account for 30% to 50% of the total medicinal consumption, and now the annual global market for herbal medicine is over US$60 billion. The World Health Organization estimated that over 80% of the people in developing countries rely on traditional remedies such as herbs for their daily needs and about 855 traditional medicines include crude plant extracts. This means that about 3.5 to 4 billion of the global population rely on plants resources for drugs. However, the traditional usages of just some of these medicinal plants have been investigated in vitro and clinical trial studies. 36 – 44

In fact, herbal medicines possessing natural essential chemical compounds in their profile could fulfill the primary needs and prerequisite of human beings to cure their diseases. 44 – 51 It has been reported that natural products, their derivatives and analogs, represent over 50% of all drugs in clinical use, in which natural products derived from higher plants represent about 25% of the total. The diversity of natural compounds in herbs and their different functions in preventing and treating different diseases on the one hand and their property of being natural and comfortable with the body and not having adverse effects providing their proper usage induces people toward their consumption; educated public and health care professionals have enormous interests concentrating studies on these herbs and diagnosing their therapeutic properties, but there is a great deal of confusion about their identification, effectiveness, therapeutic dosage, toxicity, standardization, and regulation. 52 – 63 To achieve this purpose, lots of studies have been carried out to concentrate on the identification of medicinal herbs triggering economically remarkable chances for farmers and related cultivation, harvesting, and agronomic conditions of the herb to generate favorable a chemical and pharmacological profile. 64 Economically, cultivating Melissa officinalis is cost-effective, and compared with the economic indicators of traditional crops grown on fertilized land, this herb provides much higher profits. 65 This review article is aimed not only to introduce Melissa officinalis (its growth condition, its chemical compounds, and its traditional usages) but also to overview its antioxidant properties in detail.

Melissa officinalis L, also known as lemon balm, bee balm, honey balm, 66 is a perennial herb. It is a member of the Lamiaceae (mint) family, and lemon balm ( Melissa officinalis ) belongs to a genus that includes 5 species of perennial herbs native to Europe, Central Asia, and Iran. Although Melissa officinalis originated primarily in Southern Europe, it is now naturalized around the world, from North America to New Zealand. 67 Lemon balm occurs naturally in sandy and scrubby areas 68 but has also been reported to grow on damp wasteland, at elevations ranging from sea level to the mountains. In Iran, this plant is known locally by the names Badranjbooye , Varangboo , and Faranjmoshk . 66

The taxonomical classification of this plant is as follows: Kingdom: Plantae; Division: Tracheophyta; Subdivision: Speramtophyta; Class: Magnoliopsida; Superorder: Asteranae; Order: Lamiales; Family: Lamiaceae; Genus: Melissa ; Species: Melissa officinalis L.

Cultivation

Lemon balm is probably one of the easiest herbs to grow and is ideal for beginners. This perennial herb grows and spreads so readily that some gardeners consider it a weed.

Traditional Uses

Historically lemon balm has been said to possess sedative/tranquilizing, anti-gas, fever-reducing, antibacterial, spasmolytic, 58 hypotensive, memory-enhancing, menstrual-inducing, and thyroid-related effects; antiviral and antioxidant activities; antifungal, antiparasitic, and antispasmolytic activities; flatulence; asthma; bronchitis; amenorrhea; cardiac failure; arrhythmias; ulcers; and wounds. 59 , 60 Besides, it has been said that it is effective in treatment of headaches, indigestion, colic, nausea, nervousness, anemia, vertigo, syncope, malaise, insomnia, epilepsy, depression, psychosis, and hysteria. 69

Chemical Compounds

The leaf of Melissa officinalis contains flavonoids (quercitrin, rhamnocitrin, luteolin), polyphenolic compounds (rosmarinic acid, caffeic acid, and protocatechuic acid), monoterpenoid aldehyde, monoterpene glycosides, triterpenes (ursolic and oleanolic acids), sesquiterpenes, tannins, and essential oils (citral). 64 Thirty-three components were identified representing 89.30% of the total oil in the composition of the leaf ( Table 1 ). Six predominant components followed in the essential oils from Sefrou lemon balm were citronellal (14.40%), isogeraniol (6.40%), geraniol acetate (10.20%), nerol acetate (5.10%), caryophyllene (8.10%), and caryophyllene oxide (11.00%), representing 55.20% of the total oil ( Table 1 ). 65

Chemical Compositions of Melissa Officinalis L.

