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Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

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Research Paper

Definition:

Research Paper is a written document that presents the author’s original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific topic or issue.

It is typically based on Empirical Evidence, and may involve qualitative or quantitative research methods, or a combination of both. The purpose of a research paper is to contribute new knowledge or insights to a particular field of study, and to demonstrate the author’s understanding of the existing literature and theories related to the topic.

Structure of Research Paper

The structure of a research paper typically follows a standard format, consisting of several sections that convey specific information about the research study. The following is a detailed explanation of the structure of a research paper:

The title page contains the title of the paper, the name(s) of the author(s), and the affiliation(s) of the author(s). It also includes the date of submission and possibly, the name of the journal or conference where the paper is to be published.

The abstract is a brief summary of the research paper, typically ranging from 100 to 250 words. It should include the research question, the methods used, the key findings, and the implications of the results. The abstract should be written in a concise and clear manner to allow readers to quickly grasp the essence of the research.

Introduction

The introduction section of a research paper provides background information about the research problem, the research question, and the research objectives. It also outlines the significance of the research, the research gap that it aims to fill, and the approach taken to address the research question. Finally, the introduction section ends with a clear statement of the research hypothesis or research question.

Literature Review

The literature review section of a research paper provides an overview of the existing literature on the topic of study. It includes a critical analysis and synthesis of the literature, highlighting the key concepts, themes, and debates. The literature review should also demonstrate the research gap and how the current study seeks to address it.

The methods section of a research paper describes the research design, the sample selection, the data collection and analysis procedures, and the statistical methods used to analyze the data. This section should provide sufficient detail for other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the research, using tables, graphs, and figures to illustrate the data. The findings should be presented in a clear and concise manner, with reference to the research question and hypothesis.

The discussion section of a research paper interprets the findings and discusses their implications for the research question, the literature review, and the field of study. It should also address the limitations of the study and suggest future research directions.

The conclusion section summarizes the main findings of the study, restates the research question and hypothesis, and provides a final reflection on the significance of the research.

The references section provides a list of all the sources cited in the paper, following a specific citation style such as APA, MLA or Chicago.

How to Write Research Paper

You can write Research Paper by the following guide:

• Choose a Topic: The first step is to select a topic that interests you and is relevant to your field of study. Brainstorm ideas and narrow down to a research question that is specific and researchable.
• Conduct a Literature Review: The literature review helps you identify the gap in the existing research and provides a basis for your research question. It also helps you to develop a theoretical framework and research hypothesis.
• Develop a Thesis Statement : The thesis statement is the main argument of your research paper. It should be clear, concise and specific to your research question.
• Plan your Research: Develop a research plan that outlines the methods, data sources, and data analysis procedures. This will help you to collect and analyze data effectively.
• Collect and Analyze Data: Collect data using various methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments. Analyze data using statistical tools or other qualitative methods.
• Organize your Paper : Organize your paper into sections such as Introduction, Literature Review, Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion. Ensure that each section is coherent and follows a logical flow.
• Write your Paper : Start by writing the introduction, followed by the literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Ensure that your writing is clear, concise, and follows the required formatting and citation styles.
• Edit and Proofread your Paper: Review your paper for grammar and spelling errors, and ensure that it is well-structured and easy to read. Ask someone else to review your paper to get feedback and suggestions for improvement.
• Cite your Sources: Ensure that you properly cite all sources used in your research paper. This is essential for giving credit to the original authors and avoiding plagiarism.

Research Paper Example

Note : The below example research paper is for illustrative purposes only and is not an actual research paper. Actual research papers may have different structures, contents, and formats depending on the field of study, research question, data collection and analysis methods, and other factors. Students should always consult with their professors or supervisors for specific guidelines and expectations for their research papers.

Research Paper Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health among Young Adults

Abstract: This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults. A literature review was conducted to examine the existing research on the topic. A survey was then administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Introduction: Social media has become an integral part of modern life, particularly among young adults. While social media has many benefits, including increased communication and social connectivity, it has also been associated with negative outcomes, such as addiction, cyberbullying, and mental health problems. This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults.

Literature Review: The literature review highlights the existing research on the impact of social media use on mental health. The review shows that social media use is associated with depression, anxiety, stress, and other mental health problems. The review also identifies the factors that contribute to the negative impact of social media, including social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Methods : A survey was administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The survey included questions on social media use, mental health status (measured using the DASS-21), and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis.

Results : The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Discussion : The study’s findings suggest that social media use has a negative impact on the mental health of young adults. The study highlights the need for interventions that address the factors contributing to the negative impact of social media, such as social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Conclusion : In conclusion, social media use has a significant impact on the mental health of young adults. The study’s findings underscore the need for interventions that promote healthy social media use and address the negative outcomes associated with social media use. Future research can explore the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health. Additionally, longitudinal studies can investigate the long-term effects of social media use on mental health.

Limitations : The study has some limitations, including the use of self-report measures and a cross-sectional design. The use of self-report measures may result in biased responses, and a cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish causality.

Implications: The study’s findings have implications for mental health professionals, educators, and policymakers. Mental health professionals can use the findings to develop interventions that address the negative impact of social media use on mental health. Educators can incorporate social media literacy into their curriculum to promote healthy social media use among young adults. Policymakers can use the findings to develop policies that protect young adults from the negative outcomes associated with social media use.

References :

• Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2019). Associations between screen time and lower psychological well-being among children and adolescents: Evidence from a population-based study. Preventive medicine reports, 15, 100918.
• Primack, B. A., Shensa, A., Escobar-Viera, C. G., Barrett, E. L., Sidani, J. E., Colditz, J. B., … & James, A. E. (2017). Use of multiple social media platforms and symptoms of depression and anxiety: A nationally-representative study among US young adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 1-9.
• Van der Meer, T. G., & Verhoeven, J. W. (2017). Social media and its impact on academic performance of students. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 16, 383-398.

Appendix : The survey used in this study is provided below.

Social Media and Mental Health Survey

• How often do you use social media per day?
• Less than 30 minutes
• 30 minutes to 1 hour
• 1 to 2 hours
• 2 to 4 hours
• More than 4 hours
• Which social media platforms do you use?
• Others (Please specify)
• How often do you experience the following on social media?
• Social comparison (comparing yourself to others)
• Cyberbullying
• Fear of Missing Out (FOMO)
• Have you ever experienced any of the following mental health problems in the past month?
• Do you think social media use has a positive or negative impact on your mental health?
• Very positive
• Somewhat positive
• Somewhat negative
• Very negative
• In your opinion, which factors contribute to the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Social comparison
• In your opinion, what interventions could be effective in reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Education on healthy social media use
• Counseling for mental health problems caused by social media
• Social media detox programs
• Regulation of social media use

Thank you for your participation!

Applications of Research Paper

Research papers have several applications in various fields, including:

• Advancing knowledge: Research papers contribute to the advancement of knowledge by generating new insights, theories, and findings that can inform future research and practice. They help to answer important questions, clarify existing knowledge, and identify areas that require further investigation.
• Informing policy: Research papers can inform policy decisions by providing evidence-based recommendations for policymakers. They can help to identify gaps in current policies, evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, and inform the development of new policies and regulations.
• Improving practice: Research papers can improve practice by providing evidence-based guidance for professionals in various fields, including medicine, education, business, and psychology. They can inform the development of best practices, guidelines, and standards of care that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• Educating students : Research papers are often used as teaching tools in universities and colleges to educate students about research methods, data analysis, and academic writing. They help students to develop critical thinking skills, research skills, and communication skills that are essential for success in many careers.
• Fostering collaboration: Research papers can foster collaboration among researchers, practitioners, and policymakers by providing a platform for sharing knowledge and ideas. They can facilitate interdisciplinary collaborations and partnerships that can lead to innovative solutions to complex problems.

