how to write an essay in social psychology

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Writing in Psychology Overview

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Psychology is based on the study of human behaviors. As a social science, experimental psychology uses empirical inquiry to help understand human behavior. According to Thrass and Sanford (2000), psychology writing has three elements: describing, explaining, and understanding concepts from a standpoint of empirical investigation.

Discipline-specific writing, such as writing done in psychology, can be similar to other types of writing you have done in the use of the writing process, writing techniques, and in locating and integrating sources. However, the field of psychology also has its own rules and expectations for writing; not everything that you have learned in about writing in the past works for the field of psychology.

Writing in psychology includes the following principles:

Using plain language : Psychology writing is formal scientific writing that is plain and straightforward. Literary devices such as metaphors, alliteration, or anecdotes are not appropriate for writing in psychology.
Conciseness and clarity of language : The field of psychology stresses clear, concise prose. You should be able to make connections between empirical evidence, theories, and conclusions. See our OWL handout on conciseness for more information.
Evidence-based reasoning: Psychology bases its arguments on empirical evidence. Personal examples, narratives, or opinions are not appropriate for psychology.
Use of APA format: Psychologists use the American Psychological Association (APA) format for publications. While most student writing follows this format, some instructors may provide you with specific formatting requirements that differ from APA format .

Types of writing

Most major writing assignments in psychology courses consists of one of the following two types.

Experimental reports: Experimental reports detail the results of experimental research projects and are most often written in experimental psychology (lab) courses. Experimental reports are write-ups of your results after you have conducted research with participants. This handout provides a description of how to write an experimental report .

Critical analyses or reviews of research : Often called "term papers," a critical analysis of research narrowly examines and draws conclusions from existing literature on a topic of interest. These are frequently written in upper-division survey courses. Our research paper handouts provide a detailed overview of how to write these types of research papers.

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How to Write Brilliant Psychology Essays

Paul Dickerson - University of Roehampton, UK
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“This book is one I wish I had bought at the start of my Psychology degree.” – Five-star review Essay writing is a key part of the Psychology degree and knowing how to write effective and compelling academic essays is key to success. Whether it's understanding how to implement feedback you receive on essays, how to stop procrastinating or what makes an effective introduction, this book covers it all. Drawing on insights derived from teaching thousands of students over a 25-year period How to Write Brilliant Psychology Essays provides the keys that will unlock your writing potential.

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How to Write an Abstract APA Format

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

An APA abstract is a brief, comprehensive summary of the contents of an article, research paper, dissertation, or report.

It is written in accordance with the guidelines of the American Psychological Association (APA), which is a widely used format in social and behavioral sciences.

An APA abstract summarizes, usually in one paragraph of between 150–250 words, the major aspects of a research paper or dissertation in a prescribed sequence that includes:

The rationale: the overall purpose of the study, providing a clear context for the research undertaken.
Information regarding the method and participants: including materials/instruments, design, procedure, and data analysis.
Main findings or trends: effectively highlighting the key outcomes of the hypotheses.
Interpretations and conclusion(s): solidify the implications of the research.
Keywords related to the study: assist the paper’s discoverability in academic databases.

The abstract should stand alone, be “self-contained,” and make sense to the reader in isolation from the main article.

The purpose of the abstract is to give the reader a quick overview of the essential information before reading the entire article. The abstract is placed on its own page, directly after the title page and before the main body of the paper.

Although the abstract will appear as the very first part of your paper, it’s good practice to write your abstract after you’ve drafted your full paper, so that you know what you’re summarizing.

Note : This page reflects the latest version of the APA Publication Manual (i.e., APA 7), released in October 2019.

Structure of the Abstract

[NOTE: DO NOT separate the components of the abstract – it should be written as a single paragraph. This section is separated to illustrate the abstract’s structure.]

1) The Rationale

One or two sentences describing the overall purpose of the study and the research problem(s) you investigated. You are basically justifying why this study was conducted.

What is the importance of the research?
Why would a reader be interested in the larger work?
For example, are you filling a gap in previous research or applying new methods to take a fresh look at existing ideas or data?
Women who are diagnosed with breast cancer can experience an array of psychosocial difficulties; however, social support, particularly from a spouse, has been shown to have a protective function during this time. This study examined the ways in which a woman’s daily mood, pain, and fatigue, and her spouse’s marital satisfaction predict the woman’s report of partner support in the context of breast cancer.
The current nursing shortage, high hospital nurse job dissatisfaction, and reports of uneven quality of hospital care are not uniquely American phenomena.
Students with special educational needs and disabilities (SEND) are more likely to exhibit behavioral difficulties than their typically developing peers. The aim of this study was to identify specific risk factors that influence variability in behavior difficulties among individuals with SEND.

2) The Method

Information regarding the participants (number, and population). One or two sentences outlining the method, explaining what was done and how. The method is described in the present tense.

Pretest data from a larger intervention study and multilevel modeling were used to examine the effects of women’s daily mood, pain, and fatigue and average levels of mood, pain, and fatigue on women’s report of social support received from her partner, as well as how the effects of mood interacted with partners’ marital satisfaction.
This paper presents reports from 43,000 nurses from more than 700 hospitals in the United States, Canada, England, Scotland, and Germany in 1998–1999.
The study sample comprised 4,228 students with SEND, aged 5–15, drawn from 305 primary and secondary schools across England. Explanatory variables were measured at the individual and school levels at baseline, along with a teacher-reported measure of behavior difficulties (assessed at baseline and the 18-month follow-up).

3) The Results

One or two sentences indicating the main findings or trends found as a result of your analysis. The results are described in the present or past tense.

Results show that on days in which women reported higher levels of negative or positive mood, as well as on days they reported more pain and fatigue, they reported receiving more support. Women who, on average, reported higher levels of positive mood tended to report receiving more support than those who, on average, reported lower positive mood. However, average levels of negative mood were not associated with support. Higher average levels of fatigue but not pain were associated with higher support. Finally, women whose husbands reported higher levels of marital satisfaction reported receiving more partner support, but husbands’ marital satisfaction did not moderate the effect of women’s mood on support.
Nurses in countries with distinctly different healthcare systems report similar shortcomings in their work environments and the quality of hospital care. While the competence of and relation between nurses and physicians appear satisfactory, core problems in work design and workforce management threaten the provision of care.
Hierarchical linear modeling of data revealed that differences between schools accounted for between 13% (secondary) and 15.4% (primary) of the total variance in the development of students’ behavior difficulties, with the remainder attributable to individual differences. Statistically significant risk markers for these problems across both phases of education were being male, eligibility for free school meals, being identified as a bully, and lower academic achievement. Additional risk markers specific to each phase of education at the individual and school levels are also acknowledged.

4) The Conclusion / Implications

A brief summary of your conclusions and implications of the results, described in the present tense. Explain the results and why the study is important to the reader.

