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How To Write A Dissertation Or Thesis

8 straightforward steps to craft an a-grade dissertation.

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) Expert Reviewed By: Dr Eunice Rautenbach | June 2020

Writing a dissertation or thesis is not a simple task. It takes time, energy and a lot of will power to get you across the finish line. It’s not easy – but it doesn’t necessarily need to be a painful process. If you understand the big-picture process of how to write a dissertation or thesis, your research journey will be a lot smoother.  

In this post, I’m going to outline the big-picture process of how to write a high-quality dissertation or thesis, without losing your mind along the way. If you’re just starting your research, this post is perfect for you. Alternatively, if you’ve already submitted your proposal, this article which covers how to structure a dissertation might be more helpful.

How To Write A Dissertation: 8 Steps

• Clearly understand what a dissertation (or thesis) is
• Find a unique and valuable research topic
• Craft a convincing research proposal
• Write up a strong introduction chapter
• Review the existing literature and compile a literature review
• Design a rigorous research strategy and undertake your own research
• Present the findings of your research
• Draw a conclusion and discuss the implications

Step 1: Understand exactly what a dissertation is

This probably sounds like a no-brainer, but all too often, students come to us for help with their research and the underlying issue is that they don’t fully understand what a dissertation (or thesis) actually is.

So, what is a dissertation?

At its simplest, a dissertation or thesis is a formal piece of research , reflecting the standard research process . But what is the standard research process, you ask? The research process involves 4 key steps:

• Ask a very specific, well-articulated question (s) (your research topic)
• See what other researchers have said about it (if they’ve already answered it)
• If they haven’t answered it adequately, undertake your own data collection and analysis in a scientifically rigorous fashion
• Answer your original question(s), based on your analysis findings

In short, the research process is simply about asking and answering questions in a systematic fashion . This probably sounds pretty obvious, but people often think they’ve done “research”, when in fact what they have done is:

• Started with a vague, poorly articulated question
• Not taken the time to see what research has already been done regarding the question
• Collected data and opinions that support their gut and undertaken a flimsy analysis
• Drawn a shaky conclusion, based on that analysis

If you want to see the perfect example of this in action, look out for the next Facebook post where someone claims they’ve done “research”… All too often, people consider reading a few blog posts to constitute research. Its no surprise then that what they end up with is an opinion piece, not research. Okay, okay – I’ll climb off my soapbox now.

The key takeaway here is that a dissertation (or thesis) is a formal piece of research, reflecting the research process. It’s not an opinion piece , nor a place to push your agenda or try to convince someone of your position. Writing a good dissertation involves asking a question and taking a systematic, rigorous approach to answering it.

If you understand this and are comfortable leaving your opinions or preconceived ideas at the door, you’re already off to a good start!

Step 2: Find a unique, valuable research topic

As we saw, the first step of the research process is to ask a specific, well-articulated question. In other words, you need to find a research topic that asks a specific question or set of questions (these are called research questions ). Sounds easy enough, right? All you’ve got to do is identify a question or two and you’ve got a winning research topic. Well, not quite…

A good dissertation or thesis topic has a few important attributes. Specifically, a solid research topic should be:

Let’s take a closer look at these:

Attribute #1: Clear

Your research topic needs to be crystal clear about what you’re planning to research, what you want to know, and within what context. There shouldn’t be any ambiguity or vagueness about what you’ll research.

Here’s an example of a clearly articulated research topic:

An analysis of consumer-based factors influencing organisational trust in British low-cost online equity brokerage firms.

As you can see in the example, its crystal clear what will be analysed (factors impacting organisational trust), amongst who (consumers) and in what context (British low-cost equity brokerage firms, based online).

Need a helping hand?

Attribute #2:   Unique

Your research should be asking a question(s) that hasn’t been asked before, or that hasn’t been asked in a specific context (for example, in a specific country or industry).

For example, sticking organisational trust topic above, it’s quite likely that organisational trust factors in the UK have been investigated before, but the context (online low-cost equity brokerages) could make this research unique. Therefore, the context makes this research original.

One caveat when using context as the basis for originality – you need to have a good reason to suspect that your findings in this context might be different from the existing research – otherwise, there’s no reason to warrant researching it.

Attribute #3: Important

Simply asking a unique or original question is not enough – the question needs to create value. In other words, successfully answering your research questions should provide some value to the field of research or the industry. You can’t research something just to satisfy your curiosity. It needs to make some form of contribution either to research or industry.

For example, researching the factors influencing consumer trust would create value by enabling businesses to tailor their operations and marketing to leverage factors that promote trust. In other words, it would have a clear benefit to industry.

So, how do you go about finding a unique and valuable research topic? We explain that in detail in this video post – How To Find A Research Topic . Yeah, we’ve got you covered 😊

Step 3: Write a convincing research proposal

Once you’ve pinned down a high-quality research topic, the next step is to convince your university to let you research it. No matter how awesome you think your topic is, it still needs to get the rubber stamp before you can move forward with your research. The research proposal is the tool you’ll use for this job.

So, what’s in a research proposal?

The main “job” of a research proposal is to convince your university, advisor or committee that your research topic is worthy of approval. But convince them of what? Well, this varies from university to university, but generally, they want to see that:

• You have a clearly articulated, unique and important topic (this might sound familiar…)
• You’ve done some initial reading of the existing literature relevant to your topic (i.e. a literature review)
• You have a provisional plan in terms of how you will collect data and analyse it (i.e. a methodology)

At the proposal stage, it’s (generally) not expected that you’ve extensively reviewed the existing literature , but you will need to show that you’ve done enough reading to identify a clear gap for original (unique) research. Similarly, they generally don’t expect that you have a rock-solid research methodology mapped out, but you should have an idea of whether you’ll be undertaking qualitative or quantitative analysis , and how you’ll collect your data (we’ll discuss this in more detail later).

Long story short – don’t stress about having every detail of your research meticulously thought out at the proposal stage – this will develop as you progress through your research. However, you do need to show that you’ve “done your homework” and that your research is worthy of approval .

So, how do you go about crafting a high-quality, convincing proposal? We cover that in detail in this video post – How To Write A Top-Class Research Proposal . We’ve also got a video walkthrough of two proposal examples here .

Step 4: Craft a strong introduction chapter

Once your proposal’s been approved, its time to get writing your actual dissertation or thesis! The good news is that if you put the time into crafting a high-quality proposal, you’ve already got a head start on your first three chapters – introduction, literature review and methodology – as you can use your proposal as the basis for these.

Handy sidenote – our free dissertation & thesis template is a great way to speed up your dissertation writing journey.

What’s the introduction chapter all about?

The purpose of the introduction chapter is to set the scene for your research (dare I say, to introduce it…) so that the reader understands what you’ll be researching and why it’s important. In other words, it covers the same ground as the research proposal in that it justifies your research topic.