When to Write Research Paper

Research papers are typically written when a person has completed a research project or when they have conducted a study and have obtained data or findings that they want to share with the academic or professional community. Research papers are usually written in academic settings, such as universities, but they can also be written in professional settings, such as research organizations, government agencies, or private companies.

Here are some common situations where a person might need to write a research paper:

• For academic purposes: Students in universities and colleges are often required to write research papers as part of their coursework, particularly in the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities. Writing research papers helps students to develop research skills, critical thinking skills, and academic writing skills.
• For publication: Researchers often write research papers to publish their findings in academic journals or to present their work at academic conferences. Publishing research papers is an important way to disseminate research findings to the academic community and to establish oneself as an expert in a particular field.
• To inform policy or practice : Researchers may write research papers to inform policy decisions or to improve practice in various fields. Research findings can be used to inform the development of policies, guidelines, and best practices that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• To share new insights or ideas: Researchers may write research papers to share new insights or ideas with the academic or professional community. They may present new theories, propose new research methods, or challenge existing paradigms in their field.

Purpose of Research Paper

The purpose of a research paper is to present the results of a study or investigation in a clear, concise, and structured manner. Research papers are written to communicate new knowledge, ideas, or findings to a specific audience, such as researchers, scholars, practitioners, or policymakers. The primary purposes of a research paper are:

• To contribute to the body of knowledge : Research papers aim to add new knowledge or insights to a particular field or discipline. They do this by reporting the results of empirical studies, reviewing and synthesizing existing literature, proposing new theories, or providing new perspectives on a topic.
• To inform or persuade: Research papers are written to inform or persuade the reader about a particular issue, topic, or phenomenon. They present evidence and arguments to support their claims and seek to persuade the reader of the validity of their findings or recommendations.
• To advance the field: Research papers seek to advance the field or discipline by identifying gaps in knowledge, proposing new research questions or approaches, or challenging existing assumptions or paradigms. They aim to contribute to ongoing debates and discussions within a field and to stimulate further research and inquiry.
• To demonstrate research skills: Research papers demonstrate the author’s research skills, including their ability to design and conduct a study, collect and analyze data, and interpret and communicate findings. They also demonstrate the author’s ability to critically evaluate existing literature, synthesize information from multiple sources, and write in a clear and structured manner.

Characteristics of Research Paper

Research papers have several characteristics that distinguish them from other forms of academic or professional writing. Here are some common characteristics of research papers:

• Evidence-based: Research papers are based on empirical evidence, which is collected through rigorous research methods such as experiments, surveys, observations, or interviews. They rely on objective data and facts to support their claims and conclusions.
• Structured and organized: Research papers have a clear and logical structure, with sections such as introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. They are organized in a way that helps the reader to follow the argument and understand the findings.
• Formal and objective: Research papers are written in a formal and objective tone, with an emphasis on clarity, precision, and accuracy. They avoid subjective language or personal opinions and instead rely on objective data and analysis to support their arguments.
• Citations and references: Research papers include citations and references to acknowledge the sources of information and ideas used in the paper. They use a specific citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago, to ensure consistency and accuracy.
• Peer-reviewed: Research papers are often peer-reviewed, which means they are evaluated by other experts in the field before they are published. Peer-review ensures that the research is of high quality, meets ethical standards, and contributes to the advancement of knowledge in the field.
• Objective and unbiased: Research papers strive to be objective and unbiased in their presentation of the findings. They avoid personal biases or preconceptions and instead rely on the data and analysis to draw conclusions.

Advantages of Research Paper

Research papers have many advantages, both for the individual researcher and for the broader academic and professional community. Here are some advantages of research papers:

• Contribution to knowledge: Research papers contribute to the body of knowledge in a particular field or discipline. They add new information, insights, and perspectives to existing literature and help advance the understanding of a particular phenomenon or issue.
• Opportunity for intellectual growth: Research papers provide an opportunity for intellectual growth for the researcher. They require critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity, which can help develop the researcher’s skills and knowledge.
• Career advancement: Research papers can help advance the researcher’s career by demonstrating their expertise and contributions to the field. They can also lead to new research opportunities, collaborations, and funding.
• Academic recognition: Research papers can lead to academic recognition in the form of awards, grants, or invitations to speak at conferences or events. They can also contribute to the researcher’s reputation and standing in the field.
• Impact on policy and practice: Research papers can have a significant impact on policy and practice. They can inform policy decisions, guide practice, and lead to changes in laws, regulations, or procedures.
• Advancement of society: Research papers can contribute to the advancement of society by addressing important issues, identifying solutions to problems, and promoting social justice and equality.

Limitations of Research Paper

Research papers also have some limitations that should be considered when interpreting their findings or implications. Here are some common limitations of research papers:

• Limited generalizability: Research findings may not be generalizable to other populations, settings, or contexts. Studies often use specific samples or conditions that may not reflect the broader population or real-world situations.
• Potential for bias : Research papers may be biased due to factors such as sample selection, measurement errors, or researcher biases. It is important to evaluate the quality of the research design and methods used to ensure that the findings are valid and reliable.
• Ethical concerns: Research papers may raise ethical concerns, such as the use of vulnerable populations or invasive procedures. Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines and obtain informed consent from participants to ensure that the research is conducted in a responsible and respectful manner.
• Limitations of methodology: Research papers may be limited by the methodology used to collect and analyze data. For example, certain research methods may not capture the complexity or nuance of a particular phenomenon, or may not be appropriate for certain research questions.
• Publication bias: Research papers may be subject to publication bias, where positive or significant findings are more likely to be published than negative or non-significant findings. This can skew the overall findings of a particular area of research.
• Time and resource constraints: Research papers may be limited by time and resource constraints, which can affect the quality and scope of the research. Researchers may not have access to certain data or resources, or may be unable to conduct long-term studies due to practical limitations.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Table of contents

• 1 Why Is It Necessary to Maintain the Research Paper Structure?
• 2.1 Title and Abstract
• 2.2 Introduction
• 2.3 Literature Review
• 2.4 Methodology
• 2.5 Results
• 2.6 Discussion
• 2.7 Conclusion
• 2.8 References
• 2.9 Appendices
• 3 Tips for Structuring a Research Paper
• 4 Mistakes in Structuring Research Paper
• 5.1 Introduction
• 5.2 Methodology
• 5.3 Results
• 5.4 Conclusion
• 6 Bottom Line

A research paper is a piece of academic writing that contains independent research analysis and argument. A research paper’s structure helps the writer organize their ideas, and PapersOwl would give ways to structure your academic research paper. It also shows their findings and communicates their contribution. The claim that gives significance to your work must be backed up by data and a logic that gives it credibility.

• You can get a free guide from PapersOwl on properly structuring a research paper.
• We also provide common mistakes and corrections in the research paper outline.
• This article will provide examples and writing process tips for each section.

Why Is It Necessary to Maintain the Research Paper Structure?

The structure of an academic research paper outline is a part of the process that requires the most attention. It has many helpful functions that assist during the writing and define the writer as a scientist. The basic structure has the following functions.

• Expository function. It reflects all the ideas that will be shown in the task.
• Informative function. For potential readers, the structure is a first glance at the issue. It is the first piece of data that is available to them.
• Structuring function. All the parts of writing a research paper are essential. They include appendices, figures, and tables. They will help during writing as they become the reflection of the order of the ideas.

Understanding the Research Paper Structure Parts

As is typical for all types of academic writing, a research paper has many components. They include the title page, abstract, Introduction, method, findings, discussion, conclusion, references, and acknowledgments. A research paper has a specific format divided into various important sections, one of which is the introduction of the research paper , and each serves a distinct purpose. Writing a straightforward and successful paper requires coherence. Understanding of the components of the research paper structure is also required. Doing so helps the writer provide the reader with a more thorough message that they can better grasp.

Title and Abstract

The  title page is the first page of the paper that shows the paper’s title and the author’s name (s). It also shows the affiliation(s), acknowledgments, and other specific information relevant to the topic. The abstract is a concise summary of the paper that includes the main problem, question, or goal of the study, the methods used, the result section of the research paper or findings, and the implications or contributions of the study. The title page is the start of the investigation that reflects the organization of the core idea.