For example, what changes should be implemented as a result of the findings of the work?
How does this work add to the body of knowledge on the topic?

Implications of these findings are discussed relative to assisting couples during this difficult time in their lives.

Resolving these issues, which are amenable to managerial intervention, is essential to preserving patient safety and care of consistently high quality.
Behavior difficulties are affected by risks across multiple ecological levels. Addressing any one of these potential influences is therefore likely to contribute to the reduction in the problems displayed.

The above examples of abstracts are from the following papers:

Aiken, L. H., Clarke, S. P., Sloane, D. M., Sochalski, J. A., Busse, R., Clarke, H., … & Shamian, J. (2001). Nurses’ reports on hospital care in five countries . Health affairs, 20(3) , 43-53.

Boeding, S. E., Pukay-Martin, N. D., Baucom, D. H., Porter, L. S., Kirby, J. S., Gremore, T. M., & Keefe, F. J. (2014). Couples and breast cancer: Women’s mood and partners’ marital satisfaction predicting support perception . Journal of Family Psychology, 28(5) , 675.

Oldfield, J., Humphrey, N., & Hebron, J. (2017). Risk factors in the development of behavior difficulties among students with special educational needs and disabilities: A multilevel analysis . British journal of educational psychology, 87(2) , 146-169.

5) Keywords

APA style suggests including a list of keywords at the end of the abstract. This is particularly common in academic articles and helps other researchers find your work in databases.

Keywords in an abstract should be selected to help other researchers find your work when searching an online database. These keywords should effectively represent the main topics of your study. Here are some tips for choosing keywords:

Core Concepts: Identify the most important ideas or concepts in your paper. These often include your main research topic, the methods you’ve used, or the theories you’re discussing.

Specificity: Your keywords should be specific to your research. For example, suppose your paper is about the effects of climate change on bird migration patterns in a specific region. In that case, your keywords might include “climate change,” “bird migration,” and the region’s name.

Consistency with Paper: Make sure your keywords are consistent with the terms you’ve used in your paper. For example, if you use the term “adolescent” rather than “teen” in your paper, choose “adolescent” as your keyword, not “teen.”

Jargon and Acronyms: Avoid using too much-specialized jargon or acronyms in your keywords, as these might not be understood or used by all researchers in your field.

Synonyms: Consider including synonyms of your keywords to capture as many relevant searches as possible. For example, if your paper discusses “post-traumatic stress disorder,” you might include “PTSD” as a keyword.

Remember, keywords are a tool for others to find your work, so think about what terms other researchers might use when searching for papers on your topic.

The Abstract SHOULD NOT contain:

Lengthy background or contextual information: The abstract should focus on your research and findings, not general topic background.

Undefined jargon, abbreviations, or acronyms: The abstract should be accessible to a wide audience, so avoid highly specialized terms without defining them.

Citations: Abstracts typically do not include citations, as they summarize original research.

Incomplete sentences or bulleted lists: The abstract should be a single, coherent paragraph written in complete sentences.

New information not covered in the paper: The abstract should only summarize the paper’s content.

Subjective comments or value judgments: Stick to objective descriptions of your research.

Excessive details on methods or procedures: Keep descriptions of methods brief and focused on main steps.

Speculative or inconclusive statements: The abstract should state the research’s clear findings, not hypotheses or possible interpretations.

Any illustration, figure, table, or references to them . All visual aids, data, or extensive details should be included in the main body of your paper, not in the abstract.
Elliptical or incomplete sentences should be avoided in an abstract . The use of ellipses (…), which could indicate incomplete thoughts or omitted text, is not appropriate in an abstract.

APA Style for Abstracts

An APA abstract must be formatted as follows:

Include the running head aligned to the left at the top of the page (professional papers only) and page number. Note, student papers do not require a running head. On the first line, center the heading “Abstract” and bold (do not underlined or italicize). Do not indent the single abstract paragraph (which begins one line below the section title). Double-space the text. Use Times New Roman font in 12 pt. Set one-inch (or 2.54 cm) margins. If you include a “keywords” section at the end of the abstract, indent the first line and italicize the word “Keywords” while leaving the keywords themselves without any formatting.

Example APA Abstract Page

Download this example as a PDF

Further Information

APA 7th Edition Abstract and Keywords Guide
Example APA Abstract
How to Write a Good Abstract for a Scientific Paper or Conference Presentation
How to Write a Lab Report
Writing an APA paper

How long should an APA abstract be?

An APA abstract should typically be between 150 to 250 words long. However, the exact length may vary depending on specific publication or assignment guidelines. It is crucial that it succinctly summarizes the essential elements of the work, including purpose, methods, findings, and conclusions.

Where does the abstract go in an APA paper?

In an APA formatted paper, the abstract is placed on its own page, directly after the title page and before the main body of the paper. It’s typically the second page of the document. It starts with the word “Abstract” (centered and not in bold) at the top of the page, followed by the text of the abstract itself.

What are the 4 C’s of abstract writing?

The 4 C’s of abstract writing are an approach to help you create a well-structured and informative abstract. They are:

Conciseness: An abstract should briefly summarize the key points of your study. Stick to the word limit (typically between 150-250 words for an APA abstract) and avoid unnecessary details.

Clarity: Your abstract should be easy to understand. Avoid jargon and complex sentences. Clearly explain the purpose, methods, results, and conclusions of your study.

Completeness: Even though it’s brief, the abstract should provide a complete overview of your study, including the purpose, methods, key findings, and your interpretation of the results.

Cohesion: The abstract should flow logically from one point to the next, maintaining a coherent narrative about your study. It’s not just a list of disjointed elements; it’s a brief story of your research from start to finish.

What is the abstract of a psychology paper?

An abstract in a psychology paper serves as a snapshot of the paper, allowing readers to quickly understand the purpose, methodology, results, and implications of the research without reading the entire paper. It is generally between 150-250 words long.

Student Resources

How To Cite A YouTube Video In APA Style – With Examples

APA References Page Formatting and Example

APA Title Page (Cover Page) Format, Example, & Templates

How do I Cite a Source with Multiple Authors in APA Style?

How to Write a Psychology Essay

Lab Report Format: Step-by-Step Guide & Examples

15 Social Psychology Examples

social psychology examples and definition

Traced back to the late 19th and early 20th century, social psychology is a field of empirical science that attempts to answer questions about human behavior and how it is affected by social interaction.

The focus is to identify thoughts, feelings, mental states, and behaviors, and explain how they both influence and are influenced in social situations and interactions between people.

Examples of social psychology include studies of group behavior (e.g. the Stanford prison experiment) , delayed gratification (e.g. the Marshmallow test), and the role of observation in learning (e.g. Bandura’s social learning theory).

Social Psychology Definition and Overview

Social psychology explores how humans are fundamentally social beings. It explores how sociality affects our behaviors and values.