What goes into the introduction chapter?

This can vary slightly between universities and degrees, but generally, the introduction chapter will include the following:

• A brief background to the study, explaining the overall area of research
• A problem statement , explaining what the problem is with the current state of research (in other words, where the knowledge gap exists)
• Your research questions – in other words, the specific questions your study will seek to answer (based on the knowledge gap)
• The significance of your study – in other words, why it’s important and how its findings will be useful in the world

As you can see, this all about explaining the “what” and the “why” of your research (as opposed to the “how”). So, your introduction chapter is basically the salesman of your study, “selling” your research to the first-time reader and (hopefully) getting them interested to read more.

How do I write the introduction chapter, you ask? We cover that in detail in this post .

Step 5: Undertake an in-depth literature review

As I mentioned earlier, you’ll need to do some initial review of the literature in Steps 2 and 3 to find your research gap and craft a convincing research proposal – but that’s just scratching the surface. Once you reach the literature review stage of your dissertation or thesis, you need to dig a lot deeper into the existing research and write up a comprehensive literature review chapter.

What’s the literature review all about?

There are two main stages in the literature review process:

Literature Review Step 1: Reading up

The first stage is for you to deep dive into the existing literature (journal articles, textbook chapters, industry reports, etc) to gain an in-depth understanding of the current state of research regarding your topic. While you don’t need to read every single article, you do need to ensure that you cover all literature that is related to your core research questions, and create a comprehensive catalogue of that literature , which you’ll use in the next step.

Reading and digesting all the relevant literature is a time consuming and intellectually demanding process. Many students underestimate just how much work goes into this step, so make sure that you allocate a good amount of time for this when planning out your research. Thankfully, there are ways to fast track the process – be sure to check out this article covering how to read journal articles quickly .

Literature Review Step 2: Writing up

Once you’ve worked through the literature and digested it all, you’ll need to write up your literature review chapter. Many students make the mistake of thinking that the literature review chapter is simply a summary of what other researchers have said. While this is partly true, a literature review is much more than just a summary. To pull off a good literature review chapter, you’ll need to achieve at least 3 things:

• You need to synthesise the existing research , not just summarise it. In other words, you need to show how different pieces of theory fit together, what’s agreed on by researchers, what’s not.
• You need to highlight a research gap that your research is going to fill. In other words, you’ve got to outline the problem so that your research topic can provide a solution.
• You need to use the existing research to inform your methodology and approach to your own research design. For example, you might use questions or Likert scales from previous studies in your your own survey design .

As you can see, a good literature review is more than just a summary of the published research. It’s the foundation on which your own research is built, so it deserves a lot of love and attention. Take the time to craft a comprehensive literature review with a suitable structure .

But, how do I actually write the literature review chapter, you ask? We cover that in detail in this video post .

Step 6: Carry out your own research

Once you’ve completed your literature review and have a sound understanding of the existing research, its time to develop your own research (finally!). You’ll design this research specifically so that you can find the answers to your unique research question.

There are two steps here – designing your research strategy and executing on it:

1 – Design your research strategy

The first step is to design your research strategy and craft a methodology chapter . I won’t get into the technicalities of the methodology chapter here, but in simple terms, this chapter is about explaining the “how” of your research. If you recall, the introduction and literature review chapters discussed the “what” and the “why”, so it makes sense that the next point to cover is the “how” –that’s what the methodology chapter is all about.

In this section, you’ll need to make firm decisions about your research design. This includes things like:

• Your research philosophy (e.g. positivism or interpretivism )
• Your overall methodology (e.g. qualitative , quantitative or mixed methods)
• Your data collection strategy (e.g. interviews , focus groups, surveys)
• Your data analysis strategy (e.g. content analysis , correlation analysis, regression)

If these words have got your head spinning, don’t worry! We’ll explain these in plain language in other posts. It’s not essential that you understand the intricacies of research design (yet!). The key takeaway here is that you’ll need to make decisions about how you’ll design your own research, and you’ll need to describe (and justify) your decisions in your methodology chapter.

2 – Execute: Collect and analyse your data

Once you’ve worked out your research design, you’ll put it into action and start collecting your data. This might mean undertaking interviews, hosting an online survey or any other data collection method. Data collection can take quite a bit of time (especially if you host in-person interviews), so be sure to factor sufficient time into your project plan for this. Oftentimes, things don’t go 100% to plan (for example, you don’t get as many survey responses as you hoped for), so bake a little extra time into your budget here.

Once you’ve collected your data, you’ll need to do some data preparation before you can sink your teeth into the analysis. For example:

• If you carry out interviews or focus groups, you’ll need to transcribe your audio data to text (i.e. a Word document).
• If you collect quantitative survey data, you’ll need to clean up your data and get it into the right format for whichever analysis software you use (for example, SPSS, R or STATA).

Once you’ve completed your data prep, you’ll undertake your analysis, using the techniques that you described in your methodology. Depending on what you find in your analysis, you might also do some additional forms of analysis that you hadn’t planned for. For example, you might see something in the data that raises new questions or that requires clarification with further analysis.

The type(s) of analysis that you’ll use depend entirely on the nature of your research and your research questions. For example:

• If your research if exploratory in nature, you’ll often use qualitative analysis techniques .
• If your research is confirmatory in nature, you’ll often use quantitative analysis techniques
• If your research involves a mix of both, you might use a mixed methods approach

Again, if these words have got your head spinning, don’t worry! We’ll explain these concepts and techniques in other posts. The key takeaway is simply that there’s no “one size fits all” for research design and methodology – it all depends on your topic, your research questions and your data. So, don’t be surprised if your study colleagues take a completely different approach to yours.

Step 7: Present your findings

Once you’ve completed your analysis, it’s time to present your findings (finally!). In a dissertation or thesis, you’ll typically present your findings in two chapters – the results chapter and the discussion chapter .

What’s the difference between the results chapter and the discussion chapter?

While these two chapters are similar, the results chapter generally just presents the processed data neatly and clearly without interpretation, while the discussion chapter explains the story the data are telling  – in other words, it provides your interpretation of the results.

For example, if you were researching the factors that influence consumer trust, you might have used a quantitative approach to identify the relationship between potential factors (e.g. perceived integrity and competence of the organisation) and consumer trust. In this case:

• Your results chapter would just present the results of the statistical tests. For example, correlation results or differences between groups. In other words, the processed numbers.
• Your discussion chapter would explain what the numbers mean in relation to your research question(s). For example, Factor 1 has a weak relationship with consumer trust, while Factor 2 has a strong relationship.

Depending on the university and degree, these two chapters (results and discussion) are sometimes merged into one , so be sure to check with your institution what their preference is. Regardless of the chapter structure, this section is about presenting the findings of your research in a clear, easy to understand fashion.