Introduction

The Introduction is the first section of the paper. It provides the background and context of the study. It reviews the relevant literature and states the research question or hypothesis. It also outlines the main points or technical arguments of the paper. The Introduction is a brief presentation of the main topic combined. Review the current state of the investigation in the present scientific papers and community.

Literature Review

This section examines pertinent research and earlier studies, spotting knowledge gaps. It also finds new prospects on the subject. A good literature review for a research paper  gives a broader view of the study and language. It also allows the reader to understand other related works better.

Methodology

The methods section describes the design, participants, materials, procedures, and data analytics methods for conducting the study. This section, the methods section of a research paper , should be equipped with all the events and details used to arrive at the research outcome. The methods section should provide enough detail. In case other researchers need to replicate the study.

The results section reports the main findings or outcomes of the study. Various means like figures, tables, graphs, charts, or other visual aids present the data. The main results sections should be objective and factual, without interpretation or discussion.

The discussion section interprets and evaluates the results of the study. It should explain how they answer the research question. It should show how they relate to previous studies. State the limitations or weaknesses of the study. Write out the implications or recommendations for further research or practice.

The conclusion section summarizes the main points of the paper . Restates the central research question or hypothesis. Highlights the main contributions or implications of the study. The conclusion section should refrain from introducing new information. Refrain from repeating what has been said before.

The annotated bibliography is an overview of the reference list. Include the utilized materials, both digital and physical resources. The references section lists all the cited sources in the paper, using a consistent citation style (such as APA or MLA.). Only used or quoted sources should be in the references section. Sources that were only consulted or read should be irrelevant.

Appendices should contain all the supplementary materials like charts and statistics materials. Mathematical solutions and formulas that describe the situation most effectively.

Tips for Structuring a Research Paper

Restructuring can help you organize your ideas. Moreover, present your key findings, and communicate your contribution to the scholarly debate.

Here are some tips to address a typical research paper:

• Consider the Target Audience: Your target audience is the readers who will read. They would be there to appreciate your research paper. They are the end users of the academic work paper. To write for your target audience, you need to have observed. You need to know their characteristics, needs, and preferences. Adapt your purpose, content, and style to suit their expectations and interests.
• Begin with an Outline: An outline can help you to clarify your thesis statement and research question. Identify the main points and any argument that supports your thesis. Structure your paper according to the required format and guidelines.
• Provide Clear Signposting: Providing clear signposting is important for guiding your reader through your argument. It helps in showing how your ideas are connected. Signposting can help you to state the main purpose of your paper. Also, state the main point and sub-points. Show the relationship between different points.
• Use the “context-content-conclusion” approach: This approach consists of providing the background and motivation for your paper. State your research question or problem. Formatting guidelines and outlining the structure of your paper. Present your outcome and evidence logically and summarize your main points.
• Summarize your research in the abstract: An abstract is a concise summary of your paper that includes the main aim, methods, results and discussions, and research paper conclusions , as it paints a more precise picture before digging deep into the body of work. A summarized work in the abstract when research writing attracts attention.
• Explain the importance of your research in the Introduction. This is crucial when research writing your typical research paper. It convinces the reader that your paper is worth reading. You can also tell a brief story that illustrates the problem or issue that your study tackles.

Mistakes in Structuring Research Paper

A research article is a formal document presenting a scientific study’s results and discussion. Many researchers make mistakes when writing research papers. This usually affects the quality of their work.

Some common mistakes are:

• The Introduction is an extensive review of the literature. It should not be a lengthy summary of all the previous studies on the topic. It can bore the reader and obscure the main point of the paper.
• The Methods section should describe how the study was organized. This includes the design, sample, procedures, instruments, and data analysis methods. Provide enough explanation and detail to understand and evaluate the study’s validity. Other researchers might intend to replicate or extend it.
• The Results section should be separate, concise, and focused on the main research question. Put detailed tables that contain supplementary or secondary information in the appendix or a supplementary file. The results can also be expressed in the text.
• In the Introduction and Discussion, back up key arguments with appropriate references. They should also acknowledge and cite the sources of their ideas. This would avoid plagiarism.
• The References section should list all the cited sources in the paper. Use a consistent and standard format for publication. It should include up-to-date and accessible references. It should focus on the current state of knowledge on the topic.
• The Discussion section should interpret and explain the results. It should be about the research questions, experiment, and objectives. Compare them with existing literature.
• Talk about the applications of the results for theory, practice, or future research in the Discussion section. It should address the limitations of the study. This includes sample size, design flaws, measurement errors, and generalizability issues.
• The research paper should include something other than superfluous or irrelevant information. Remove anything that does not intend to contribute to the research question. Do not add opinions or anecdotes.

Research Paper Structure Example

Various sites offer a good deal of basic structure types on the Internet. Of these types of research papers , research articles structured in APA or MLA are the most popular.

Here is an example of the research paper’s main parts:

• The importance of the problem.
• The description of the current situation.
• List the objectives of the investigation.

Meditation is a practice that involves focusing your attention on a single object, thought, or sensation. This practice is a powerful tool that helps to cultivate inner peace and well-being. Rooted in ancient traditions and religion, meditation has gained significant attention in contemporary scientific research. This paper delves into the impact of meditation on the human mind and body, examining its physiological, psychological, and emotional benefits.

By exploring various meditation techniques and their effects on stress reduction, cognitive enhancement, emotional regulation, and overall well-being, this research aims to shed light on the transformative potential of meditation and its implications for personal growth and holistic health. Through a comprehensive analysis of existing studies and empirical evidence, this paper presents a compelling case for integrating meditation practices into daily life, highlighting its potential to enhance our physical and mental well-being profoundly.

This introduction contains all the necessary parts, which include:

• A catchy hook to draw and hold the reader’s attention.
• Background information to help the reader understand the relevance of the research.
• The objectives and purpose of the study.
• A thesis statement.
• The scope of the research.
• Organize the process.
• Define the method.
• Describe a potential sample.
• State the procedure of data collection.
• State the results of the gathered material.
• Describe the elements of your work.
• State the key points of the investigation.

The body part consists of several paragraphs, they are the basic building blocks of research papers. Each one should focus on a single claim or idea that helps to establish the overall argument of the paper’s purpose.

Here is an example of a well-structured paragraph:

Meditation is commonly practiced because of its ability to reduce stress. According to Jha et al. (2015), regular meditation practice can be linked to a significant decrease in cortisol, the stress hormone. In the study, a group of participants underwent a mindfulness meditation program for eight weeks, and the results showed a significant reduction in cortisol levels compared to the control group. This suggests meditation can effectively improve the body’s stress response, promoting relaxation and calmness.

• Sentence 1 is the topic sentence. It introduces the idea to be explored in the paragraph.
• Sentence 2 is the evidence. It provides evidence for the idea outlined in the topic sentence.
• Sentence 3 is a supporting sentence. It provides additional details of the sample study.
• Sentence 4 is the closing sentence. It summarizes the main point of the paragraph.
• Write the results of the work.
• Analyze the results with the set goals.
• Define the perspectives for future investigation.

Here is an example of the conclusion paragraph:

Meditation is a simple and effective way to improve one’s mental and physical health. By practicing meditation regularly, one can experience less stress. Also reduces anxiety and depression. It boosts concentration, memory, and creativity. It doesn’t require extensive training—just a little guidance and motivation. So embrace this practice, experience its wonders, and invite serenity and growth into your life.

This conclusion does the following:

• It restates the main idea or thesis of the article.
• It summarizes the main points or arguments that support the thesis.
• It provides a recommendation.

Bottom Line

A research report needs to be logical, precise, and brief. Follow the typical parts and structure. It consists of the Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion. The guide above would have helped you write research papers , plan a research paper, and impress others with top-quality paperwork.