• Leaf: Citral, monoterpenes, geranial and neral. Flavonoids such as luteolin-7-o-glucoside (0.0002%)
• Oil: Geranial, neral, 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one, citronellal, geranyl-acetate, β-caryophyllene, and β-caryophyllene-oxide
• The dried lemon balm leaves: Citral (neral + geranial) 0.13%, total polyphenol compounds 11.8% comprising total hydroxycinnamic compounds 11.3% (rosmarinic acid 4.1%) and total flavonoid compounds 0.5%.
• The lemon balm extract: Hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives and flavonoids with caffeic acid, m -coumaric acid, eriodictyol-7-O-glucoside, naringin, hesperidin, rosmarinic acid, naringenin, hesperetin, phenolic content of the extract (gallic acid equivalents).

Pharmacological Activities

Antimicrobial activity (antiparasitic, antibacterial, antiviral).

The virucidal and antiviral effects of Melissa officinalis L extracts (M1, M3, M3, and M4) with respect to herpes simplex virus type 1 was investigated, and no significant values of inhibiting activity of M1, M2, and M3 on the same virus in vitro or in vivo were demonstrated. Caffeic, rosmarinic, and ferulic acids contribute to antiviral activity of Melissa officinalis L. 68 In a double-blind study, a specially prepared dried extract from Melissa leaves was investigated and the antiviral activity in vitro of this plant against herpes simplex infections was confirmed. Besides, the treatment with this plant was shown to be effective at very early stages of the infection. 70 A double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized trial was carried out with the aim of proving efficacy of standardized balm mint cream for the therapy of herpes simplex labialis. The tested formulation was effective for the treatment of this disease. In addition to the shortening of the healing period, balm mint cream was beneficial in preventing spreading of the infection and contribute to the rapid effect on typical symptoms of herpes like itching, tingling, burning, stabbing, swelling, tautness, and erythema. The different mechanism of action of the balm mint extract rules out the development of resistance of the herpes virus. 69 In an in vitro study, anti-herpes activity of Melissa officials was investigated and it was suggested that Melissa extract possesses high virucidal activity against herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1), even at very low concentrations of 1.5 μg/mL. Besides, it was indicated that rosmarinic acid mainly contributed to the antiviral activity of Melissa extract. 71 A hydroalcoholic extract of lemon balm leaves was investigated against the herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) in comparison with acyclovir. Lemon balm showed to reduce the cytopathic effect of HSV-2 on Vero cells, in the range of nontoxic concentrations of 0.025 to 1 mg mL. This study showed anti-herpes effect of this plant through cinnamic acid–like compounds, mainly rosmarinic acid. 72 In an animal study, the antiviral effect of lemon balm oil on herpes simplex virus (HSV-1 and HSV-2) was examined and it was suggested that Melissa oil affected the virus before adsorption, but not after penetration into the host cell; thus, lemon balm oil is capable of exerting a direct antiviral effect on herpes viruses. Considering the lipophilic nature of lemon balm essential oil, which enables it to penetrate the skin, and a high selectivity index, Melissa officinalis oil might be suitable for topical treatment of herpetic infections. 69 The effects of the volatile oil components of Melissa officinalis was evaluated on HSV-2 replication in HEp-2 cells. Five different concentrations (25, 50, 100, 150, and 200 μg/mL) of volatile oils were examined. The antiviral activity of nontoxic concentrations against HSV-2 was tested. The replication of HSV-2 was inhibited, indicating that the Melissa officinalis L extract contains an anti-HSV-2 substance. 69 An aqueous extract of Melissa officinalis and the phenolic compounds caffeic acid, p-coumaric acid, and rosmarinic acid were examined for their antiviral activity against HSV-1 acyclovir-sensitive and clinical isolates of acyclovir-resistant strains in vitro. These results indicate that mainly rosmarinic acid contributed to the antiviral activity of Melissa extract. Penetration of herpes viruses into cells was inhibited by Melissa extract at 80% and 96% for drug-sensitive and drug-resistant viruses, respectively. 69 The essential oil obtained from leaves of Melissa officinalis L was investigated for its in vitro antimicrobial activity. The results showed that the essential oil presented high antimicrobial activity against all microorganisms targeted mainly against 5 human pathogenic bacteria, 1 yeast Candida albicans , and 2 phytopathogenic fungi tested. 72 Antimicrobial activity of Melissa officinalis essential oil was investigated and it was shown that the most effective antibacterial activity was expressed on a multiresistant strain of Shigellasonei . A significant rate of antifungal activity was exhibited on Trichophyton species. 69 The antimicrobial properties of essential oil from Romanian Melissa officinalis were assayed, which showed a high activity against Candida albicans . The gram-negative bacteria were not affected by the lemon balm oil. 69 Antimicrobial activities of the extracts and of rosmarinic acid of this plant were evaluated and were confirmed. 73