Importantly, your discussion here needs to link back to your research questions (which you outlined in the introduction or literature review chapter). In other words, it needs to answer the key questions you asked (or at least attempt to answer them).

For example, if we look at the sample research topic:

In this case, the discussion section would clearly outline which factors seem to have a noteworthy influence on organisational trust. By doing so, they are answering the overarching question and fulfilling the purpose of the research .

For more information about the results chapter , check out this post for qualitative studies and this post for quantitative studies .

Step 8: The Final Step Draw a conclusion and discuss the implications

Last but not least, you’ll need to wrap up your research with the conclusion chapter . In this chapter, you’ll bring your research full circle by highlighting the key findings of your study and explaining what the implications of these findings are.

What exactly are key findings? The key findings are those findings which directly relate to your original research questions and overall research objectives (which you discussed in your introduction chapter). The implications, on the other hand, explain what your findings mean for industry, or for research in your area.

Sticking with the consumer trust topic example, the conclusion might look something like this:

Key findings

This study set out to identify which factors influence consumer-based trust in British low-cost online equity brokerage firms. The results suggest that the following factors have a large impact on consumer trust:

While the following factors have a very limited impact on consumer trust:

Notably, within the 25-30 age groups, Factors E had a noticeably larger impact, which may be explained by…

Implications

The findings having noteworthy implications for British low-cost online equity brokers. Specifically:

The large impact of Factors X and Y implies that brokers need to consider….

The limited impact of Factor E implies that brokers need to…

As you can see, the conclusion chapter is basically explaining the “what” (what your study found) and the “so what?” (what the findings mean for the industry or research). This brings the study full circle and closes off the document.

Let’s recap – how to write a dissertation or thesis

You’re still with me? Impressive! I know that this post was a long one, but hopefully you’ve learnt a thing or two about how to write a dissertation or thesis, and are now better equipped to start your own research.

To recap, the 8 steps to writing a quality dissertation (or thesis) are as follows:

• Understand what a dissertation (or thesis) is – a research project that follows the research process.
• Find a unique (original) and important research topic
• Craft a convincing dissertation or thesis research proposal
• Write a clear, compelling introduction chapter
• Undertake a thorough review of the existing research and write up a literature review
• Undertake your own research
• Present and interpret your findings

Once you’ve wrapped up the core chapters, all that’s typically left is the abstract , reference list and appendices. As always, be sure to check with your university if they have any additional requirements in terms of structure or content.  

Psst... there’s more!

This post was based on one of our popular Research Bootcamps . If you're working on a research project, you'll definitely want to check this out ...

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20 Comments

thankfull >>>this is very useful

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Great to hear that – thanks for the feedback. Good luck writing your dissertation/thesis.

This is the most comprehensive explanation of how to write a dissertation. Many thanks for sharing it free of charge.

Very rich presentation. Thank you

Thanks Derek Jansen|GRADCOACH, I find it very useful guide to arrange my activities and proceed to research!

Thank you so much for such a marvelous teaching .I am so convinced that am going to write a comprehensive and a distinct masters dissertation

It is an amazing comprehensive explanation

This was straightforward. Thank you!

I can say that your explanations are simple and enlightening – understanding what you have done here is easy for me. Could you write more about the different types of research methods specific to the three methodologies: quan, qual and MM. I look forward to interacting with this website more in the future.

Thanks for the feedback and suggestions 🙂

Hello, your write ups is quite educative. However, l have challenges in going about my research questions which is below; *Building the enablers of organisational growth through effective governance and purposeful leadership.*

Very educating.

Just listening to the name of the dissertation makes the student nervous. As writing a top-quality dissertation is a difficult task as it is a lengthy topic, requires a lot of research and understanding and is usually around 10,000 to 15000 words. Sometimes due to studies, unbalanced workload or lack of research and writing skill students look for dissertation submission from professional writers.

Thank you 💕😊 very much. I was confused but your comprehensive explanation has cleared my doubts of ever presenting a good thesis. Thank you.

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Hi. Where is the excel spread sheet ark?

could you please help me look at your thesis paper to enable me to do the portion that has to do with the specification

my topic is “the impact of domestic revenue mobilization.

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A dissertation and a defense of the dissertation must be approved by an academic committee. Without approval, the candidate will not graduate.

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Ordering a dissertation from Ultius is easy and hassle-free. Simply fill out your order form, complete with topic, number of pages, and research requirements. Dissertations often require specific information like the specific area of study, your thesis or hypothesis, and any research or course materials you have that are necessary or helpful for your writer to complete your sample.

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Ultius writers can help you with either just a part of your dissertation, or the entire project

A dissertation is composed of many smaller parts and represents the culmination of your PhD program. It is designed to demonstrate your understanding, skills, and capacity to conduct the necessary research in your field of study. Each part should demonstrate your mastery of the subject with precision and originality. Your final product should contribute positively to your chosen scientific community.

• Introduction
• Methodology

An abstract is a summary of your main article and is placed after the title page. Typically, around 200 or so words, your abstract communicates to readers the overview of your entire study. Because of this, while the abstract comes first in a dissertation, it is usually the last part to be written.

Your introduction is the first chapter to your dissertation. A proper introduction will clearly state the background of your chosen topic and the issue you are presenting for research. It should also include the purpose of your proposed study, your official research question, and what you expect to find at the conclusion of your work.

In the literature review chapter of your dissertation, you will need to provide a review of the research used in your work. This should include a historical background on the research regarding your chosen subject, an explanation of how the research is relevant to your hypothesis, and an analysis of the empirical resources you are using in your dissertation.

The hypothesis of your dissertation is whatever you are trying to prove or disprove in your research. It should suggest a relationship between the tested variables and be a declarative statement. Your hypothesis consists of the results you expect to find at the conclusion of your study. Hypotheses should be written in the present tense.

Your methodology shows how you went about answering the question in your hypothesis, and what research methods were used. This could be called the “show your work” chapter.

Dissertations can vary in the discussion section depending on whether your study is empirical, involving the collection of firsthand information, or non-empirical, consisting a compilation and analysis of resources relevant to your topic.

This chapter of your dissertation serves to present your findings at the conclusion of your research and analysis. Results must always be presented without interpretation, as that part of your work should be placed in the discussion chapter. The results section is simply for relaying the raw data found throughout the course of your research.

Your conclusion is the final chapter of your dissertation and needs to wrap it all up concisely. A good conclusion provides a summary of your study and a short restatement of the results. This is the place to explain the significance of your findings to the academic community. Conclusions also include a suggestion for future research on the subject.

As you can see from the steps above, a dissertation is intricately compiled of many moving parts. One of the great things about our dissertation writing services is that you can order samples for the entire dissertation or you can just order any individual parts. Whether you only need a couple specific chapters, or you simply want to order each piece one-by-one, our Ultius writers can provide a dissertation that fits your specific needs.