It should be clear of pointless details that could irritate the reader. If you still need help, you can ask for a research paper writer service that works without days off and around the clock.

Apply the basic structure for a better understanding of the message. It benefits the readers, communicates your scientific research better, and gives scholars an ambiance.

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• Online Guide to Writing

Structuring the Research Paper

Formal research structure.

These are the primary purposes for formal research:

enter the discourse, or conversation, of other writers and scholars in your field

learn how others in your field use primary and secondary resources

find and understand raw data and information

For the formal academic research assignment, consider an organizational pattern typically used for primary academic research.  The pattern includes the following: introduction, methods, results, discussion, and conclusions/recommendations.

Usually, research papers flow from the general to the specific and back to the general in their organization. The introduction uses a general-to-specific movement in its organization, establishing the thesis and setting the context for the conversation. The methods and results sections are more detailed and specific, providing support for the generalizations made in the introduction. The discussion section moves toward an increasingly more general discussion of the subject, leading to the conclusions and recommendations, which then generalize the conversation again.

Sections of a Formal Structure

The introduction section.

Many students will find that writing a structured  introduction  gets them started and gives them the focus needed to significantly improve their entire paper. 

Introductions usually have three parts:

presentation of the problem statement, the topic, or the research inquiry

purpose and focus of your paper

summary or overview of the writer’s position or arguments

In the first part of the introduction—the presentation of the problem or the research inquiry—state the problem or express it so that the question is implied. Then, sketch the background on the problem and review the literature on it to give your readers a context that shows them how your research inquiry fits into the conversation currently ongoing in your subject area. 

In the second part of the introduction, state your purpose and focus. Here, you may even present your actual thesis. Sometimes your purpose statement can take the place of the thesis by letting your reader know your intentions. 

The third part of the introduction, the summary or overview of the paper, briefly leads readers through the discussion, forecasting the main ideas and giving readers a blueprint for the paper. 

The following example provides a blueprint for a well-organized introduction.

Example of an Introduction

Entrepreneurial Marketing: The Critical Difference

In an article in the Harvard Business Review, John A. Welsh and Jerry F. White remind us that “a small business is not a little big business.” An entrepreneur is not a multinational conglomerate but a profit-seeking individual. To survive, he must have a different outlook and must apply different principles to his endeavors than does the president of a large or even medium-sized corporation. Not only does the scale of small and big businesses differ, but small businesses also suffer from what the Harvard Business Review article calls “resource poverty.” This is a problem and opportunity that requires an entirely different approach to marketing. Where large ad budgets are not necessary or feasible, where expensive ad production squanders limited capital, where every marketing dollar must do the work of two dollars, if not five dollars or even ten, where a person’s company, capital, and material well-being are all on the line—that is, where guerrilla marketing can save the day and secure the bottom line (Levinson, 1984, p. 9).

By reviewing the introductions to research articles in the discipline in which you are writing your research paper, you can get an idea of what is considered the norm for that discipline. Study several of these before you begin your paper so that you know what may be expected. If you are unsure of the kind of introduction your paper needs, ask your professor for more information.  The introduction is normally written in present tense.

THE METHODS SECTION

The methods section of your research paper should describe in detail what methodology and special materials if any, you used to think through or perform your research. You should include any materials you used or designed for yourself, such as questionnaires or interview questions, to generate data or information for your research paper. You want to include any methodologies that are specific to your particular field of study, such as lab procedures for a lab experiment or data-gathering instruments for field research. The methods section is usually written in the past tense.

THE RESULTS SECTION

How you present the results of your research depends on what kind of research you did, your subject matter, and your readers’ expectations. 

Quantitative information —data that can be measured—can be presented systematically and economically in tables, charts, and graphs. Quantitative information includes quantities and comparisons of sets of data. 

Qualitative information , which includes brief descriptions, explanations, or instructions, can also be presented in prose tables. This kind of descriptive or explanatory information, however, is often presented in essay-like prose or even lists.

There are specific conventions for creating tables, charts, and graphs and organizing the information they contain. In general, you should use them only when you are sure they will enlighten your readers rather than confuse them. In the accompanying explanation and discussion, always refer to the graphic by number and explain specifically what you are referring to; you can also provide a caption for the graphic. The rule of thumb for presenting a graphic is first to introduce it by name, show it, and then interpret it. The results section is usually written in the past tense.

THE DISCUSSION SECTION

Your discussion section should generalize what you have learned from your research. One way to generalize is to explain the consequences or meaning of your results and then make your points that support and refer back to the statements you made in your introduction. Your discussion should be organized so that it relates directly to your thesis. You want to avoid introducing new ideas here or discussing tangential issues not directly related to the exploration and discovery of your thesis. The discussion section, along with the introduction, is usually written in the present tense.

THE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS SECTION

Your conclusion ties your research to your thesis, binding together all the main ideas in your thinking and writing. By presenting the logical outcome of your research and thinking, your conclusion answers your research inquiry for your reader. Your conclusions should relate directly to the ideas presented in your introduction section and should not present any new ideas.

You may be asked to present your recommendations separately in your research assignment. If so, you will want to add some elements to your conclusion section. For example, you may be asked to recommend a course of action, make a prediction, propose a solution to a problem, offer a judgment, or speculate on the implications and consequences of your ideas. The conclusions and recommendations section is usually written in the present tense.

Key Takeaways

• For the formal academic research assignment, consider an organizational pattern typically used for primary academic research. 
•  The pattern includes the following: introduction, methods, results, discussion, and conclusions/recommendations.

Mailing Address: 3501 University Blvd. East, Adelphi, MD 20783 This work is licensed under a  Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License . © 2022 UMGC. All links to external sites were verified at the time of publication. UMGC is not responsible for the validity or integrity of information located at external sites.

Table of Contents: Online Guide to Writing

Chapter 1: College Writing

How Does College Writing Differ from Workplace Writing?

What Is College Writing?

Why So Much Emphasis on Writing?

Chapter 2: The Writing Process

Doing Exploratory Research

Getting from Notes to Your Draft

Introduction

Prewriting - Techniques to Get Started - Mining Your Intuition

Prewriting: Targeting Your Audience

Prewriting: Techniques to Get Started

Prewriting: Understanding Your Assignment

Rewriting: Being Your Own Critic

Rewriting: Creating a Revision Strategy

Rewriting: Getting Feedback

Rewriting: The Final Draft

Techniques to Get Started - Outlining

Techniques to Get Started - Using Systematic Techniques

Thesis Statement and Controlling Idea

Writing: Getting from Notes to Your Draft - Freewriting

Writing: Getting from Notes to Your Draft - Summarizing Your Ideas

Writing: Outlining What You Will Write

Chapter 3: Thinking Strategies

A Word About Style, Voice, and Tone

A Word About Style, Voice, and Tone: Style Through Vocabulary and Diction

Critical Strategies and Writing

Critical Strategies and Writing: Analysis

Critical Strategies and Writing: Evaluation

Critical Strategies and Writing: Persuasion

Critical Strategies and Writing: Synthesis

Developing a Paper Using Strategies

Kinds of Assignments You Will Write

Patterns for Presenting Information

Patterns for Presenting Information: Critiques

Patterns for Presenting Information: Discussing Raw Data

Patterns for Presenting Information: General-to-Specific Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Problem-Cause-Solution Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Specific-to-General Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Summaries and Abstracts

Supporting with Research and Examples

Writing Essay Examinations

Writing Essay Examinations: Make Your Answer Relevant and Complete

Writing Essay Examinations: Organize Thinking Before Writing

Writing Essay Examinations: Read and Understand the Question

Chapter 4: The Research Process

Planning and Writing a Research Paper

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Ask a Research Question

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Cite Sources

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Collect Evidence

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Decide Your Point of View, or Role, for Your Research

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Draw Conclusions

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Find a Topic and Get an Overview

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Manage Your Resources

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Outline

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Survey the Literature

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Work Your Sources into Your Research Writing

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Human Resources

Research Resources: What Are Research Resources?