As Goethals (2007) explains:

“Basic questions about social behavior go back to the ancients. Are men and women capable of governing themselves? Is their behavior governed by internal dispositions or the requirements of society and culture? Should we be optimistic or pessimistic about human potential and human performance? Are people rational or irrational? What hope is there for independent thought and action in the face of group pressures?” (p. 19)

While these are only a handful of questions that social psychologists have sought to study throughout the last 100 years, the relatively young scientific field contains multitudes of scientists who can be credited. Some key founders included:

Norman Triplett (1861-1934): Triplett has been said by some to be a point of reference for the birth of social psychology. His work in 1895 included hist studies of human competitiveness. He noticed that the presence of other people (in this case, sport cycling) enhanced the performance of competitors greatly.
Floyd Allport (1980-1979): Allport is also credited with advancing studies in behaviorism . He explored methods of stimulus and response in data collection.
Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) Lewin is acclaimed as the father of action research. He developed equations to explain human behavior. His method of linking theory with concrete data advanced research on group norms in various social systems (Goethals, 2007, pp. 3-9).

Key Theories in Social Psychology

Additional theories:

Self-determination theory
Learned helplessness theory
Locus of control theory
Labeling theory of deviance
Cultural deviance theory
Attribution theory
Schemata theory
Social exchange theory
Social penetration theory

Examples of Social Psychology

1. the stanford prison experiment.

Conducted by Philip Zimbardo in 1971, the Stanford Prison Experiment was a shocking reveal of how humans can be cruel to other humans when placed in positions of power.

The study examined how the research participants (who were university students) adapted to roles of power and powerlessness within a simulated prison environment.

Despite knowing they were randomly assigned positions, the people assigned to the prison guard positions became increasingly cruel to the participants assigned prisoner roles.

2. The Milgram Experiment

The Milgram experiment was an experiment that measured the willingness of participants to obey an authority figure who instructed them to do immoral things. For this experiment, it was electric shocks.

The research participants were told that they were participating in a study on learning and memory. They were asked to play the role of a “teacher” who was supposed to administer an electric shock to a “learner” every time the learner made a mistake in a memory test. They weren’t actually shocking anyone – the people being shocked were actors.

During the study, the “learner” began to protest and show signs of distress while the authority figure (the experimenter) encouraged the participants to continue with the shocks. Milgram found that most participants continued to obey the experimenter and administer the shocks.

This study not only raised ethical concerns in psychological research (i.e. for the flaws in their research participant debriefing ), it also makes us think deeply about the nature of the human condition and why dictators manage to convince entire armies to fight for immoral causes.

3. Asch Conformity Experiments

Conducted by Solomon Asch in the 1950s, this experiment studied how people conform to group norms, even if they personally believe the group norm is wrong.

In this experiment, a group of participants were shown three numbered lines of different lengths and asked to identify the longest of them all. However, only one true participant was present in every group and the rest were actors, most of whom told the wrong answer.

Results showed that the participants went for the wrong answer, even though they knew which line was the longest one in the first place. When the participants were asked why they identified the wrong one, they said that they didn’t want to be branded as strange or peculiar.

This study goes to show that there are situations in life when people prefer fitting in than being right.

4. Robbers Cave Experiment

The Robbers Cave experiment (1945) investigated intergroup conflict and cooperation between two groups of boys at a summer camp.

The researchers formed two groups of 11-year-old boys who did not know each other and had similar backgrounds. The groups were kept separate. Then, two situations were set up:

A competitive situation was set up whereby the researchers introduced competitions such as baseball, tug-of-war, and treasure hunts. In this phase, the groups developed in-group and out-group mentalities, even to the point of verbally and physically attacking members of the other group.
A cooperative situation was also set up whereby both groups were required to work together to achieve a common goal (an example is fixing a water supply problem). During this phase, the boys began to develop friendships across group boundaries.

The Robbers Cave experiment introduced a few key insights. One was that intergroup conflict arises even among relatively heterogenous groups. Another was that cooperation and shared goals can help reduce group prejudice.

5. The Kitty Genovese Case

The Kitty Genovese Case is a phenomenon where individuals tend not to intervene in an emergency situation when others are present.

Kitty Genovese was murdered in the neighborhood of Kew Gardens, New York in 1694. Despite there being up to 38 witnesses and onlookers in the vicinity of the crime scene, none of them took action to stop the murder or seek help.

This tragic event served as a catalyst for social psychologists Bibb Latane and John Darley to formulate the social psychology concept of bystander effect or bystander apathy. They conducted an experimental study to test bystander intervention, asking participants to complete a questionnaire inside a room with smoke coming out from under the door.

Participants were either alone or with two other participants who were actually actors or confederates in the study.

The study found that participants who were alone in the room reported the smoke faster than those who were with two passive others, suggesting that the more bystanders present in an emergency situation, the less likely someone will step up to help.

6. The Marshmallow Test

Conducted by Walter Mischel in the 1960s, the marshmallow experiment examined children’s ability to delay gratification.

The test involved presenting a marshmallow to children aged 4-6 and asking them to wait for 15 minutes before eating it to receive a second marshmallow.

Roughly one-third of the 600 participants managed to delay gratification and were later found to have more success in life, including higher SAT scores, supporting the self-control theory.

However, a 2018 replication study by Tyler Watts and colleagues, which had a larger group of participants (900) and a more diverse representation of the population in terms of race and ethnicity, challenged the classic marshmallow experiment. The study found that the ability to wait for the second marshmallow was influenced more by the economic background and social status of the participants rather than just their willpower.

7. The Blue-eyed/Brown-eyed Exercise

Conducted by Jane Elliott in the 1960s, this experiment examined how people respond to discrimination and prejudice .

Third-grade teacher Jane Elliott conducted an experiment in her class. The experiment involved dividing the class into two groups, the blue-eyed children and the brown-eyed children.

For a day, Elliott gave preferential treatment to the blue-eyed students, showering them with extra attention and rewards. The next day, the brown-eyed children were given the same treatment.

The outcome of the experiment was that whichever group received preferential treatment scored higher on quizzes and participated more frequently in class, while the group that was discriminated against felt humiliated, performed poorly on tests, and became uncertain when answering questions in class.

This experiment shows how prejudice and mistreatment causes damage to people’s self-confidence and ability to contribute to social situations.

8. The Bobo Doll Experiment

Conducted by Albert Bandura in 1961, this experiment studied how children learn through observation and imitation.

In the Bobo Doll Experiment, children were divided into three groups:

The first group was shown a video where an adult was aggressive toward the Bobo Doll.
The second group was shown a video in which an adult play with the Bobo Doll.
The third group served as the control group where no video was shown.

The children were then led to a room with different kinds of toys, including the Bobo Doll that they saw in the video.

Results showed that the children tend to imitate the adults in whichever video they watched:

Children who were presented the aggressive model in the video acted aggressively toward the Bobo Doll.
Children who were presented the passive model showed less aggression.