Benefits of working with an Ultius writer for your dissertation

Your dissertation is the culmination of your schooling, and working with a professional writer gives you an extra pair of eyes

At Ultius, we understand the careful research and writing mechanics required to complete a dissertation to an exemplary level. A dissertation requires a lot of new research, in addition to the analysis and interpretation of the experiment process and results, something our dissertation writers are highly familiar with. Even if your dissertation is already written and you simply need editing services to finely tune your work before submission, Ultius can meet those needs.

Benefits of buying a dissertation from Ultius

Such an important order as a dissertation may require notes and revisions, as well as a special level of care from our support staff. Ultius is proud to offer unlimited revisions to ensure customer satisfaction and our support team is available 24/7 to meet any additional needs you may have.

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In addition to the writing services we provide, Ultius also provides editing services. Submit your already-written dissertation to our editing team to ensure your work is free of any errors and is presented clearly and concisely.

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Because a dissertation is such a major body of work, we have a special team of writers qualified to work specifically on dissertations. This ensures that each one is completed by writers who are able to handle them properly.

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Writers at Ultius are required to have at least a four-year degree in order to be allowed to fill any order. Orders requiring a higher level of knowledge or academic experience are only available to writers who possess the proper qualifications to complete it. Writers without the proper proficiencies are unable to access orders of a higher level.

At Ultius, you are able to completely customize your order to fit your needs, including the page requirements. Orders are charged by the page and by the requested completion date, so as long as your writer has a reasonable timeframe in which to complete your sample, you can order as many pages as you need to.

Every Ultius writer is highly qualified and must adhere to a high set of standards. Each one must meet our education requirements of possessing at least one four-year college degree. They are all American-born academics with a firm grasp on the English language. Ultius writers maintain an elevated professional standard and work with great care and efficiency.

These questions are just a few of the common concerns our dissertation customers tend to have before placing an order. If you find you still have questions that have not been answered above, please feel free to contact our support staff and they will happily help to meet your needs.

Examples of dissertation writing from Ultius writers

Our specialized dissertation writers have invaluable experience in completing dissertations

The articles above are merely a few examples of the kinds of dissertation samples our writers can provide. When submitting your order, you can customize it completely to fit your needs and adhere to any guidelines you may require. Our writers can tailor each order to fit the unique needs of each client and assignment.

Components of a great dissertation

The writing of a full dissertation evolves both from your research progress and feedback from a supervisor. Pay attention to recommended chapter lengths and the value that each chapter has.

If your guidelines indicate an introduction is worth ten percent, but the methodology weighs fifty percent, you’ll know that you’ll need to spend more time on developing your methodology.

As you complete each section, be sure to go back to previously written sections. Pay attention to details, but also the big picture. Ask yourself if there are any discrepancies between the information in different sections and whether any points need to be better aligned.

Questions to consider while writing your dissertation

• Are your assertions logical and innovative?
• Did you include both data and analysis?
• Are the details of your methodology reflected within your data?

Ask yourself if there are any discrepancies between the information in different sections and whether any points need to be better aligned.

In this guide, we will cover the components of a great dissertation, and then how to produce them. Ultius has also put together a helpful infographic detailing the 10 best practices to keep your dissertation writing schedule on track.

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A dissertation abstract acts as a preview to the main components of your larger dissertation

The purpose of the abstract is to give insight into your dissertation topic, the type of information your literature review will cover, your thesis, and whether you’ll be conducting an original experiment or study.

Most dissertations include an original experiment or study, the abstract will also need to include a summary of its details. The abstract must be persuasive and solid enough to convince an academic committee that the complete dissertation is worthwhile.

The average abstract is approximately 350 words. This equates to about a page and half of double-spaced text. However, some academic programs require your dissertation abstract to be slightly longer. Be prepared to write up to two single-spaced pages.

Highlight your main points

While your abstract serves as overview of your dissertation, it is not the same as an introduction. Rather, the abstract needs to provide a summary of the dissertation thesis, a highlight of the literature you’ve reviewed that your thesis is based on, the justification for your experimental study, what your study will be attempting to answer or solve, and your study’s methodology.

Organization

The abstract needs to include at least one sentence for each section within the dissertation. You need at least a one sentence summary for each section. In terms of what information to put at the beginning of the abstract versus the middle and the end, this image represents a typical structure:

Discoveries and interpretations

When you write the summary describing your study, you should move beyond what your study has done or what it will do. Instead, you should provide details on what your study has uncovered or what you hope it will uncover.

You also need to demonstrate your ability to interpret your study’s results. If you have not conducted your study yet, you’ll want to briefly touch upon your interpretations of the potential results.

2 Introduction

An introduction should give the reader cause to invest in the dissertation research question

An introduction should give the reader cause to invest in the dissertation research question. The content needs to give the reader a thorough overview of what to expect within the full dissertation.

Although the introduction is placed near the beginning of a dissertation, it isn’t necessarily complete before the dissertation’s remaining sections. Once the rest of the sections are complete, then the introduction is written. The original outline is often revised as changes are made to the complete dissertation.

Outline the foundation

Map out an outline that summarizes the content you anticipate writing about in your subsequent sections. Include a statement about the research problem, your thesis statement, and a summary of each of the sections included in the dissertation.

Include a few concrete examples, such as the results of your study. You’ll also want to ensure that you dedicate some space to defining terms used in your dissertation that your audience may be unfamiliar with.

Use enticing language

The introduction is your chance to spark interest in your dissertation and your research study. If readers can’t grasp the importance of the main research question, they’re more likely to reject the need for the study.

Use language and phrases that resemble storytelling. Good stories are built with a beginning, a middle, and an end. Stories also use imagery and descriptive language and also reveal insights in original ways.

Original thought

Don’t flood the introduction with literature citations. The majority of the introduction’s content should consist of your original thoughts, observations, and reflections.

Be sure to state your reasons for studying your topic and demonstrate why it’s important to the academic community. If there are any implications beyond the academic community, be sure to substantiate these as well. Remember your audience needs a reason to keep reading.

Be strategic

Do not include any information that isn’t expanded upon in the rest of the dissertation. Also, do not try to include every piece of information in your dissertation, but rather the most prominent and interesting points.

The language you use should be inviting and accessible. This means that both an academic and relatively non-academic audience can comprehend it.

3 Composing a thorough dissertation literature review

A literature review for a dissertation requires an advanced set of analytical skills in comparison to a regular literature review

A literature review will need to embody a particular focus, justify its coverage of the literature, be organized according to a historical, conceptual or methodological format, discuss the researcher’s pre-existing biases, and be geared towards an academic supervisory committee.

In order to be accepted by the committee, dissertations must contain a literature review that is well-written, and reflects solid critical thinking and data collection skills.

Begin with a purpose

You need to have a clear sense of why you’re conducting your literature review. Keep in mind what your dissertation is seeking to accomplish.