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found?

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Electronic Resources

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Print Resources

Structuring the Research Paper: Formal Research Structure

Structuring the Research Paper: Informal Research Structure

The Nature of Research

The Research Assignment: How Should Research Sources Be Evaluated?

The Research Assignment: When Is Research Needed?

The Research Assignment: Why Perform Research?

Chapter 5: Academic Integrity

Academic Integrity

Giving Credit to Sources

Giving Credit to Sources: Copyright Laws

Giving Credit to Sources: Documentation

Giving Credit to Sources: Style Guides

Integrating Sources

Practicing Academic Integrity

Practicing Academic Integrity: Keeping Accurate Records

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Paraphrasing Your Source

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Quoting Your Source

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Summarizing Your Sources

Types of Documentation

Types of Documentation: Bibliographies and Source Lists

Types of Documentation: Citing World Wide Web Sources

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - APA Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - CSE/CBE Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - Chicago Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - MLA Style

Types of Documentation: Note Citations

Chapter 6: Using Library Resources

Finding Library Resources

Chapter 7: Assessing Your Writing

How Is Writing Graded?

How Is Writing Graded?: A General Assessment Tool

The Draft Stage

The Draft Stage: The First Draft

The Draft Stage: The Revision Process and the Final Draft

The Draft Stage: Using Feedback

The Research Stage

Using Assessment to Improve Your Writing

Chapter 8: Other Frequently Assigned Papers

Reviews and Reaction Papers: Article and Book Reviews

Reviews and Reaction Papers: Reaction Papers

Writing Arguments

Writing Arguments: Adapting the Argument Structure

Writing Arguments: Purposes of Argument

Writing Arguments: References to Consult for Writing Arguments

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Anticipate Active Opposition

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Determine Your Organization

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Develop Your Argument

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Introduce Your Argument

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - State Your Thesis or Proposition

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Write Your Conclusion

Writing Arguments: Types of Argument

Appendix A: Books to Help Improve Your Writing

Dictionaries

General Style Manuals

Researching on the Internet

Special Style Manuals

Writing Handbooks

Appendix B: Collaborative Writing and Peer Reviewing

Collaborative Writing: Assignments to Accompany the Group Project

Collaborative Writing: Informal Progress Report

Collaborative Writing: Issues to Resolve

Collaborative Writing: Methodology

Collaborative Writing: Peer Evaluation

Collaborative Writing: Tasks of Collaborative Writing Group Members

Collaborative Writing: Writing Plan

General Introduction

Peer Reviewing

Appendix C: Developing an Improvement Plan

Working with Your Instructor’s Comments and Grades

Appendix D: Writing Plan and Project Schedule

Devising a Writing Project Plan and Schedule

Reviewing Your Plan with Others

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Focus: Education — Career Advice

How to write your first research paper.

Writing a research manuscript is an intimidating process for many novice writers in the sciences. One of the stumbling blocks is the beginning of the process and creating the first draft. This paper presents guidelines on how to initiate the writing process and draft each section of a research manuscript. The paper discusses seven rules that allow the writer to prepare a well-structured and comprehensive manuscript for a publication submission. In addition, the author lists different strategies for successful revision. Each of those strategies represents a step in the revision process and should help the writer improve the quality of the manuscript. The paper could be considered a brief manual for publication.

It is late at night. You have been struggling with your project for a year. You generated an enormous amount of interesting data. Your pipette feels like an extension of your hand, and running western blots has become part of your daily routine, similar to brushing your teeth. Your colleagues think you are ready to write a paper, and your lab mates tease you about your “slow” writing progress. Yet days pass, and you cannot force yourself to sit down to write. You have not written anything for a while (lab reports do not count), and you feel you have lost your stamina. How does the writing process work? How can you fit your writing into a daily schedule packed with experiments? What section should you start with? What distinguishes a good research paper from a bad one? How should you revise your paper? These and many other questions buzz in your head and keep you stressed. As a result, you procrastinate. In this paper, I will discuss the issues related to the writing process of a scientific paper. Specifically, I will focus on the best approaches to start a scientific paper, tips for writing each section, and the best revision strategies.

1. Schedule your writing time in Outlook

Whether you have written 100 papers or you are struggling with your first, starting the process is the most difficult part unless you have a rigid writing schedule. Writing is hard. It is a very difficult process of intense concentration and brain work. As stated in Hayes’ framework for the study of writing: “It is a generative activity requiring motivation, and it is an intellectual activity requiring cognitive processes and memory” [ 1 ]. In his book How to Write a Lot: A Practical Guide to Productive Academic Writing , Paul Silvia says that for some, “it’s easier to embalm the dead than to write an article about it” [ 2 ]. Just as with any type of hard work, you will not succeed unless you practice regularly. If you have not done physical exercises for a year, only regular workouts can get you into good shape again. The same kind of regular exercises, or I call them “writing sessions,” are required to be a productive author. Choose from 1- to 2-hour blocks in your daily work schedule and consider them as non-cancellable appointments. When figuring out which blocks of time will be set for writing, you should select the time that works best for this type of work. For many people, mornings are more productive. One Yale University graduate student spent a semester writing from 8 a.m. to 9 a.m. when her lab was empty. At the end of the semester, she was amazed at how much she accomplished without even interrupting her regular lab hours. In addition, doing the hardest task first thing in the morning contributes to the sense of accomplishment during the rest of the day. This positive feeling spills over into our work and life and has a very positive effect on our overall attitude.

Rule 1: Create regular time blocks for writing as appointments in your calendar and keep these appointments.

2. start with an outline.

Now that you have scheduled time, you need to decide how to start writing. The best strategy is to start with an outline. This will not be an outline that you are used to, with Roman numerals for each section and neat parallel listing of topic sentences and supporting points. This outline will be similar to a template for your paper. Initially, the outline will form a structure for your paper; it will help generate ideas and formulate hypotheses. Following the advice of George M. Whitesides, “. . . start with a blank piece of paper, and write down, in any order, all important ideas that occur to you concerning the paper” [ 3 ]. Use Table 1 as a starting point for your outline. Include your visuals (figures, tables, formulas, equations, and algorithms), and list your findings. These will constitute the first level of your outline, which will eventually expand as you elaborate.

The next stage is to add context and structure. Here you will group all your ideas into sections: Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion/Conclusion ( Table 2 ). This step will help add coherence to your work and sift your ideas.

Now that you have expanded your outline, you are ready for the next step: discussing the ideas for your paper with your colleagues and mentor. Many universities have a writing center where graduate students can schedule individual consultations and receive assistance with their paper drafts. Getting feedback during early stages of your draft can save a lot of time. Talking through ideas allows people to conceptualize and organize thoughts to find their direction without wasting time on unnecessary writing. Outlining is the most effective way of communicating your ideas and exchanging thoughts. Moreover, it is also the best stage to decide to which publication you will submit the paper. Many people come up with three choices and discuss them with their mentors and colleagues. Having a list of journal priorities can help you quickly resubmit your paper if your paper is rejected.

Rule 2: Create a detailed outline and discuss it with your mentor and peers.

3. continue with drafts.

After you get enough feedback and decide on the journal you will submit to, the process of real writing begins. Copy your outline into a separate file and expand on each of the points, adding data and elaborating on the details. When you create the first draft, do not succumb to the temptation of editing. Do not slow down to choose a better word or better phrase; do not halt to improve your sentence structure. Pour your ideas into the paper and leave revision and editing for later. As Paul Silvia explains, “Revising while you generate text is like drinking decaffeinated coffee in the early morning: noble idea, wrong time” [ 2 ].

Many students complain that they are not productive writers because they experience writer’s block. Staring at an empty screen is frustrating, but your screen is not really empty: You have a template of your article, and all you need to do is fill in the blanks. Indeed, writer’s block is a logical fallacy for a scientist ― it is just an excuse to procrastinate. When scientists start writing a research paper, they already have their files with data, lab notes with materials and experimental designs, some visuals, and tables with results. All they need to do is scrutinize these pieces and put them together into a comprehensive paper.