Antispasmodic Activity

The anti-inflammatory activities of Melissa officinalis L leaves were investigated. The essential oil of Melissa officinalis L was shown to have anti-inflammatory activities, supporting the traditional application of this plant in treating various diseases associated with inflammation and pain. 74 The antinociceptive effect of the ethanolic extract from Melissa officinalis L and of the rosmarinic acid in chemical behavioral models of nociception were investigated. The present results suggest that the extract produced dose-related antinociception in several models of chemical pain through muscarinic and nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and the L-arginine-nitric oxide pathway. In addition, the rosmarinic acid contained in this plant appears to contribute to the antinociceptive property of the extract. 69 Efficacy of Melissa officinalis in the treatment of infantile colic was evaluated. Eighty-eight infants completed the trial. This study shows that colic in breastfed infant improves within 1 week by treatment with an extract based on Melissa officinalis . 69 In an animal study, the relaxant effect of the essential oil of Melissa officinalis and its main component, citral, on rat-isolated ileum contractions was evaluated. Melissa officinalis essential oil inhibited the response in a concentration-dependent manner. Citral also had a concentration-dependent inhibitory effect. 69

Efficacy and tolerability of a combined valerian/lemon balm preparation were investigated in an open, multicenter study in children less than 12 years suffering from restlessness and nervous dyskoimesis. Euvegal forte was effective in the treatment of younger children with restlessness and dyssomnia and it was very well tolerated. 75 For the first time, it has been shown that chronic administration of Melissa officinalis L relieves stress-related effects. It is critical that further studies incorporate a placebo and investigate physiological stress markers. 76

Antioxidant Activity

The antioxidants are known to play an important role in protection against disorders caused by oxidant damage. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) production can overcome cellular antioxidant defenses and can lead to a condition termed oxidative stress. Of particular importance, oxidative stress has been implicated in the installation and progression of several degenerative diseases, via DNA mutation, protein oxidation, and/or lipid peroxidation. Literature data have given special attention to the role of ROS and oxidative stress in diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, chronic neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s diseases, and so on.

It was revealed that essential oils of Melissa officinalis L have good potential for antioxidant activity and can be used in lipid-containing foods. It is a rich source of antioxidants, in particular from the group of phenolic compounds. 77 Its activity is comparable with synthetic antioxidants (BHA and BHT), and antioxidant activity is related to phenolic compounds like citronellal and neral. 78

In a study, water extracts of 6 different herbs of the Lamiaceae family (dittany, lemon balm, mint, sage, siderites, and sweet marjoram) were investigated for their antioxidative properties. The extracts were examined for their effect against lipid oxidation in comparison to a tea water extract. It showed that the extract of Melissa was rich in bound forms of phenolic compounds such as hydroxycinnamic acids and flavonoids, rosmarinic and caffeic acids. 79 In another study, essential oil, ethanolic extract, and decoction of 10 plant species from interior Portugal were analyzed for their activity toward acetyl cholinesterase enzyme and their antioxidant activity. Melissa officinalis and Mentha suaveolens showed acetyl cholinesterase inhibitory capacity is higher than 50% in the essential oil fraction. Melissa officinalis showed both high acetyl cholinesterase inhibitory capacity and antioxidant activity. Besides, Melissa officinalis showed appreciable antioxidant activity only in the polar fractions. 80 Antioxidant activity of different fractions from Melissa officinalis extract was evaluated. Ethyl acetate fraction presented the highest flavonoids content as well as the antioxidant activities when compared with other tested fractions. 81