The literature review will not only need to substantiate your knowledge about your topic, but provide complete justification for your dissertation thesis, methodology, results, discussion and analysis.

Some potential main purposes for a dissertation literature review include:

• Drawing a significant connection between theories and practices
• Identifying and contrasting what has been implemented in the field versus what needs to be implemented
• Gaining insight into which variables tied to the topic have the most/least impact
• Determining how significant a problem is and justifying its significance

Characteristics

A dissertation literature review takes on six different characteristics. Within each of those six characteristics are various angles you can take.

In general, there are five main milestones you should be cognizant of as you go through the process:

• Coming up with the main problem or question
• Collecting the data
• Determining whether the data is relevant/irrelevant, useful, supporting, opposing
• Presenting for feedback/evaluation

While you may find that you complete additional tasks, these are the main steps in the process you’ll go through as you compose the literature review.

4 Hypothesis

The sciences often call upon dissertation writers to use a hypothesis in lieu of a thesis statement

The hypothesis section of a dissertation is typically required of certain academic disciplines.

A hypothesis section lets readers know what you believe the data from your study will reveal as the answer to your research question. In most cases, you are also required to state the null hypothesis , which typically reflects the direct opposite of the hypothesis.

A hypothesis has to reveal a collective pattern or answer. A hypothesis also has to be something that can be tested.

There are three main types of hypotheses:

Connect to your literature review

Your hypothesis should come from a careful analysis of your literature review, in the same way that your topic and research questions were probably refined from the literature’s information.

As you’re reviewing the literature on your topic, look for methodologies, results or conclusions that you don’t agree with. If the results and conclusions do not seem logical or sound to you, make note. You can also make note of results and conclusions that raised questions for you in terms of whether they ignored a critical aspect or indicated additional research was needed.

A complete hypothesis contains one independent variable and at least one dependent variable.

• Independent variable : the variable tested by the research study; stands on its own
• Dependent variable(s) : the variable(s) predicted to change in response to the independent variable. The degree and effects of those changes are tracked as part of the research study.

Look for testability

When formulating the hypothesis, analyze it to determine how testable it is.

• First, is the proposed study something that can actually be accomplished?
• Will you be able to retrieve valuable data?
• Are your variables strong and specific enough to test?
• Will the data you’re able to retrieve give you an answer?

You may need to continue to refine the first drafts of your hypothesis in order to accomplish these objectives.

5 Creating a dissertation methodology

The methodology section of a dissertation details how you’ll conduct your research study

In this section, you’ll explain several key points about your research approach.

The methodology will address:

• An explanation of the approach
• Justification for the approach
• How your approach compares to past studies and research on your topic
• How reliable your data is
• Whether your approach and data have any limitations

Out of all the sections of a dissertation, the methodology is critical to its acceptance. The research in your methodology needs to be well-thought out, logical, and stand out as the optimal way to investigate your research question.

What has already been done?

Don’t duplicate or reinvent the wheel of a previously published research question. Your approach and research philosophy matter, because while they need to be original, you’ll need to keep three different types of philosophical approaches in mind.

It’s to your advantage to ensure that someone else can reproduce your results. This helps validate the legitimacy of your methodology and allows future researchers to be able to critically evaluate your methods.

Consider your alternatives and evaluate the other approaches you could take.

What are the weaknesses of your proposed approach compared to the strengths of the other available approaches?

Will your proposed approach yield the best possible data to help you arrive at a solid conclusion to your research question? Is your method realistic and feasible?

Contingencies

A single research study cannot cover every gap, and in fact many research studies discover previously unknown gaps. Examine and determine whether there are any ethical concerns and considerations - both in terms of how the data will be collected and how it will be evaluated/used.

• What will you do to reduce any potential ethical conflicts?
• In addition, how will you ensure the integrity of the data collection process and the data results?

Make sure not to include results in your methodology. That will come later.

6 Creating a convincing dissertation discussion

A dissertation discussion reviews the data results from your research study

In this section of your dissertation, you’ll present what your study found.

• Were the results consistent with your thesis statement or hypothesis?
• What are the main insights you or your reader will be able to gain from the results?

Devote some time to the results of other studies from your literature review.

Compare your results with the literature’s. If the results backed up your thesis, you should also be able to explain how your results might have been produced assuming your thesis is incorrect. Also acknowledge any exclusions or limitations, while stating how your topic can be researched further.

A dissertation discussion needs to match up with the methodology section, in the sense that each result should have a corresponding method. Since the discussion tends to be the longest section of a dissertation, you’ll want to organize it into subsections and consider making use of references to visual aids.

Main components

To effectively elaborate on your main research question, you’ll need to include eight main points of discussion:

Relate to the methodology

The discussion of the study’s results needs to be coordinated with the methodology section. Your results need to stem from the techniques identified within the methodology. If you decide to eliminate a specific method, you’ll also need to ensure that you don’t discuss that method’s results here or refer to them.

For instance, if you originally carried out a survey of a secondary sample set but found it to be unnecessary, you’ll need to eliminate mention to it in both sections.

Perspective

While you should use a positive tone when discussing your study’s results, refrain from being overt optimism or bragging. You don’t want to give your readers the sense that you are implicitly biased in favor of your own study.

While most readers will reasonably assume that all personal biases are impossible to eliminate, the content and tone of your discussion should reassure them that you have conducted a relatively neutral analysis.

7 Dissertation results

The results of a research study are otherwise included in the dissertation discussion section

A separate results section only presents the data and results gathered from the research study. Any discussion and interpretation of the results should be saved for the discussion section.

Organize by type

Determine how you’re going to present your results in this section. You’ll need to provide a guide map to your readers, so they know what to expect. If you are going to need to include any other researcher’s findings in your dissertation, these should be placed in the Appendices. Separate positive from negative results and your main findings from your secondary findings.

Data analysis techniques

Determine how you’re going to analyze the data you collect. You may find that you are unfamiliar with the best analysis method for your study. Spend time researching what statistical analysis methods exist, including their advantages and disadvantages.

Detail-oriented

In the results section, you should plan on sticking to the details of the data. Give the readers enough detail and explanation to reasonably understand the data, as well as the statistical analysis method. In some cases, you may be designing your own equation. Provide an explanation of how the equation works and spell out each of the equation’s components.

Qualitative vs. quantitative

With a quantitative study, your data results will consist of equations, numerical results, and numerical analysis. However, a purely qualitative analysis will be lacking these types of numerical results.

With qualitative studies, you’ll need to be clear and concise in your descriptions. This applies to both your method and the results. You can still leverage charts and graphs with qualitative results in order to facilitate understanding.

8 Closing with a dissertation conclusion

The dissertation conclusion is designed to remind readers of the major points of your dissertation

The remaining parts of the conclusion will include a main inference about the information contained within the dissertation, a reiteration of the research study’s limitations, a reiteration of the practical and/or theoretical impacts, and your own opinion about the information presented in the dissertation.