3.1. Starting with Materials and Methods

If you still struggle with starting a paper, then write the Materials and Methods section first. Since you have all your notes, it should not be problematic for you to describe the experimental design and procedures. Your most important goal in this section is to be as explicit as possible by providing enough detail and references. In the end, the purpose of this section is to allow other researchers to evaluate and repeat your work. So do not run into the same problems as the writers of the sentences in (1):

1a. Bacteria were pelleted by centrifugation. 1b. To isolate T cells, lymph nodes were collected.

As you can see, crucial pieces of information are missing: the speed of centrifuging your bacteria, the time, and the temperature in (1a); the source of lymph nodes for collection in (b). The sentences can be improved when information is added, as in (2a) and (2b), respectfully:

2a. Bacteria were pelleted by centrifugation at 3000g for 15 min at 25°C. 2b. To isolate T cells, mediastinal and mesenteric lymph nodes from Balb/c mice were collected at day 7 after immunization with ovabumin.

If your method has previously been published and is well-known, then you should provide only the literature reference, as in (3a). If your method is unpublished, then you need to make sure you provide all essential details, as in (3b).

3a. Stem cells were isolated, according to Johnson [23]. 3b. Stem cells were isolated using biotinylated carbon nanotubes coated with anti-CD34 antibodies.

Furthermore, cohesion and fluency are crucial in this section. One of the malpractices resulting in disrupted fluency is switching from passive voice to active and vice versa within the same paragraph, as shown in (4). This switching misleads and distracts the reader.

4. Behavioral computer-based experiments of Study 1 were programmed by using E-Prime. We took ratings of enjoyment, mood, and arousal as the patients listened to preferred pleasant music and unpreferred music by using Visual Analogue Scales (SI Methods). The preferred and unpreferred status of the music was operationalized along a continuum of pleasantness [ 4 ].

The problem with (4) is that the reader has to switch from the point of view of the experiment (passive voice) to the point of view of the experimenter (active voice). This switch causes confusion about the performer of the actions in the first and the third sentences. To improve the coherence and fluency of the paragraph above, you should be consistent in choosing the point of view: first person “we” or passive voice [ 5 ]. Let’s consider two revised examples in (5).

5a. We programmed behavioral computer-based experiments of Study 1 by using E-Prime. We took ratings of enjoyment, mood, and arousal by using Visual Analogue Scales (SI Methods) as the patients listened to preferred pleasant music and unpreferred music. We operationalized the preferred and unpreferred status of the music along a continuum of pleasantness. 5b. Behavioral computer-based experiments of Study 1 were programmed by using E-Prime. Ratings of enjoyment, mood, and arousal were taken as the patients listened to preferred pleasant music and unpreferred music by using Visual Analogue Scales (SI Methods). The preferred and unpreferred status of the music was operationalized along a continuum of pleasantness.

If you choose the point of view of the experimenter, then you may end up with repetitive “we did this” sentences. For many readers, paragraphs with sentences all beginning with “we” may also sound disruptive. So if you choose active sentences, you need to keep the number of “we” subjects to a minimum and vary the beginnings of the sentences [ 6 ].

Interestingly, recent studies have reported that the Materials and Methods section is the only section in research papers in which passive voice predominantly overrides the use of the active voice [ 5 , 7 , 8 , 9 ]. For example, Martínez shows a significant drop in active voice use in the Methods sections based on the corpus of 1 million words of experimental full text research articles in the biological sciences [ 7 ]. According to the author, the active voice patterned with “we” is used only as a tool to reveal personal responsibility for the procedural decisions in designing and performing experimental work. This means that while all other sections of the research paper use active voice, passive voice is still the most predominant in Materials and Methods sections.

Writing Materials and Methods sections is a meticulous and time consuming task requiring extreme accuracy and clarity. This is why when you complete your draft, you should ask for as much feedback from your colleagues as possible. Numerous readers of this section will help you identify the missing links and improve the technical style of this section.

Rule 3: Be meticulous and accurate in describing the Materials and Methods. Do not change the point of view within one paragraph.

3.2. writing results section.

For many authors, writing the Results section is more intimidating than writing the Materials and Methods section . If people are interested in your paper, they are interested in your results. That is why it is vital to use all your writing skills to objectively present your key findings in an orderly and logical sequence using illustrative materials and text.

Your Results should be organized into different segments or subsections where each one presents the purpose of the experiment, your experimental approach, data including text and visuals (tables, figures, schematics, algorithms, and formulas), and data commentary. For most journals, your data commentary will include a meaningful summary of the data presented in the visuals and an explanation of the most significant findings. This data presentation should not repeat the data in the visuals, but rather highlight the most important points. In the “standard” research paper approach, your Results section should exclude data interpretation, leaving it for the Discussion section. However, interpretations gradually and secretly creep into research papers: “Reducing the data, generalizing from the data, and highlighting scientific cases are all highly interpretive processes. It should be clear by now that we do not let the data speak for themselves in research reports; in summarizing our results, we interpret them for the reader” [ 10 ]. As a result, many journals including the Journal of Experimental Medicine and the Journal of Clinical Investigation use joint Results/Discussion sections, where results are immediately followed by interpretations.

Another important aspect of this section is to create a comprehensive and supported argument or a well-researched case. This means that you should be selective in presenting data and choose only those experimental details that are essential for your reader to understand your findings. You might have conducted an experiment 20 times and collected numerous records, but this does not mean that you should present all those records in your paper. You need to distinguish your results from your data and be able to discard excessive experimental details that could distract and confuse the reader. However, creating a picture or an argument should not be confused with data manipulation or falsification, which is a willful distortion of data and results. If some of your findings contradict your ideas, you have to mention this and find a plausible explanation for the contradiction.

In addition, your text should not include irrelevant and peripheral information, including overview sentences, as in (6).

6. To show our results, we first introduce all components of experimental system and then describe the outcome of infections.

Indeed, wordiness convolutes your sentences and conceals your ideas from readers. One common source of wordiness is unnecessary intensifiers. Adverbial intensifiers such as “clearly,” “essential,” “quite,” “basically,” “rather,” “fairly,” “really,” and “virtually” not only add verbosity to your sentences, but also lower your results’ credibility. They appeal to the reader’s emotions but lower objectivity, as in the common examples in (7):

7a. Table 3 clearly shows that … 7b. It is obvious from figure 4 that …

Another source of wordiness is nominalizations, i.e., nouns derived from verbs and adjectives paired with weak verbs including “be,” “have,” “do,” “make,” “cause,” “provide,” and “get” and constructions such as “there is/are.”

8a. We tested the hypothesis that there is a disruption of membrane asymmetry. 8b. In this paper we provide an argument that stem cells repopulate injured organs.

In the sentences above, the abstract nominalizations “disruption” and “argument” do not contribute to the clarity of the sentences, but rather clutter them with useless vocabulary that distracts from the meaning. To improve your sentences, avoid unnecessary nominalizations and change passive verbs and constructions into active and direct sentences.

9a. We tested the hypothesis that the membrane asymmetry is disrupted. 9b. In this paper we argue that stem cells repopulate injured organs.

Your Results section is the heart of your paper, representing a year or more of your daily research. So lead your reader through your story by writing direct, concise, and clear sentences.

Rule 4: Be clear, concise, and objective in describing your Results.

3.3. now it is time for your introduction.

Now that you are almost half through drafting your research paper, it is time to update your outline. While describing your Methods and Results, many of you diverged from the original outline and re-focused your ideas. So before you move on to create your Introduction, re-read your Methods and Results sections and change your outline to match your research focus. The updated outline will help you review the general picture of your paper, the topic, the main idea, and the purpose, which are all important for writing your introduction.

The best way to structure your introduction is to follow the three-move approach shown in Table 3 .

Adapted from Swales and Feak [ 11 ].