While the Bobo Doll Experiment can no longer be replicated because of ethical concerns, it has laid out the foundations of social learning theory and helped us understand the concept of observational learning .

9. The False Consensus Effect

This phenomenon studied by social psychologists refers to the tendency for people to overestimate the degree to which others share their beliefs and behaviors.

This leads us to spout our own views in social situations expecting others to agree with us when, in reality, they are probably less likely to agree than we think.

There are many social psychology studies into the false consensus effect . One example is a study by Alicke and Largo (1995) where participants were asked to rate their own attitudes and the attitudes of others towards various issues, such as the death penalty.

he researchers found that participants consistently overestimated the extent to which others agreed with their own attitudes.

10. The Halo Effect

The Halo Effect illustrates how a positive perception of one attribute of a person can spill over to other attributes.

In product ads, for example, attractive celebrities are often viewed as intelligent and knowledgeable about the product, despite not having the technical expertise.

Edward Thorndike first introduced the concept of the Halo Effect in a classic study in the early 1900s. He asked military commanders to evaluate their subordinates based on various traits, such as intelligence, dependability, leadership, and physical appearance.

The results showed that high ratings of a particular trait led to high ratings of other traits, creating an overall positive impression or “halo effect.” Conversely, a negative rating in one trait was linked to negative ratings in other traits.

Subsequent experiments on the Halo Effect have supported Thorndike’s original theory, revealing that our perception of a person’s overall personality is significantly influenced by the trait we focus on.

See more famous experiments in psychology

Psychology Discussion

Essay on social psychology: top 3 essays | branches | psychology.

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Here is an essay on ‘Social Psychology’ for class 9, 10, 11 and 12. Find paragraphs, long and short essays on ‘Social Psychology’ especially written for school and college students.

Essay # 1. Concept of Social Psychology:

Social psychology is concerned with the interactions between individuals or between individuals and groups. Thus, it is a study of the behaviour of persons in social situations. It is a study of the way in which an individual influences other individuals and the way in which he himself is influenced by other individuals.

The social interaction can take place in a face-to-face situation as when two friends or a parent and a child are interacting with each other. The traffic signals on the road also constitute a social situation.

When you want to cross the road, but see a red lamp burning ahead, you will immediately stop. You are now reacting to the red signal which is a communication to you “Stop! Don’t cross.” The person who has lost a dear person starts feeling sad when he sees some object belonging to the dead person. Thus, objects remind us of persons and make us react to them. In short, a social situation need not necessarily involve you and other persons; they may involve you and other objects which are signs of some previous experiences.

Interaction, thus, refers to a set of observable behaviours which take place in two or more persons. There is a sequence of behaviour; for example, as you are walking on the road you recognize the person coming from the opposite side. You immediately say “Good morning” and smile. The other person responds to you, smiles and says “Good morning.” When this sequence takes place one can say that there is interaction. Supposing he is absent-minded and does not see you or hear your greeting, obviously there is no interaction.

When a person responds to the other person there is “interpersonal influence;” he is influenced by the other person. It is a familiar fact that when you are walking on the road and there is a wrist watch on you which is visible, a stranger may ask you “What is the time?”

Though he is a stranger, you are influenced by his question and look at your watch and tell him the time.

When you are in a lecture hall and the lecturer makes some interesting remark, the audience responds with clapping. You spontaneously join in clapping. This is an illustration of imitation which was looked upon as the explanation of many forms of social or interpersonal behaviour by early social psychologists like Ross and McDougall. The concept of imitation is descriptive; it describes the interpersonal influence.

But it was assumed to be an explanatory concept. The child imitates his parents. When he goes to school he may imitate the teachers. As an adolescent, he imitates the peers or probably the film-stars.

Miller and Dollard (1941) try to “explain” the imitative behaviour by using the concept of “models.” Models tend to be superior to imitators in age, social status, intelligence or some other kind of competence. As Newcomb et al (1965) describe, imitative behaviour is an outcome of at least two psychological processes wanting something and perceiving that another person shows the way to get what is wanted.

Another kind of interpersonal influence is that in which there are simultaneous effects of two or more persons on each other, that is, where there are reciprocal effects. Long ago, the French sociologist, Gustave Le Bon (1896) wrote a book on the way in which groups of people influence one another and often thought, felt and acted in extreme ways which none of them would have done when they were alone.

At about the same time an American psychologist, Triplett (1897) reported one of the first experiments in social psychology on this problem. He took up forty children of ten to twelve years of age and asked them to wind fishing reels as fast as possible. He asked each child to work alone and also to work in a small group. He found that twenty children worked faster in a group than when they worked alone; ten of them worked slower when in a group than when alone; the remaining ten worked just as fast whether they worked alone or in a group.

Later on Allport (1924) and Dashiell (1930) conducted more carefully planned studies on the problem and obtained similar results. Allport called this phenomenon of reciprocal effects of interpersonal influence “social facilitation.” He attributed such energizing effects to “the sight and sound of others doing the same thing.”

The most striking instance of the reciprocal effects of sight and sound of others doing the same thing are to be seen in the “spiraling” excitement when a crowed of students on strike throw stones at policemen, break the windows of the college building or set fire to buses.

Instances of the same reciprocal effects with opposite effects were witnessed when large groups of students behaved in the most disciplined manner in the “Quit India” movement of 1942, when they were pledged to non-violence.

Competition introduces a further complexity to this phenomenon of social facilitation. Dashiell (1930) found that energizing effects were very great when the competitive attitudes were the strongest; they were weak when there was no competitive attitude. This study showed that the reciprocal effects cannot be attributed merely to increased stimulation arising out of sights and sounds.

These studies show the important part played by “attitudes” in social behaviour; the attitude of satyagraha inhibits crowd behaviour and enhances reciprocal control and promotes discipline and orderliness; the attitude of competition increases the reciprocal effects.

Interaction and Communication:

Human interaction is based on communication. The behaviour of one person, the messages that he sends by speaking are received by the other person and he responds to that message by another message which the first person receives and so on. The simplest everyday instance of such communication and interaction is the way in which two illiterate rustic persons interact with one another when they are angry.

It is sometimes seen in the shop when there are angry exchanges between the shop-man and the customer. Yet another illustration of such interaction is the mother-child behaviour. The child of ten to twelve months will get stimulated and will stimulate the mother in innumerable ways. We not only communicate our emotions to the other person, we also communicate information.

In fact, it is communication of the information that is most vital for the survival and promotion of culture. Sharing of information will make information the common property of the whole group, and thus enhances the cultural life of the group. It increases the store of information in each member of the group. Since one’s attitude toward anything depends on one’s store of information about it, sharing of information also enables the sharing of attitudes, though, of course, this is not always inevitable.

The Individual and the Group:

A group consists of many individuals, whether it is a family group, neighbourhood group, a functional group or a national group. One of the striking features of the various groups is their diversity. So it is always an interesting matter to determine the causes for such diversity in group characteristics and the relation of the characteristics of the individuals to the characteristics of the group.