The lemon balm extract has the ability to scavenge both synthetic and natural free radicals. This is of significant importance as it indicates that the extract may have the potential to prevent oxidative damage in vivo by preventing free radical–mediated oxidative stress. 82 The ability to scavenge the free radical DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) was very high in lemon balm. It was suggested that Melissa officinalis scavenged DPPH radical in a concentration-dependent manner with IC 50 values of 48.76 ± 1.94 μg/mL. Melissa officinalis showed strong reducing power and exhibited a significant inhibition of deoxyribose degradation. 83 In another study, water extracts of Melissa officinalis L suppressed the formation of DPPH, hydroxyl, and lipid peroxyl radicals in a dose-dependent manner. The maximum DPPH and hydroxyl radical scavenging activities were achieved in the presence of n -butanol extract at concentrations of 0.4 mg/mL and 0.5 mg/mL, respectively. The highest lipid peroxyl scavenging activity (93.20%) was observed at a higher concentration (5 mg/mL) of n -butanol extract in the lipid peroxidation system. The high phenolic content and radical scavenging activities of extracts of Melissa officinalis L was confirmed. 84

In a study, Melissa officinalis had very high levels of phenolics (13.2 mg GAE/100 g dw) in 32 plant spices. 85 In another study, it had the highest levels of phenolics and flavonoids. 86

Four known compounds have been isolated from dried stems and leaves of Melissa officinalis . The known compounds were identified as quadranoside III, salvianic acid A, rosmarinic acid, and luteolin. Free radical scavenging and antimicrobial activities of the extracts and of rosmarinic acid, the major component, were evaluated. 87

The highest value of phenol compounds was obtained for the extracts of solid residues of supercritical extraction at 10 MPa, 323 K, and 30 minutes. 88

The phenolic profiles of different samples of lemon balm were evaluated. The profiles were compared in order to understand the differences between cultivated, in vitro cultured, and commercial (bags and granulated) samples. Rosmarinic acid was the most abundant compound. Moreover, dimers, trimmers, and tetramers of caffeic acid were identified and quantified for the first time in lemon balm. Only one flavonoid, luteolin-30-O-glucuronide, was found in all the samples. Overall, cultivated and in vitro cultured samples presented the lowest amounts of phenolic compounds; otherwise, commercial samples showed the highest contents. 89

Antioxidant potential in garden cultivated, in vitro cultured, and 2 commercial samples (bags and granulated) of lemon balm was evaluated and compared. The profile of in vitro cultured lemon balm is closer of garden cultivated sample than of both commercial samples (bag or granulate). Garden cultivated sample presented the highest levels of proteins and ash, and the lowest energetic value. The highest a-linolenic acid, tocopherols (including a-, c-, and d-isoforms), and ascorbic acid contents were also observed in this sample. However, it was the commercial bag lemon balm that gave the highest antioxidant. 90

In an animal study, Melissa officinalis aqueous extract possessed potent antioxidative and neuroprotective properties, validating its efficacy in attenuating Mn-induced oxidative stress in the mouse brain. 91 Some of the individual compounds identified in the samples (mainly rosmarinic acid, which is the most antioxidant agent according to literature) could be responsible for the antioxidant activity of lemon balm. 89

In another animal study on mice, the antioxidant capacity of Melissa officinalis and 2 other plants used in Brazil was investigated to treat neurological disorders. The antioxidant effect of phenolic compounds commonly found in plant extracts, namely, quercetin, gallic acid, quercitrin, and rutin, was also examined for comparative purposes. Melissa officinalis aqueous extract caused the highest decrease in TBARS production induced by all tested pro-oxidants. Melissa officinalis presented also the best antioxidant effect, but in this case, the antioxidant potencies were similar for the aqueous, methanolic, and ethanolic extracts. Among the purified compounds, quercetin had the highest antioxidant activity followed by gallic acid, quercitrin, and rutin. 92 It was indicated that Melissa officinalis could be considered an effective agent in the prevention of various neurological diseases associated with oxidative stress in mice. 69

In a clinical trial the capability of Melissa officinalis L infusion on improvement of oxidative stress status was studied in radiology staff. It was concluded that infusion of lemon balm markedly improve oxidative stress condition and DNA damage in radiology staff when used as a dietary supplement for radiation protection. 93