Prior to writing the conclusion, check with your academic advisor for clarification on what to include. In general, you should avoid introducing concepts or material in the same way that you discussed them in previous sections.

Don’t mention information and concepts that you haven’t previously touched upon. Conclusions should end strong, reminding the readers about the significance of your research study and how the study’s results can be built upon in the future.

Future-oriented reflection

Although the conclusion looks back on what the dissertation has discussed, the overall perspective should be forward looking. As you’re reiterating the dissertation’s main points, the research study’s limitations, and the study’s impacts, relate those to how they might be viewed by future researchers or future practitioners. Dissertation conclusion sections typically do not go over four to five pages.

Main points

The main points you’ll need to cover in the conclusion can be organized to flow well. The recommended order and importance of each point are as follows:

Recommendations

When you write about the impacts of your research study - in particular its results - you’ll need to focus on mentioning recommendations. Depending upon the academic field, these recommendations may be geared towards future research or field practitioners.

In some cases, you may be providing both sets of recommendations. Academic fields such as business administration tend to be geared more towards recommendations for practitioners, but does not necessarily ignore the theoretical side. When writing recommendations for practitioners, think of yourself as a consultant.

Relate back to your hypothesis

Remember that your conclusion is the final opportunity to remind your readers why your research study stands out from the crowd. While the overall tone of a dissertation isn’t necessarily persuasive, it can be argumentative in the sense that you are trying to convince an audience of the validity and importance of your research.

A good conclusion relates back to the main research question you posed in the beginning, as well as your thesis statement or hypothesis.

Writing a dissertation

Putting a dissertation together can seem intimidating. Complete dissertations contain a multitude of sections, or chapters.

Full dissertations are usually written at the PhD level and the average length can range between one-hundred to two-hundred pages. Dissertation chapters go through several revisions while the candidate works on each piece with an academic supervisor.

Step 1: Drafting the dissertation abstract

Before you write the abstract, you should have a good idea and solid outline of what you want to research

Consider what research questions you’ll be pursuing, what your thesis statement is, your study’s methodology, the study’s actual or expected results, and how you’ve interpreted those results.

Be prepared to run through several revisions, depending on feedback from your academic committee, academic supervisor, or as changes occur to other portions of the dissertation.

Opening paragraph

Briefly state what your general topic is about and give some background information on it.

Is there a certain aspect of your topic that has previously been neglected or that you’ve discovered?

Next, delve into the specific research question(s) you’ll be addressing. If you have more than one question, make sure it’s no more than three. Provide logical reasoning for why they’re important.

Middle paragraph

State your thesis. Depending on the academic discipline, the thesis could be stated in the form of a hypothesis. In general, your thesis should be one sentence and state what results you believe to be true and why.

After your thesis statement, discuss the study you’ll be conducting to substantiate your thesis/hypothesis. You’ll also need to include the methodology.

Concluding paragraph

The last section of the abstract should touch upon the study’s aggregate data results or what main results you expect to surface. Provide a brief analysis of the data and relate the results back to your thesis.

Step 2: Writing the introduction

The optimal time to write the introduction is after you’ve written and revised the rest of the dissertation

Writing the introduction for a dissertation is far more intensive than that of a typical essay or research paper . With a dissertation, save the final draft of the introduction for last. This way you can pull out the most important pieces of information from each section of the dissertation. From there you can condense the information, eliminate what doesn’t sync, and decide which points should make up the beginning, middle, and end.

Define your main research problem or question. You need to be succinct, but also provide enough background on the problem or question to allow your audience to grasp the subject matter.

Include a summary of your actual research study, including the data results. You will also want to include a summary of your literature review or at least a few citations from the literature that are a good representation of the existing research on your topic.

Remember to not rely too heavily on citations, but to be strategic about which ones you use and how you use them.

Provide a summary of your discussion and interpretation of your study’s results. Include information on whether the data results supported or disproved your thesis, as well as whether the results raised additional questions. Were there any restrictions to the study that might have impacted the results? Finish up by reiterating any impact(s) on academics and practitioners, in addition to the study’s significance.

Step 3: Literature review

The first step to writing a dissertation literature review is to determine the reason why you’re doing it

In order to determine the “why” for the literature review, you need to figure out what research question or problem you’d like to answer. Determine how you’re going to approach your research question.

For example, are you going to be looking at the theoretical or practical side? Next, start focusing on where to gather your sources, how many sources you’ll need, and which sources are the most appropriate to include in the review.

Determine how you’re going to evaluate the information. Are you going to be looking for common ground and patterns, or take on the role of critic and sort through what is feasible in practice and what is not? Finally, Decide what information and analysis to include in your writing, and what to omit.

Determine the problem

First, decide what your objective is in order to determine the problem the literature review will address.

Objective: To critically evaluate the role of the electoral college in the national presidential election

Problem: How has the electoral college’s role in national presidential elections undermined the notion of democracy?

Once you’ve concluded what your problem will be, start investigating potential sources. As you conduct your investigation, figure out what factors you’ll use to eliminate or include potential sources.

Collect the data

Your chosen scope will come into play during this stage. If you’re wanting to conduct an all-encompassing literature review, you’ll be gathering and reading more sources. On the other hand, if you choose a narrowed focus, you could spend the same amount of time trying to find sources that fit your criteria.

Beyond searching for sources through electronic databases, remember to consult your peers and academic advisors. Also, see if you can locate the sources cited in some of the references you initially find.

Evaluating the data

Here is where you’ll need to read over each source to determine what information is relevant to your review. Determine what to take and what will best serve the purpose of the review, going back to your objective and problem.

If you’re attempting to demonstrate how the role of the electoral college in national presidential elections undermines the notion of democracy, cite examples from your sources that substantiate that problem. For this example, a historical structure would be appropriate as you could start with the earliest examples and work your way through to the present.

Your point of view is taking the perspective of one side, so in this case it would also be appropriate to cite information that takes the other side of the argument and then critically evaluate the validity of that information. You would likely need to discredit the validity by citing opposing evidence.

Put all the information together and either flush out central problems, synthesize themes, or determine the legitimacy/validity of the literature’s information. You can analyze the information using quantitative methods, qualitative methods, or a mixture of both.

Presentation

This stage involves revising the information, including what is kept intact, and what is tweaked, reduced and eliminated. Peer reviews and field experts can be an invaluable resource during this stage, especially prior to submitting the review to an academic committee.

You may need multiple revisions once the academic committee or dissertation supervisor reviews your work. Do not be discouraged by the revision process, as the supervisor and committee are there to help refine your dissertation to increase its chances of becoming publishable material.