The same individuals may be members of different groups, as for instance, two brothers or sisters are not only members of the same family, they may also be members of the same play group and of the same school group. Still, their behaviour as individuals will vary according to the difference in the groups.

The boy may endure any amount of physical pain as a member of the play group, but he will start shouting at the slightest pam in the house. One of the chief tasks of social psychology is to find put the reasons why groups differ in their characteristics and how individuals respond in one way when they are members of one group and in another way when they are members of another group.

The student who is quiet and mild as a member of the class may become very aggressive and turbulent as a member of the striker’s group outside the classroom.

A general idea of the interaction situation may be obtained from the following figure:

This figure suggests that the individual has his own motives and attitudes when he enters into the interaction process (arrow 1); each group has its own shared rules or norms which affect the interaction process (arrow 3). As a result of the interaction, the motives and attitudes of the individual may be affected and some change brought about in him (arrow 2).

The changes in the individuals who are interacting may bring about changes in the characteristics of the group (arrow 4). In brief, this is a simple way of depicting the complicated social situation where the groups influence the members through interaction and how the individuals can influence the group characteristics. This may be illustrated from the historical fact that Gandhi was able to bring about great changes in the Indian National Congress and in the nation as a whole during the eventful years from 1917 to 1920.

But it must also be borne in mind that he was greatly changed by the group characteristics. His methods of work in India at that period were quite different from his methods of work when he was carrying on the satyagraha campaigns in South Africa at an earlier period.

One of the central problems of social psychology, as noted above, is to study and understand the interaction processes between individuals, between individuals and groups and finally, between the groups themselves. But it must always be borne in mind that the group consists of individuals and our interest is in the study of the individuals who form the group.

Group Mind Concept is not Necessary:

Before we proceed further, a brief reference may be made to the hypothesis posited by earlier psychologists that there is a “group mind,” that the group is not a mere sum of the individual minds, but that a group has certain characteristics of its own and influences the individuals who are the members of the group.

Social Psychology is concerned not only with the behaviour of groups and with social situations but also with collective behaviour of groups. Many earlier thinkers who were concerned with collective behaviour postulated the concepts of “general will,” “collective consciousness,” “group mind” and so on.

Thinkers like Hegel (1770-1831), Auguste Comte (1798-1857) and Karl Marx (1818-1883) had stressed the fact that social structure determines the individual’s beliefs, attitudes etc. Some of them also stressed the fact that social groups have a continuity and unity and that each group manifests certain uniformities of behaviour through their customs and institutional practices.

McDougall (1920) used the term “group mind” and suggested that the concept is based on the following factors:

(1) Continuity, the members of the group must be aware of the origin of their group and its various characteristics;

(2) Self-consciousness, every member must feel that he is a part of the group;

(3) Interaction, there must be free exchange of ideas between the members of the group and there must be a common body of thought; and

(4) Tradition, the group must have certain traditions which are shared by each member.

He showed that each group like the nation or the army or the church has characteristics of its own based on the fact of organization. He held that the group mind can be viewed as an organization of the needs and purposes of individuals. He also asserted that a group has a mental life of its own which is not a mere sum of the mental lives of the individual members; he even went to the extent of asserting that the group mind has its own laws.

The danger in this hypothesis is that it is mystical, it assumes a super-mind over and above the individual minds. There is no basis for this assumption. It is true that an individual, as a member of a certain group, may behave in a particular way. But such behaviour can be explained without positing a mysterious “group mind” which compels people to behave in certain ways.

The concept of interaction helps us to understand the problem. There is no need to assume such a mystical concept as group mind to explain the phenomena.

Essay # 2. Relation of Social Psychology to Other Sciences :

The scope of social psychology may be clarified further by a brief description of its relation to other allied branches of study.

(a) Social Psychology and General Psychology:

Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour. The aim of general psychology is to study the behaviour of individuals in order to find out the laws which govern behaviour. It uses scientific methods to collect data in order to study behaviour. By using such methods a large body of knowledge concerning the processes of perception, memory, learning, imagination, thinking, intelligence, personality, has now been obtained.

But the individual lives and grows up in a group. In fact, man cannot live without other people. Men live in families, in groups, in communities and nations. It is the other people in the family who not only bring up the child but also give him the language he uses, the standards of his conduct and teach him the roles he has to play in life, by rewarding him when he does well and by punishing him when he does not.

The study of individual in his interactions with others is the task of social psychology. It is interested in the study of the formation of groups, how the groups come into conflict and how such conflicts are resolved. It is interested in the study of the way in which the group shapes the behaviour of the individuals and of how the behaviour and characteristics of that group itself are changed. The field of social psychology is primarily devoted to the understanding and the explanation of the basic psychological processes- thinking, striving, perceiving and learning as they occur in a social environment.

Thus, the main difference between general psychology and social psychology is that while the former studies behaviour of an individual in isolation, the latter studies behaviour of an individual in the social situation. Thus, the two studies are complementary. Just as the biologist studies the individual animal and just as the physiologist studies the body of the individual human being, the general psychologist also can study the behaviour of the individual irrespective of the group in which he has been brought up.

But social psychology extends our knowledge of the individual by studying his behaviour in the group situation, how he interacts with others and how he is influenced by the other people. From this point of view, social psychology is related more to other social sciences like sociology and cultural anthropology than to the biological sciences, while general psychology is related more to the biological sciences than to the social sciences.

For example, while general psychology is interested in the development of personality as such, social psychology is interested in the study of how personality is influenced by the social environment and the social processes.

Social psychology is interested in the study of how the innate needs of man are modified by the social and cultural influences, how social learning takes place and how an individual becomes a typical member of a group so that he not only speaks the particular language of the group in which he has been brought up but also develops attitudes prevailing in the group and cherishes the values of that group; how he acquires the prejudices of the group and develops hostility to the other groups.

(b) Social Psychology and Sociology:

The aim of sociology is to study society and social organization, how human beings create and recreate an organization which guides and controls their behaviour. Its main concern is to study how society is organized, how it changes and how really fundamental changes in society are resisted.

Sociology studies how society as an organization liberates as well as limits the activities of its members, how it sets up standards which the members must follow and maintain. It studies society as a system of usages and procedures, of authority and mutual aid, and how it controls human behaviour.

Sociology studies social relationships, and how social relationships change, and how the individual depends on the society for his protection, comfort, education, equipment and opportunity. Human beings live in groups, in communities or nations. In fact, it is possible for a person to find all satisfactions in the tribe or the village or the city; he can find all his social relationships and satisfactions within the community.

But modern civilization has released forces which have broken down the self-containedness of the communities. The task of sociology is to study how in the tribal and other forms of group relationships, groups are self-contained and how technological changes in modern times have affected such relationships.