In another animal study on boars, the protective ability of extracts of mate tea and lemon balm was investigated. It was indicated that the highest concentration of lemon balm produced significant improvement in curvilinear trajectory, straightness, and amplitude of lateral head displacement after thawing. 94

Mechanisms of Action

Antioxidants act in one or more of the following ways: reducing agents, free radical scavengers, potential complexes of pro-oxidant metals, and quenchers of singlet oxygen. 95 – 97

Lemon balm has shown to possess high phenolic content and antioxidant properties. Antioxidant activity of lemon balm has been shown as evidenced by the reduction of DPPH. Also, studies have demonstrated that the cytoprotective effect of lemon balm extracts seen in rats was partly due to free radical scavenging properties. 95 , 96 Besides, it could protect against oxidative damage induced by various pro-oxidant agents that induce lipid peroxidation by different processes. Thus, plant extracts could inhibit the generation of early chemical reactive species that subsequently initiate lipid peroxidation or, alternatively, they could block a common final pathway in the process of polyunsaturated fatty acids peroxidation. Lemon balm infusion improves plasma levels of catalase, superoxide dismutase, and glutathione peroxidase and a marked reduction in plasma DNA damage, myeloperoxidase, and lipid peroxidation. Due to its iron(II) chelating activity of the extract, its antioxidant potential was increased. 82 It was found that flavonoids aglycones were responsible for the free radical scavenging activity and that induced lipid peroxidation in rat cultured hippocampal neurons was significantly inhibited by fractions containing flavonol glycosides, flavonol and biflavone aglycones, or chlorogenic acid type phenolics present in the ethanolic extract. 80

Phenolic compounds are the most important compounds that have antioxidant activities. 59 , 97 – 107

To balance the oxidative state, plants and animals maintain complex systems of overlapping antioxidants, such as glutathione and enzymes (eg, catalase and superoxide dismutase) produced internally or vitamin C, vitamin A, and vitamin E obtained by ingestion.

Antioxidants are widely used in dietary supplements and have been investigated for the prevention of diseases such as cancer or coronary heart disease. The hypothesis that antioxidant supplements might promote health has not been confirmed experimentally. Trials including β-carotene, vitamin A, and vitamin E singly or in different combinations have indicated that supplementation has no effect on mortality or might increase it. 64 , 65 Randomized clinical trials of taking antioxidants including β-carotene, vitamin E, vitamin C, and selenium have shown no effect on cancer risk or have increased cancer risk. 47 , 52 Supplementation with selenium or vitamin E does not reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. 81 , 82

Antioxidants have many industrial uses, such as preservatives in food and cosmetics and to prevent the degradation of rubber and gasoline. 81

In this study, first traditional usages of Melissa officinalis and second its antioxidant properties were reviewed in detail. The findings of this study indicated that the antioxidant activity of this plant was mainly attributed to the phenolic compounds of the plant, either in plants of different origin or prepared by differing extraction methods.

The phytochemical analysis of Melissa officinalis has revealed a large number of compounds including high amount of flavonoids, rosmaric acid, gallic acid, phenolic contents, and so on, which have been shown to have potent antioxidant properties 64 , 65 acting in a synergistic way. It was found that the antioxidant activity of phenolic compounds in the plant extract is mostly because of rutin, quercitrin, galic acid, and quercetin, with the highest antioxidant activity belonging to quercetin and then to galic acid, quercitrin, and rutin, respectively. The extract of this plant is able to prevent the production of chemically active species and it may block lipid peroxidation through various processes. 108

Evidence from numerous clinical and experimental studies has shown the significant protective effects of phenolic compounds against oxidative damage in disease treatment and prevention. For example, it was shown in a study that Melissa officinalis extract could prevent neurological diseases associated with oxidative stress. 69

In addition, it was shown that the antioxidant activities of similar phenolic-containing compounds are not identical, suggesting that each compound must be examined individually for its antioxidant behavior. 69

A positive and significant correlation existed between antioxidant activity and total phenolic content, revealing that phenolic compounds were the dominant antioxidant components in this plant. It was revealed that essential oils of Melissa officinalis L have good potential for antioxidant activity and can be used in lipid containing foods. It is rich sources of antioxidants, in particular, from the group of phenolic compounds like citronellal and neral. 77 Melissa officinalis had very high levels of phenolics (13.2 mg GAE/100 g dw) in 32 plant spices. 85 Besides, it was suggested that it had the highest levels of phenolics and flavonoids. 86 The highest value of its phenol compounds was obtained for the extracts of solid residues of supercritical extraction at 10 MPa, 323 K, and 30 minutes. 88