The moves and information from your outline can help to create your Introduction efficiently and without missing steps. These moves are traffic signs that lead the reader through the road of your ideas. Each move plays an important role in your paper and should be presented with deep thought and care. When you establish the territory, you place your research in context and highlight the importance of your research topic. By finding the niche, you outline the scope of your research problem and enter the scientific dialogue. The final move, “occupying the niche,” is where you explain your research in a nutshell and highlight your paper’s significance. The three moves allow your readers to evaluate their interest in your paper and play a significant role in the paper review process, determining your paper reviewers.

Some academic writers assume that the reader “should follow the paper” to find the answers about your methodology and your findings. As a result, many novice writers do not present their experimental approach and the major findings, wrongly believing that the reader will locate the necessary information later while reading the subsequent sections [ 5 ]. However, this “suspense” approach is not appropriate for scientific writing. To interest the reader, scientific authors should be direct and straightforward and present informative one-sentence summaries of the results and the approach.

Another problem is that writers understate the significance of the Introduction. Many new researchers mistakenly think that all their readers understand the importance of the research question and omit this part. However, this assumption is faulty because the purpose of the section is not to evaluate the importance of the research question in general. The goal is to present the importance of your research contribution and your findings. Therefore, you should be explicit and clear in describing the benefit of the paper.

The Introduction should not be long. Indeed, for most journals, this is a very brief section of about 250 to 600 words, but it might be the most difficult section due to its importance.

Rule 5: Interest your reader in the Introduction section by signalling all its elements and stating the novelty of the work.

3.4. discussion of the results.

For many scientists, writing a Discussion section is as scary as starting a paper. Most of the fear comes from the variation in the section. Since every paper has its unique results and findings, the Discussion section differs in its length, shape, and structure. However, some general principles of writing this section still exist. Knowing these rules, or “moves,” can change your attitude about this section and help you create a comprehensive interpretation of your results.

The purpose of the Discussion section is to place your findings in the research context and “to explain the meaning of the findings and why they are important, without appearing arrogant, condescending, or patronizing” [ 11 ]. The structure of the first two moves is almost a mirror reflection of the one in the Introduction. In the Introduction, you zoom in from general to specific and from the background to your research question; in the Discussion section, you zoom out from the summary of your findings to the research context, as shown in Table 4 .

Adapted from Swales and Feak and Hess [ 11 , 12 ].

The biggest challenge for many writers is the opening paragraph of the Discussion section. Following the moves in Table 1 , the best choice is to start with the study’s major findings that provide the answer to the research question in your Introduction. The most common starting phrases are “Our findings demonstrate . . .,” or “In this study, we have shown that . . .,” or “Our results suggest . . .” In some cases, however, reminding the reader about the research question or even providing a brief context and then stating the answer would make more sense. This is important in those cases where the researcher presents a number of findings or where more than one research question was presented. Your summary of the study’s major findings should be followed by your presentation of the importance of these findings. One of the most frequent mistakes of the novice writer is to assume the importance of his findings. Even if the importance is clear to you, it may not be obvious to your reader. Digesting the findings and their importance to your reader is as crucial as stating your research question.

Another useful strategy is to be proactive in the first move by predicting and commenting on the alternative explanations of the results. Addressing potential doubts will save you from painful comments about the wrong interpretation of your results and will present you as a thoughtful and considerate researcher. Moreover, the evaluation of the alternative explanations might help you create a logical step to the next move of the discussion section: the research context.

The goal of the research context move is to show how your findings fit into the general picture of the current research and how you contribute to the existing knowledge on the topic. This is also the place to discuss any discrepancies and unexpected findings that may otherwise distort the general picture of your paper. Moreover, outlining the scope of your research by showing the limitations, weaknesses, and assumptions is essential and adds modesty to your image as a scientist. However, make sure that you do not end your paper with the problems that override your findings. Try to suggest feasible explanations and solutions.

If your submission does not require a separate Conclusion section, then adding another paragraph about the “take-home message” is a must. This should be a general statement reiterating your answer to the research question and adding its scientific implications, practical application, or advice.

Just as in all other sections of your paper, the clear and precise language and concise comprehensive sentences are vital. However, in addition to that, your writing should convey confidence and authority. The easiest way to illustrate your tone is to use the active voice and the first person pronouns. Accompanied by clarity and succinctness, these tools are the best to convince your readers of your point and your ideas.

Rule 6: Present the principles, relationships, and generalizations in a concise and convincing tone.

4. choosing the best working revision strategies.

Now that you have created the first draft, your attitude toward your writing should have improved. Moreover, you should feel more confident that you are able to accomplish your project and submit your paper within a reasonable timeframe. You also have worked out your writing schedule and followed it precisely. Do not stop ― you are only at the midpoint from your destination. Just as the best and most precious diamond is no more than an unattractive stone recognized only by trained professionals, your ideas and your results may go unnoticed if they are not polished and brushed. Despite your attempts to present your ideas in a logical and comprehensive way, first drafts are frequently a mess. Use the advice of Paul Silvia: “Your first drafts should sound like they were hastily translated from Icelandic by a non-native speaker” [ 2 ]. The degree of your success will depend on how you are able to revise and edit your paper.

The revision can be done at the macrostructure and the microstructure levels [ 13 ]. The macrostructure revision includes the revision of the organization, content, and flow. The microstructure level includes individual words, sentence structure, grammar, punctuation, and spelling.

The best way to approach the macrostructure revision is through the outline of the ideas in your paper. The last time you updated your outline was before writing the Introduction and the Discussion. Now that you have the beginning and the conclusion, you can take a bird’s-eye view of the whole paper. The outline will allow you to see if the ideas of your paper are coherently structured, if your results are logically built, and if the discussion is linked to the research question in the Introduction. You will be able to see if something is missing in any of the sections or if you need to rearrange your information to make your point.

The next step is to revise each of the sections starting from the beginning. Ideally, you should limit yourself to working on small sections of about five pages at a time [ 14 ]. After these short sections, your eyes get used to your writing and your efficiency in spotting problems decreases. When reading for content and organization, you should control your urge to edit your paper for sentence structure and grammar and focus only on the flow of your ideas and logic of your presentation. Experienced researchers tend to make almost three times the number of changes to meaning than novice writers [ 15 , 16 ]. Revising is a difficult but useful skill, which academic writers obtain with years of practice.

In contrast to the macrostructure revision, which is a linear process and is done usually through a detailed outline and by sections, microstructure revision is a non-linear process. While the goal of the macrostructure revision is to analyze your ideas and their logic, the goal of the microstructure editing is to scrutinize the form of your ideas: your paragraphs, sentences, and words. You do not need and are not recommended to follow the order of the paper to perform this type of revision. You can start from the end or from different sections. You can even revise by reading sentences backward, sentence by sentence and word by word.

One of the microstructure revision strategies frequently used during writing center consultations is to read the paper aloud [ 17 ]. You may read aloud to yourself, to a tape recorder, or to a colleague or friend. When reading and listening to your paper, you are more likely to notice the places where the fluency is disrupted and where you stumble because of a very long and unclear sentence or a wrong connector.

Another revision strategy is to learn your common errors and to do a targeted search for them [ 13 ]. All writers have a set of problems that are specific to them, i.e., their writing idiosyncrasies. Remembering these problems is as important for an academic writer as remembering your friends’ birthdays. Create a list of these idiosyncrasies and run a search for these problems using your word processor. If your problem is demonstrative pronouns without summary words, then search for “this/these/those” in your text and check if you used the word appropriately. If you have a problem with intensifiers, then search for “really” or “very” and delete them from the text. The same targeted search can be done to eliminate wordiness. Searching for “there is/are” or “and” can help you avoid the bulky sentences.

The final strategy is working with a hard copy and a pencil. Print a double space copy with font size 14 and re-read your paper in several steps. Try reading your paper line by line with the rest of the text covered with a piece of paper. When you are forced to see only a small portion of your writing, you are less likely to get distracted and are more likely to notice problems. You will end up spotting more unnecessary words, wrongly worded phrases, or unparallel constructions.