Thus, the main difference between sociology and social psychology lies in this approach; while sociology is interested in the social relationships themselves, social psychology is interested in the individuals who enter into social relationships. The difference thus lies in the focus. The focus of social psychology is on the attitudes, the subjective reactions of individuals to institutions, while the focus of sociology is in the institutions them-selves like the family, the community, the caste, the social class etc.

Every social relationship involves attitudes on the part of the individuals who enter into such a relationship. Two persons may be friendly in their attitude to each other or indifferent or hostile. Thus, the relationship between the two persons is obviously influenced by the attitude which each has towards the other.

Similarly, the group as a whole may develop attitudes towards the other groups. When there is a border dispute between two states in India, one group becomes hostile to the other group and social tensions and social conflicts arise. Whether the groups are kinship groups, village groups, linguistic groups, communal groups or national groups, they develop attitudes of friendliness or indifference or hostility towards other such groups.

Inter-tribal conflicts, inter-village conflicts or international conflicts arise out of such hostile attitudes. Similarly friendly attitudes within the group or between groups promote group cooperation. The task of social psychology is to study such attitudes, how they arise, how they change or how they may resist any kind of change. On the other hand, sociology is more interested in the social relationships and social institutions. It is obvious that both the sciences help in understanding social reality.

The cultural anthropologists are interested in the social institutions, the mores and beliefs of tribal societies. According to the anthropologist, all that a group of people have created, whether it is an artifact or a taboo, an implement to work or a mode of worship, in short, whether they are physical objects, or social and religious ideas or relationships, they all form “a culture.”

Thus, for the anthropologist, culture signifies the total social heritage of mankind. In their study of tribal groups, the anthropologists have become acutely aware of the intimate relation between the individuals and the culture itself. They have come to realize that the understanding of the personality of the individual belonging to a culture as well as the culture complex of which the individual is a part demands a careful analysis of the ways in which the two are interrelated.

In other words, the cultural anthropologists have shown that personality and culture are not only interrelated but are interdependent. Thus, we see the resemblances and differences between social psychology and cultural anthropology. Studies in cultural anthropology have shown how the perceptions and learning’s of an individual are closely determined by the cultural background.

Thus, the factual data collected by the anthropologists are of immense help in understanding how the individual behaviour and personality are determined by the social and cultural influences. On the other hand, social psychology helps in understanding some of the cultural problems like superstitious beliefs, magic, etc.

(d) Social Sciences and Behavioural Sciences:

The term social science is relatively old. It includes six disciplines: history, economics, political science, anthropology, psychology and sociology. History is also a part of humanities like philosophy. Psychology is also a biological science. Anthropology is both a biological science and a social science. Economics though a social science is linked with the professional subjects like commerce and business administration.

Similarly though political science is a social science, it is linked on the one side with history and on the other with professional subjects like public administration and law. Because of these varied interrelations between the six disciplines which constitute the social sciences, with humanities on the one hand, and professional schools on the other, the term behavioural sciences came into usage to distinguish those social sciences which are concerned with observable human behaviour and which can be studied by the use of objective scientific methods from the other social sciences which cannot be so studied.

As a result, cultural anthropology, sociology, and social psychology are now looked upon as three behavioural sciences. All these three sciences, though social, are based on observable human behaviour and can be studied by using objective scientific methods. The aim of behavioural sciences is to establish generalizations about human behaviour which are supported by empirical evidence, collected in an impersonal and objective way.

The evidence must be capable of verification by other scientists; the procedures must be completely open to review and replication. The ultimate end of the behavioural sciences is to understand, explain and predict human behaviour in the same way in which physical forces and biological entities are explained and predicted.

The distinction between behavioural sciences and social sciences is that the behavioural sciences are devoted to the collection of original data based on direct observation of behaviour of individuals or groups, while the social sciences are based on indirect and documentary evidence.

Historically, the behaviouristic approach in psychology started in 1913 when the American psychologist Watson initiated his vigorous propaganda against introspection and the concepts of mind, consciousness, etc. He believed that by studying objectively the behaviour of animals and men it is possible to build up the science of psychology in the same way as the other physical, chemical and biological sciences which use only objective methods in their studies.

In a broad way it may be said that it was Floyd Allport who used the behaviouristic methods in Social Psychology in 1924. It was he who established experimentally how individuals are stimulated to greater productivity when working at the same task in close proximity to others.

During the Second World War many contributions to the understanding of group behaviour were made by objective studies of behaviour, by Kurt Lewin, Stouffer of “American Soldier” Studies and others. It may be said that the term behavioural sciences came into vogue during and after the Second World War. An outstanding event was the establishment of the Centre for Advanced Study in the Behavioural Sciences near the Stanford University in California in 1952, by the Ford Foundation.

Essay # 3. Methods of Study Used in Social Psychology:

As noted above Social Psychology collects its facts by observation and experiment. Considerable attention is being given to the collection of data by conducting surveys as well as by conducting experiments using design of experiments. Further, attempts are being made to measure the various aspects of social behaviour and to use statistical methods in the analysis of the data collected.

1. Observation:

Observation of individuals in their interactions with each other suggests hypotheses to be tested. Observation also yields data. Many methods and techniques have been devised to observe the social behaviour of children when they are at play. In order to make the data from observation quantitative the “rating” method is used.

For example, a five-point scale may be used to determine the aggressiveness of a child when he is playing with other children. If he is not aggressive at all, the score ‘one’ may be given and if he is highly aggressive the score ‘five’ may be given. In order to make the data derived from observation more objective a team of two or three observers may be trained and asked to observe the same group independent of each other and then the results are pooled and scores in aggressiveness.

Further, time samples may be taken; that is, the same group of children may be observed on, let us say, ten occasions, for ten minutes each time. Like this the method of simple observation could be refined in many ways to give reliable data.

2. Interview:

The interview is a face-to-face meeting in which the opinions, beliefs, etc., may be collected. The primary object of the interview is to obtain verbal expressions from the person in reply to some well-framed questions. To yield data of value the interview has to be very carefully planned and conducted in a standardized manner.

The questions have to be drawn up in advance and they must be tried out on a few persons to find out if they can elicit the required information. The value of the interview also depends upon the qualifications and the training of the interviewer. He should be a dependable person so that the person interviewed has confidence in him and express his opinions freely and frankly.

The Questionnaire is a written form of interview. The questions can be framed in advance and pretexted. Later on the questions can be printed and information can be obtained on a group of persons at the same time. Thus, the questionnaire is less time-consuming than the interview.

Further, the answers to each question are written down by the subjects themselves. Each method has got its own advantages and disadvantages. Questionnaires may be used to study interests, opinions and so on. The defect of this method is that further probing into the responses is not possible. This is why the questionnaire survey is generally supplemented by interview of some cases.