The extract of the plant can have a significant role in maintaining health and curing diseases because of its volatile organic compounds and its active constituents such as terpenoids, flavonoids, quercetin, rutin, quercitrin, gallic acid, and high antioxidant capacity. Essential oil of Melissa officinalis showed both high acetyl cholinesterase inhibitory capacity and antioxidant activity. Besides, Melissa officinalis showed remarkable antioxidant activity only in the polar fractions. 80 Rosmarinic acid was the most abundant compound in this plant. 89

Comparison of cultivated and in vitro cultured and commercial samples of Melissa in the DPPH assay showed the lowest amounts of phenolic compounds for the 2 first and the highest contents for the commercial samples. 90

Finally, several studies of very different quality reported a radical scavenging and antioxidant potential of polar extracts from Melissa . These activities have arisen from the content of flavonoids, rosmarinic acid, and the benzodioxole. 80 The antioxidant effects of these compounds are up to 10 times stronger than the effects of those of vitamins B and C. 64

Gaps of Study

Results of this study showed that most investigations on the therapeutic activities of this plant have been carried out in in vitro studies. Thus, more complementary studies in different therapeutic effects of this plant are required in clinical trial studies. Despite the studies on antioxidant activities, more profound research on the toxicity and its teratogenicity should be done. Besides, although there are different genus of this plant that each one has its own chemical compounds, most of them have common chemical compounds that trigger their antioxidant properties. Thus, more studies are needed to diagnose new chemical compounds in a safe dose on the untested genus of this plant causing its antioxidant activity.

Conclusion and Further Suggestions

In this study, first traditional usages of Melissa officinalis and second its antioxidant properties were reviewed in detail. Regarding its traditional usage, antimicrobial activity (antiparasitic, antibacterial, antiviral, etc), antispasmodic, insomnia properties were reported. Many studies confirmed the antioxidative effects of Melissa officinalis ; thus, its effect in preventing and treating oxidative stress-related diseases might be reliable. The results of numerous studies on antioxidant or radical scavenging effects may be a basis for detailed in vivo research on anti-inflammatory activities of this plant.

Further studies are needed to conduct clinical trials on cancer to develop new anticancer drugs. Future research should be focused on the relationship between the total antioxidant capacity and the content, as well as composition of antioxidants. Further studies are also required to study the mechanism of antioxidant activity of phenolic compounds. Such studies would provide a greater understanding of how ROS scavenging and metal-binding antioxidant mechanisms afford oxidative protection as well as facilitate improved antioxidant design for the treatment and prevention of disease. We should also investigate the interrelationship between phenolic compounds and antioxidant/anticancer activity to illustrate possible mechanisms for cancer prevention and treatment.

Side Effects

No side effects have so far been reported for the herb 98 when used topically or orally in recommended doses (up to 30 days) in otherwise healthy adults and when consumed in amounts found in foods. Lemon balm has been assigned Generally Regarded as Safe (GRAS) status in the United States with a maximum level of 0.5% in baked goods.

Possibly Unsafe

It was reported to be unsafe during pregnancy or lactation or in pediatric patients, and when used in patients with thyroid disorders or in combination with sedatives. 109

Acknowledgments

The authors thank all those who cooperated with us both financially and technically.

Author Contributions: SM, SK: concept and design, supervision. MRK, SK, MAS: data collection, manuscript drafting.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests: The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding: The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: Shahrekord University of Medical Sciences.

Ethical Approval: As no human subjects were involved, this study did not require ethical approval.

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Nanostructure of interlayers in different Nicalon fibre/glass matrix composites and their effect on mechanical properties (English)

• New search for: HÄHNEL, A.
• New search for: PIPPEL, E.
• New search for: WOLTERSDORF, J.
• ISSN: 1365-2818 , 0022-2720
• Article (Journal)  /  Electronic Resource

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Interlayer phenomena, revealed by high‐voltage electron microscopy (HVEM) and high‐resolution electron microscopy (HREM), are presented as they occur in various SiC(Nicalon) fibre‐reinforced Duran glass composites (differing in the specific sol‐gel supported production processes). Their dependence on the production parameters and their influence on the materials properties are discussed, taking into account the results of scanning electron microscope (SEM) in situ tensile tests.