Step 4: Writing the hypothesis

After you finish your literature review, look at the notes you made about the information

What unfulfilled question appears to be the most promising in terms of testability? Once you’ve homed in on a single unfulfilled question, see if you can flush out the independent and dependent variables in your hypothesis.

• Will these variables’ relationships to each other be able to answer your main research question?
• Can you test the independent variable within the boundaries of your methodology?

Hypothesis: A restricted diet of 1,200 to 1,500 calories per day leads to a simultaneous decrease in body fat percentage, overall weight, and muscle weight percentages.

Null hypothesis: A restricted diet of 1,200 to 1,500 calories per day does not lead to a simultaneous decrease in body fat percentage, overall weight, and muscle weight percentages

Determine the type

First, determine what type of hypothesis you’ll be using. Is your question going to be making a prediction, describing an observation, or describing a pattern? This will determine how you write the hypothesis and shape it.

• Prediction: Those who follow a restricted diet of 1,200 to 1,500 calories per day will experience a greater reduction of body fat percentage than those who follow a normal diet of 2,000 calories per day.
• Observation: A person’s ability to reduce his or her body fat percentage is related to a reduction of calories he or she eats per day.
• Generalization: A reduced calorie diet has a greater impact on the reduction of body fat percentage than physical activity.

Independent vs. dependent

It’s important to be able to isolate the independent variable, since this is not only the variable you’ll be testing but the variable that will need to be significant enough to drive an impact. The independent variable can best be identified by isolating what factor is causing a difference, or what factor represents a polar-opposite difference.

Scientific method

Be sure to sync your hypothesis with your methodology (covered below). If you’re going to be testing whether a restricted diet leads to an increased reduction in body fat percentage, ensure you have access to enough participants who are able/willing to restrict their diets. It might also make sense to have access to participants who currently have an unhealthy or high percentage of body fat.

While this would be a limitation of your study, since you wouldn’t be testing the effects of a restricted calorie diet on individuals with a healthy body fat percentage.

Step 5: Write out the methodology details

You’ll need to explain the way you’re going to uncover the answer(s) to your main research question

The beginning of the methodology needs to restate the dissertation’s main research question and thesis statement or hypothesis.

Explain how the research study will be conducted, reiterate why it’s happening, when the study will occur, where it will happen, the method analysis , and what the study will cover. Then, you’ll need to go into your justification of why you made the choices you did.

The next section should explain how the data was collected and how the data was analyzed. Finally, you’ll go into any ethical concerns, justify the reliability of the data, and discuss the data’s limitations and whether the data can be generalized.

Question, thesis, method

Write one to two paragraphs that remind your audience what your study is seeking to answer, what position or side of the argument you’ll be seeking to prove, and whether you’ll be using numerical or subjective methods. Be sure to also give a description of your technique. If you’re using a formula, define the variables and how the formula function works.

Data collection and justification

Outline your strategy, the details of how and when you’ll collect your study’s data, and provide rationale for the methodology.

Explain why your data is reliable and others can trust its accuracy. Also, explain the reasoning behind limitations to your sample size and analysis. An example would be why only one type of demographic was surveyed. This type of exclusion isn’t necessarily negative, especially if it is necessary to properly answer your question.

Step 6: Write out the discussion

You may also find that as you write your discussion, you’ll need to revise the methodology section

Think about how you want to organize your discussion into various sections, either by the eight points of discussion mentioned previously in this guide or by combining some of those points into larger chunks. Also, determine what results you will present in graphs and charts. Will those be inserted into the body of the discussion or be included in the appendices?

Results, meanings, comparisons

• What were the main takeaways from your results?
• Do they reveal certain themes or averages?
• What do you believe, based on your research and knowledge of the topic, the results mean?
• How do they differ from other researchers’ results on the same topic?
• Do your results corroborate another researcher’s?

Be sure to evaluate the meaning of your results and discuss whether those meanings are significant.

Alternatives, relevance, and limitations

The second set of sections should discuss whether personal or outside biases impacted the results. While you should work to mitigate these biases, acknowledge any suspicion of them. This is especially important if your results could be considered controversial or are heavily skewed in the opposite direction of the literature’s results.

Spend time showing your reader why your results are relevant, and why and how the results could impact the field. A discussion of the limitations should state the limitation(s) in terms of the methodology or approach, followed by an explanation of how the methodology or approach could be expanded.

Future research and conclusion

Did your results bring up any questions the results themselves were unable to answer? Discuss those questions here and also suggest that these questions could be developed into future research studies. Alternatively, did your results indicate the need for a follow-up study? If so, briefly discuss what that follow-up study will need to entail.

The conclusion should instill the main idea you want your readers to take away from your study. In other words, what is the most significant revelation and corresponding practical implication your study’s results have produced?

You should discuss your dissertation structure and content with an academic advisor or supervisory committee. Samples of written dissertation discussions can also help immensely, since samples demonstrate structure, content and tone.

Step 7: Composing your results

Once you’ve determined how you’re going to present your results, start by defining what type of results you’ll be presenting first

You don’t necessarily have to present positive results before negative results, but this order helps keep your readers motivated. Also, by presenting your main findings before your secondary findings, your readers can get a better sense of what they can take away from your research. Don’t forget to use the correct citation style for your dissertation.

The main findings should not only be more prevalent in terms of recurrence, but also significance. Secondary findings will not necessarily make as much of an impact as your main findings, but are either worth mentioning or raise questions about the need for additional research.

The roadmap you provide to your readers should be contained within the first paragraph of the results section. Tell readers exactly what they can expect to read. State what type of results you’ll be presenting and what methodologies those results stem from.

Ideally, the roadmap will consist of one paragraph and provide readers with a complete outline of your results section.

Positive/negative

The data results you captured that reflect on your study in a positive way can be the beginning of your second paragraph. Your primary results in the positive category should go first. If you are presenting visual aids in the appendices, make sure you refer to them in the paragraph.

However, you’ll need to include at the bare minimum an explanation of those results. The data results that retract from your study will need to be presented in a similar fashion.

Main/Secondary

You’ll need to be able to sort out what results can be classified as primary and which can be classified as secondary. The best way to determine what is primary versus what is secondary is to ask whether the results tie in with your research question. Do the results provide an answer to the research question? Do those same results support or discredit your thesis/hypothesis?

The main point to remember is not to confuse the results section with the discussion section, if they need to be separate.

Step 8: Writing the dissertation conclusion

Before you write the conclusion section of the dissertation, it’s helpful to review what’s already been written in the previous sections

Not only will you take the time to re-familiarize yourself with what you’ve accomplished, but you’ll be able to gather the material you need for the conclusion . Pull out the main points of each section, revisit your thesis, look for weaknesses you can strengthen, and think about your recommendations and how your research is different from others. Think about why your research and its results matter, not only to you and your academic discipline, but to the community at large. In other words, how does it make a difference?