3. Methods of Survey:

Surveys involve the construction of questionnaires which are administered by interviewers to representative samples of the public. The industrialists spend considerable amounts of money on what is called “market research,” which involves survey techniques. Their aim is to find out the potential market for their goods and the acceptability of their product.

Similarly, newspapers conduct opinion polls in order to find out the views of people regarding the various issues before the public. Newspapers may also conduct readership surveys in order to find out what age-group and income-group of people read their paper; what is the education level of their readers; what are the items of the paper people generally read and so on.

The ratio authorities conduct surveys to find out the time at which, most people listen to the radio, what programmes they listen, how long they will listen, and so on. In recent years All India Radio has introduced the commercials in the Vividh Bharati programme. The charges for the commercials depend not only on the duration of the programme but also on the time at which the announcements are made.

The cost will depend on the surveys regarding listenership. Surveys are also conducted for theoretical research. Many illustrations will be given later on. The important aspects of the survey research technique are sampling, questionnaire design, and interviewing technique.

There are two principal methods of getting a sample of respondents:

(a) The probability method; all geographical units in the population are put on punch cards and a sample of such communities are drawn at random, mechanically; all the households in each area of the city, for example, are listed; just a few of these households are selected at random for interview.

Since the selection of the households is at random and unbiased, this procedure guarantees that each household in the population will have an equal chance of being included in the sample. This method is indeed very good; but it involves considerable work. The National Sample Survey of India is a huge organization that has been set up in order to conduct surveys regarding many problems of vital interest to the society like unemployment, consumer expenditure savings, etc.

The national census operation conducted once in ten years is also a survey technique, but it does not use the sampling technique; it enumerates each household in the country. Statistical studies show that sampling techniques give as much information, probably with greater exactitude, than the complete enumeration technique.

(b) The second method of sampling frequently used is called “quota sampling.” Neighbourhoods are’ chosen at random, but the selection of the household in each area is left to the discretion of the interviewer himself; but he is given a pre-assigned proportion of males and females, old and young, rich and poor, educated and illiterate and so on. This method is cheaper and quicker than the probability method.

The design of the questionnaire, as noted above, is an art; similarly the interviewing is also an art. The questions have to be pretested and the interviewers have to be trained thoroughly.

4. Measurement:

While observation depends on seeing and recording and survey techniques depend on interviewing and recording, measurement goes a step further and assigns numbers to the events in accordance with certain rules. Measurement implies the mapping of observations into a number system; when this is done the resulting values can be added, multiplied, and so on.

As an illustration of measurement, a brief description of Vineland Social Maturity scale developed by Doll may be given. He tried to develop a scale to measure the social development of children. The instrument consists of a series of rating scales arranged in a developmental sequence, grouped according to the age at which they appear typically. With the help of this scale it is possible to compute the child’s “social age” and find out whether the child of a given chronological age is at the average level, above it, or below it in social development.

A second illustration of measurement may be given from the field of attitude measurement. One of the simplest ways of measuring attitude is that developed by Bogardus. In 1925 he devised the “social distance scale.”

He asked each person tested whether he would admit a member of a given group to the most intimate social relationship, namely, kinship by marriage, or to more distant social relationships like being a neighbour on the same street or being a citizen of the country or exclude him even from visiting the country. (For example, South Africans are refused visas to enter India.) There are many other methods of measuring attitudes toward “conservatism radicalism” and so on.

A third illustration is Moreno’s sociometric test which attempts to measure popularity. It is well known that work will be efficient when the work is done in a group by people who like each other. If they do not like each other, the group will be riddled with tensions and quarrels. Moreno devised the test for schoolroom situation.

He asked each boy in the class to name three boys with whom he would like to play some game, or go out for a picnic, and so on. On the basis of the choices it is possible to construct what is called a “sociogram.” This will indicate the boy who is most popular in the class room by receiving the highest number of choices and the boy who is neglected or rejected. This technique is now being used in work situations also.

5. Experimental Method:

An experiment is observation under controlled conditions. The essence of an experiment is that it can be repeated at will and that it enables the observation being made under varying conditions. In an experiment the investigator arranges the situation in a way that certain factors are kept constant and certain others are varied. Every situation is made up of a number of conditions which are called ‘variables.’

When the experimenter is in a position to introduce a variable, or vary it in intensity, etc., he has a perfect control of the whole situation. It is true that the subject of study of social psychology is highly complex and that the conditions of social interaction are very complicated. To overcome these difficulties the social psychologist uses the “control group” technique.

The procedure is to take one group and divide it into two groups so that in as many variables as possible the two groups are similar. For example, one class of students in one school may be divided into two groups using the variables of, let us say, class marks, intelligence, etc. Let us assume that the task is to reduce prejudice towards Harijans or Muslims. An attitude test is first given and the class is divided into two similar groups.

One groups, called the ‘experimental’ group, is asked to discuss the problem of social equality. The other group does not have any such experience. After some sessions the two groups are again given the attitude test.

If the experimental group shows a lower measure of prejudice against the Harijans than the control group and if the data submitted to statistical calculation show that the difference is quite significant, then it is possible to say that discussion of a problem, the dependent variable, reduces the prejudice, the independent variable. Attention may be drawn to the experiment conducted long ago to study the effect of group situation upon the performance of some tasks noted earlier.

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What Is a Case Study?

Weighing the pros and cons of this method of research

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Cara Lustik is a fact-checker and copywriter.

Verywell / Colleen Tighe

Pros and Cons

What Types of Case Studies Are Out There?

Where do you find data for a case study, how do i write a psychology case study.

A case study is an in-depth study of one person, group, or event. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes of behavior. Case studies can be used in many different fields, including psychology, medicine, education, anthropology, political science, and social work.

The point of a case study is to learn as much as possible about an individual or group so that the information can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective, and it is sometimes difficult to generalize results to a larger population.

While case studies focus on a single individual or group, they follow a format similar to other types of psychology writing. If you are writing a case study, we got you—here are some rules of APA format to reference.

At a Glance

A case study, or an in-depth study of a person, group, or event, can be a useful research tool when used wisely. In many cases, case studies are best used in situations where it would be difficult or impossible for you to conduct an experiment. They are helpful for looking at unique situations and allow researchers to gather a lot of˜ information about a specific individual or group of people. However, it's important to be cautious of any bias we draw from them as they are highly subjective.

What Are the Benefits and Limitations of Case Studies?

A case study can have its strengths and weaknesses. Researchers must consider these pros and cons before deciding if this type of study is appropriate for their needs.

One of the greatest advantages of a case study is that it allows researchers to investigate things that are often difficult or impossible to replicate in a lab. Some other benefits of a case study:

Allows researchers to capture information on the 'how,' 'what,' and 'why,' of something that's implemented
Gives researchers the chance to collect information on why one strategy might be chosen over another
Permits researchers to develop hypotheses that can be explored in experimental research

On the other hand, a case study can have some drawbacks:

It cannot necessarily be generalized to the larger population
Cannot demonstrate cause and effect
It may not be scientifically rigorous
It can lead to bias

Researchers may choose to perform a case study if they want to explore a unique or recently discovered phenomenon. Through their insights, researchers develop additional ideas and study questions that might be explored in future studies.