Besides graphitic carbon, textured to a variable degree and influencing the tensile behaviour, oxycarbide formation is indicated.

A reactive matrix additive, such as, e.g. TiO 2 , resulted in a decrease in strength and a brittle behaviour, while the addition of ZrO 2 markedly improves the mechanical properties.

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• Title: Nanostructure of interlayers in different Nicalon fibre/glass matrix composites and their effect on mechanical properties
• Contributors: HÄHNEL, A. ( author ) / PIPPEL, E. ( author ) / WOLTERSDORF, J. ( author )
• Published in: Journal of Microscopy ; 177, 3 ; 264-271
• Publisher: Blackwell Publishing Ltd
• New search for: Blackwell Publishing Ltd
• Publication date: 1995-03-01
• Size: 8 pages
• DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2818.1995.tb03557.x
• Type of media: Article (Journal)
• Type of material: Electronic Resource
• Language: English
• Keywords: transmission electron microscopy , Nicalon fibre‐reinforced borosilicate glass , in situ deformation , interlayer structure
• Source: Wiley

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DU Lab Tapped for Research into Preventing Parkinson’s Disease and Related Dementias

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For the first time, a researcher in Colorado has received a Stanley Fahn Junior Faculty Award from the Parkinson’s Foundation to further academic study around the chronic neurodegenerative disorder for which there is no known cure.

Working out of the University of Denver’s College of Natural Sciences and Mathematics , Assistant Professor of Molecular and Cellular Biophysics Sunil Kumar and his lab are developing and testing potential treatments for Parkinson’s disease (PD), which attacks the central nervous system of those affected and kills cells controlling motor function.

The $300,000 grants are awarded each year to only three researchers in North America. Kumar’s grant will help fund a study on the use of foldamers as potential drugs to treat Parkinson's disease.

Simply put, one of the key components of PD is clumping of a protein called a-Synuclein (aS) around neurons in the central nervous system. As the proteins build up or “aggregate,” dopamine production is slowly whittled down as cell death occurs around the brain. The drop in dopamine causes irregular brain activity, leading to the visible symptoms of PD like tremors, impaired motor function, rigidity and loss of balance. PD often develops into dementia.

On a basic level, Kumar’s lab has developed what are called “novel scaffolds,” also known as synthetic protein mimetics or foldamers, to interrupt the buildup of aS, and thereby preserve motor function and cells in the central nervous system. Kumar says that other researchers have used peptides—chains of amino acids—to try to accomplish the same task, but the pharmaceutical properties of peptides are such that they struggle to cross the blood-brain barrier. Fully synthetic proteins have been more fruitful and, so far, there has been remarkable success in limiting the progression of PD on mice. The lab has even filed for patents related to the work.

“Peptides are often chewed up by the machinery in our bodies,” Kumar says. “These molecules don’t get chewed up and they mimic the structures of those proteins. In a person with Parkinson’s, a protein will come along and bind, then another and another. Our molecules stop that. It looks like the same protein and sort of tricks the body, so it won’t keep on building clumps.”

More detailed information on the work can be found here and here , in a pair of articles in Nature Communications.

Stacia Fritz, an undergraduate researcher in Kumar’s lab, was also awarded a fellowship by the Parkinson's Foundation to carry out research in the summer.   In the past, Courtney Donnelly, another undergraduate student in the lab, also received a grant to further the work.

The project includes a broad set of interdisciplinary units, encompassing NSM and the Ritchie School of Engineering and Computer Science , the departments of chemistry, biology and biophysics, as well as the Knoebel Institute for Healthy Aging (KIHA).

Although it’s still relatively early in the process, Kumar says there’s potential to apply these scaffolds to other neurodegenerative diseases like amyotrophic lateral sclerosis ( ALS) and even some cancers.

“There’s some really cool data and a lot of opportunity,” he says.

Kumar was also quick to point out that the students working in his lab are not just graduate-level students, but also undergraduates who served as authors in different parts of the work.

“We’ve been able to incorporate the work of a lot of students at different levels and that’s reflected in the authors on these papers,” Kumar says. “We work really hard, but it’s a collaborative environment.”

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