Summary and inferences

The first part of the conclusion section needs to review the most significant information from each section of the dissertation. This is also the place where you need to remind the audience of your research question, the thesis or hypothesis, and the main takeaways from the study’s results. Once you’ve written a summary of the key ideas and facts from each section of the dissertation, delve into the main meanings and interpretations readers should grasp from your research.

Impacts, recommendations, opinions

After you’ve gone over your dissertation’s main points and discussed their potential meanings, it’s time to write about the study’s most significant impacts.

How will this data have an effect? What do you believe that effect will be? As you discuss your recommendations, tie them back to the study’s potential impacts.

How do you feel about the study’s results? Were they what you expected and why? Do the results prove an idea that was previously unproven or thought of as unlikely?

Think about these questions when in the final writing stage, or editing stage of your dissertation.

Final words

Don’t forget to write a conclusion for the conclusion! While this doesn’t have to be more than a few paragraphs, it should realign with your thesis statement or hypothesis. The concluding paragraphs should state the most significant factor about your study and how future researchers could possibly expand upon it.

If you’re including practical implications, what is the single most important factor you believe practitioners can use from your study to improve conditions in the field? Writing a conclusion can be both simple and complex. On the one hand, you’re going over what you’ve already stated. On the other hand, you’re finding new ways to say what you’ve said before in a way that impacts your readers.

Additional resources

Writing a full dissertation can be an exhaustive, but exhilarating process. You’ll get to witness whether your ideas can withstand a practical simulation. You’ll also get to sharpen your analytical and interpretive skills, while working with senior academic peers.

The task will probably seem daunting, but luckily there are several outside resources including our writer help section , and our dissertation help page . Ultius also offers a wide selection of dissertation sample writing services . Your university’s resources and the guidance of your academic supervisor will be paramount to the development of your dissertation.

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• Article Number: 000035336

If your library subscribes to the  ProQuest Dissertations & Theses  (PQDT) database, you should be able to access it  here . You will find PQDT listed as "Interdisciplinary - Dissertations & Theses" in the Database pull-down menu. Once you search and find the dissertation that you are seeking, you should be able to order the dissertation within the database. If you have difficulty accessing the database, contact your library reference staff for help accessing ProQuest.

https://support.proquest.com/s/article/How-Do-I-Order-A-Dissertation?language=en_US

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Open Access Theses and Dissertations

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About OATD.org

OATD.org aims to be the best possible resource for finding open access graduate theses and dissertations published around the world. Metadata (information about the theses) comes from over 1100 colleges, universities, and research institutions . OATD currently indexes 6,911,340 theses and dissertations.

About OATD (our FAQ) .

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ADVANCES IN MACHINE LEARNING METHODOLOGIES FOR BUSINESS ANALYTICS, VIDEO SUPER-RESOLUTION, AND DOCUMENT CLASSIFICATION

This dissertation encompasses three studies in distinct yet impactful domains: B2B marketing, real-time video super-resolution (VSR), and smart office document routing systems. In the B2B marketing sphere, the study addresses the extended buying cycle by developing an algorithm for customer data aggregation and employing a CatBoost model to predict potential purchases with 91% accuracy. This approach enables the identification of high-potential customers for targeted marketing campaigns, crucial for optimizing marketing efforts. Transitioning to multimedia enhancement, the dissertation presents a lightweight recurrent network for real-time VSR. Developed for applications requiring high-quality video with low latency, such as video conferencing and media playback, this model integrates an optical flow estimation network for motion compensation and leverages a hidden space for the propagation of long-term information. The model demonstrates high efficiency in VSR. A comparative analysis of motion estimation techniques underscores the importance of minimizing information loss. The evolution towards smart office environments underscores the importance of an efficient document routing system, conceptualized as an online class-incremental image classification challenge. This research introduces a one-versus-rest parametric classifier, complemented by two updating algorithms based on passive-aggressiveness, and adaptive thresholding methods to manage low-confidence predictions. Tested on 710 labeled real document images, the method reports a cumulative accuracy rate of approximately 97%, showcasing the effectiveness of the chosen aggressiveness parameter through various experiments.

Degree Type

• Doctor of Philosophy
• Electrical and Computer Engineering

Campus location

• West Lafayette

Advisor/Supervisor/Committee Chair

Additional committee member 2, additional committee member 3, additional committee member 4, additional committee member 5, usage metrics.

• Signal processing
• Deep learning
• Video processing
• Data engineering and data science
• Image processing

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• Destiny 2 guide

What to spend Legendary Shards on in Destiny 2 before they go away

How to get the most out of your Legendary Shards

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Legendary Shards are disappearing in Destiny 2: The Final Shape . If you’re a veteran player, or have played Destiny 2 for any significant amount of time, you probably have a pretty big stockpile of Shards that you need to get rid of before June 3, which is when the servers go down to prepare for the new expansion.

In this Destiny 2 guide, I’ll help you figure out what to spend your Legendary Shards on before Bungie deletes them from your inventory.

If you’re like me, you have a lot of Legendary Shards to get rid of after seven years of hoarding. If you just wait until June 4, Bungie will delete them all for you, which is convenient. But if you want something more useful after all your time grinding, you can exchange them for a few different items in-game.

Most players are taking their excess Legendary Shards and using them to purchase Phantasmal Fragments at the Lectern of Enchantment on the Moon for 10 Legendary Shards a piece. Rahool, the Cryptarch in the Tower, will allow you to exchange 10 Phantasmal Fragments for 10,000 Glimmer. While Bungie could take this exchange away, it’s better than nothing, and a solid way to turn your Legendary Shards into potential Glimmer.

If you’re a raider, another option is to buy Raid Banners from Hawthorn in the Tower. You can buy 10 Raid Banners for 30 Legendary Shards.

The best Legendary Shard exchange is, unfortunately, completely dependent on RNG. Rarely, Banshee-44 will sell a weapon with a Masterwork level of five (you have to buy each weapon to find its masterwork level). If you purchase a Masterwork five weapon over and over again, you’ll get an Enhancement Core out of each one that you dismantle. You can also do this if the Masterwork level is four, but the Enhancement Core won’t be guaranteed.

Enhancement Cores are very useful for upgrading gear, and getting them is a lot more difficult than restocking your Glimmer. Keep an eye on Banshee’s inventory over the weekend and see if you get lucky.

What is replacing Legendary Shards in Destiny 2 ’s economy?

Legendary Shards have been the catch-all currency in Destiny 2 , alongside Glimmer . With Shards going away, Glimmer is going to be the only general currency, and you’re just going to need to pair specialty currencies — like Ascendant Shards — with it to purchase the things you want.

The catch there is that Glimmer has a cap of 500,000, so you can’t just stockpile it indefinitely like you could Legendary Shards. That’s why having Phantasmal Fragments or old Planetary Materials to exchange for Glimmer is so useful.

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