It's important to remember that the insights from case studies cannot be used to determine cause-and-effect relationships between variables. However, case studies may be used to develop hypotheses that can then be addressed in experimental research.

Case Study Examples

There have been a number of notable case studies in the history of psychology. Much of Freud's work and theories were developed through individual case studies. Some great examples of case studies in psychology include:

Anna O : Anna O. was a pseudonym of a woman named Bertha Pappenheim, a patient of a physician named Josef Breuer. While she was never a patient of Freud's, Freud and Breuer discussed her case extensively. The woman was experiencing symptoms of a condition that was then known as hysteria and found that talking about her problems helped relieve her symptoms. Her case played an important part in the development of talk therapy as an approach to mental health treatment.
Phineas Gage : Phineas Gage was a railroad employee who experienced a terrible accident in which an explosion sent a metal rod through his skull, damaging important portions of his brain. Gage recovered from his accident but was left with serious changes in both personality and behavior.
Genie : Genie was a young girl subjected to horrific abuse and isolation. The case study of Genie allowed researchers to study whether language learning was possible, even after missing critical periods for language development. Her case also served as an example of how scientific research may interfere with treatment and lead to further abuse of vulnerable individuals.

Such cases demonstrate how case research can be used to study things that researchers could not replicate in experimental settings. In Genie's case, her horrific abuse denied her the opportunity to learn a language at critical points in her development.

This is clearly not something researchers could ethically replicate, but conducting a case study on Genie allowed researchers to study phenomena that are otherwise impossible to reproduce.

There are a few different types of case studies that psychologists and other researchers might use:

Collective case studies : These involve studying a group of individuals. Researchers might study a group of people in a certain setting or look at an entire community. For example, psychologists might explore how access to resources in a community has affected the collective mental well-being of those who live there.
Descriptive case studies : These involve starting with a descriptive theory. The subjects are then observed, and the information gathered is compared to the pre-existing theory.
Explanatory case studies : These are often used to do causal investigations. In other words, researchers are interested in looking at factors that may have caused certain things to occur.
Exploratory case studies : These are sometimes used as a prelude to further, more in-depth research. This allows researchers to gather more information before developing their research questions and hypotheses .
Instrumental case studies : These occur when the individual or group allows researchers to understand more than what is initially obvious to observers.
Intrinsic case studies : This type of case study is when the researcher has a personal interest in the case. Jean Piaget's observations of his own children are good examples of how an intrinsic case study can contribute to the development of a psychological theory.

The three main case study types often used are intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. Intrinsic case studies are useful for learning about unique cases. Instrumental case studies help look at an individual to learn more about a broader issue. A collective case study can be useful for looking at several cases simultaneously.

The type of case study that psychology researchers use depends on the unique characteristics of the situation and the case itself.

There are a number of different sources and methods that researchers can use to gather information about an individual or group. Six major sources that have been identified by researchers are:

Archival records : Census records, survey records, and name lists are examples of archival records.
Direct observation : This strategy involves observing the subject, often in a natural setting . While an individual observer is sometimes used, it is more common to utilize a group of observers.
Documents : Letters, newspaper articles, administrative records, etc., are the types of documents often used as sources.
Interviews : Interviews are one of the most important methods for gathering information in case studies. An interview can involve structured survey questions or more open-ended questions.
Participant observation : When the researcher serves as a participant in events and observes the actions and outcomes, it is called participant observation.
Physical artifacts : Tools, objects, instruments, and other artifacts are often observed during a direct observation of the subject.

If you have been directed to write a case study for a psychology course, be sure to check with your instructor for any specific guidelines you need to follow. If you are writing your case study for a professional publication, check with the publisher for their specific guidelines for submitting a case study.

Here is a general outline of what should be included in a case study.

Section 1: A Case History

This section will have the following structure and content:

Background information : The first section of your paper will present your client's background. Include factors such as age, gender, work, health status, family mental health history, family and social relationships, drug and alcohol history, life difficulties, goals, and coping skills and weaknesses.

Description of the presenting problem : In the next section of your case study, you will describe the problem or symptoms that the client presented with.

Describe any physical, emotional, or sensory symptoms reported by the client. Thoughts, feelings, and perceptions related to the symptoms should also be noted. Any screening or diagnostic assessments that are used should also be described in detail and all scores reported.

Your diagnosis : Provide your diagnosis and give the appropriate Diagnostic and Statistical Manual code. Explain how you reached your diagnosis, how the client's symptoms fit the diagnostic criteria for the disorder(s), or any possible difficulties in reaching a diagnosis.

Section 2: Treatment Plan

This portion of the paper will address the chosen treatment for the condition. This might also include the theoretical basis for the chosen treatment or any other evidence that might exist to support why this approach was chosen.

Cognitive behavioral approach : Explain how a cognitive behavioral therapist would approach treatment. Offer background information on cognitive behavioral therapy and describe the treatment sessions, client response, and outcome of this type of treatment. Make note of any difficulties or successes encountered by your client during treatment.
Humanistic approach : Describe a humanistic approach that could be used to treat your client, such as client-centered therapy . Provide information on the type of treatment you chose, the client's reaction to the treatment, and the end result of this approach. Explain why the treatment was successful or unsuccessful.
Psychoanalytic approach : Describe how a psychoanalytic therapist would view the client's problem. Provide some background on the psychoanalytic approach and cite relevant references. Explain how psychoanalytic therapy would be used to treat the client, how the client would respond to therapy, and the effectiveness of this treatment approach.
Pharmacological approach : If treatment primarily involves the use of medications, explain which medications were used and why. Provide background on the effectiveness of these medications and how monotherapy may compare with an approach that combines medications with therapy or other treatments.

This section of a case study should also include information about the treatment goals, process, and outcomes.

When you are writing a case study, you should also include a section where you discuss the case study itself, including the strengths and limitiations of the study. You should note how the findings of your case study might support previous research.

In your discussion section, you should also describe some of the implications of your case study. What ideas or findings might require further exploration? How might researchers go about exploring some of these questions in additional studies?

Need More Tips?

Here are a few additional pointers to keep in mind when formatting your case study:

Never refer to the subject of your case study as "the client." Instead, use their name or a pseudonym.
Read examples of case studies to gain an idea about the style and format.
Remember to use APA format when citing references .

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach . BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011;11:100.

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach . BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011 Jun 27;11:100. doi:10.1186/1471-2288-11-100

Gagnon, Yves-Chantal. The Case Study as Research Method: A Practical Handbook . Canada, Chicago Review Press Incorporated DBA Independent Pub Group, 2010.

Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . United States, SAGE Publications, 2017.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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