After you apply all these strategies, you are ready to share your writing with your friends, colleagues, and a writing advisor in the writing center. Get as much feedback as you can, especially from non-specialists in your field. Patiently listen to what others say to you ― you are not expected to defend your writing or explain what you wanted to say. You may decide what you want to change and how after you receive the feedback and sort it in your head. Even though some researchers make the revision an endless process and can hardly stop after a 14th draft; having from five to seven drafts of your paper is a norm in the sciences. If you can’t stop revising, then set a deadline for yourself and stick to it. Deadlines always help.

Rule 7: Revise your paper at the macrostructure and the microstructure level using different strategies and techniques. Receive feedback and revise again.

5. it is time to submit.

It is late at night again. You are still in your lab finishing revisions and getting ready to submit your paper. You feel happy ― you have finally finished a year’s worth of work. You will submit your paper tomorrow, and regardless of the outcome, you know that you can do it. If one journal does not take your paper, you will take advantage of the feedback and resubmit again. You will have a publication, and this is the most important achievement.

What is even more important is that you have your scheduled writing time that you are going to keep for your future publications, for reading and taking notes, for writing grants, and for reviewing papers. You are not going to lose stamina this time, and you will become a productive scientist. But for now, let’s celebrate the end of the paper.

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Research Paper Structure: A Comprehensive Guide

Table of Contents

Writing a research paper is a daunting task, but understanding its structure can make the process more manageable and lead to a well-organized, coherent paper. This article provides a step-by-step approach to crafting a research paper, ensuring your work is not only informative but also structured for maximum impact.

Introduction

In any form of written communication, content structure plays a vital role in facilitating understanding. A well-structured research paper provides a framework that guides readers through the content, ensuring they grasp the main points efficiently. Without a clear structure, readers may become lost or confused, leading to a loss of interest and a failure to comprehend the intended message.

When it comes to research papers, structure is particularly important due to the complexity of the subject matter. Research papers often involve presenting and analyzing large amounts of data, theories, and arguments. Without a well-defined structure, readers may struggle to navigate through this information overload, resulting in a fragmented understanding of the topic.

How Structure Enhances Clarity and Coherence

A well-structured research paper not only helps readers follow the flow of ideas but also enhances the clarity and coherence of the content. By organizing information into sections, paragraphs, and sentences, researchers can present their thoughts logically and systematically. This logical organization allows readers to easily connect ideas, resulting in a more coherent and engaging reading experience.

One way in which structure enhances clarity is by providing a clear roadmap for readers to follow. By dividing the research paper into sections and subsections, researchers can guide readers through the different aspects of the topic. This allows readers to anticipate the flow of information and mentally prepare themselves for the upcoming content.

In addition, a well-structured research paper ensures that each paragraph serves a specific purpose and contributes to the overall argument or analysis. By clearly defining the main idea of each paragraph and providing supporting evidence or examples, researchers can avoid confusion and ensure that their points are effectively communicated.

Moreover, a structured research paper helps researchers maintain a consistent focus throughout their writing. By organizing their thoughts and ideas, researchers can ensure that they stay on track and avoid going off on tangents. This not only improves the clarity of the paper but also helps maintain the reader's interest and engagement.

Components of a Research Paper Structure

Title and abstract: the initial impression.

The title and abstract are the first elements readers encounter when accessing a research paper. The title should be concise, informative, and capture the essence of the study. For example, a title like "Exploring the Impact of Climate Change on Biodiversity in Tropical Rainforests" immediately conveys the subject matter and scope of the research. The abstract, on the other hand, provides a brief overview of the research problem, methodology, and findings, enticing readers to delve further into the paper. In a well-crafted abstract, researchers may highlight key results or implications of the study, giving readers a glimpse into the value of the research.

Introduction: Setting the Stage

The introduction serves as an invitation for readers to engage with the research paper. It should provide background information on the topic, highlight the research problem, and present the research question or thesis statement. By establishing the context and relevance of the study, the introduction piques readers' interest and prepares them for the content to follow. For instance, in a study on the impact of social media on mental health, the introduction may discuss the rise of social media platforms and the growing concerns about its effects on individuals' well-being. This contextual information helps readers understand the significance of the research and why it is worth exploring further.

Furthermore, the introduction may also outline the objectives of the study, stating what the researchers aim to achieve through their research. This helps readers understand the purpose and scope of the study, setting clear expectations for what they can expect to learn from the paper.

Literature Review: Building the Foundation

The literature review is a critical component of a research paper, as it demonstrates the researcher's understanding of existing knowledge and provides a foundation for the study. It involves reviewing and analyzing relevant scholarly articles, books, and other sources to identify gaps in research and establish the need for the current study. In a comprehensive literature review, researchers may summarize key findings from previous studies, identify areas of disagreement or controversy, and highlight the limitations of existing research.

Moreover, the literature review may also discuss theoretical frameworks or conceptual models that have been used in previous studies. By examining these frameworks, researchers can identify the theoretical underpinnings of their study and explain how their research fits within the broader academic discourse. This not only adds depth to the research paper but also helps readers understand the theoretical context in which the study is situated.

Methodology: Detailing the Process

The research design, data collection methods, and analysis techniques used in the study are described in the methodology section. It should be presented clearly and concisely, allowing readers to understand how the research was conducted and evaluated. A well-described methodology ensures the study's reliability and allows other researchers to replicate or build upon the findings.

Within the methodology section, researchers may provide a detailed description of the study population or sample, explaining how participants were selected and why they were chosen. This helps readers understand the generalizability of the findings and the extent to which they can be applied to a broader population.

In addition, researchers may also discuss any ethical considerations that were taken into account during the study. This could include obtaining informed consent from participants, ensuring confidentiality and anonymity, and following ethical guidelines set by relevant professional organizations. By addressing these ethical concerns, researchers demonstrate their commitment to conducting research in an ethical and responsible manner.

Results: Presenting the Findings

The results section represents the study findings. Researchers should organize their results in a logical manner, using tables, graphs, and descriptive statistics to support their conclusions. The results should be presented objectively, without interpretation or analysis. For instance, for a study on the effectiveness of a new drug in treating a specific medical condition, researchers may present the percentage of patients who experienced positive outcomes, along with any statistical significance associated with the results.

In addition to presenting the main findings, researchers may also include supplementary data or sub-analyses that provide further insights into the research question. This could include subgroup analyses, sensitivity analyses, or additional statistical tests that help explore the robustness of the findings.

Discussion: Interpreting the Results

In the discussion section, researchers analyze and interpret the results in light of the research question or thesis statement. This is an opportunity to explore the implications of the findings, compare them with existing literature, and offer insights into the broader significance of the study. The discussion should be supported by evidence and it is advised to avoid speculation.

Researchers may also discuss the limitations of their study, acknowledging any potential biases or confounding factors that may have influenced the results. By openly addressing these limitations, researchers demonstrate their commitment to transparency and scientific rigor.

Conclusion: Wrapping It Up

The conclusion provides a concise summary of the research paper, restating the main findings and their implications. It should also reflect on the significance of the study and suggest potential avenues for future research. A well-written conclusion leaves a lasting impression on readers, highlighting the importance of the research and its potential impact. By summarizing the key takeaways from the study, researchers ensure that readers walk away with a clear understanding of the research's contribution to the field.

Tips for Organizing Your Research Paper

Starting with a strong thesis statement.

A strong and clear thesis statement serves as the backbone of your research paper. It provides focus and direction, guiding the organization of ideas and arguments throughout the paper. Take the time to craft a well-defined thesis statement that encapsulates the core message of your research.

Creating an Outline: The Blueprint of Your Paper

An outline acts as a blueprint for your research paper, ensuring a logical flow of ideas and preventing disorganization. Divide your paper into sections and subsections, noting the main points and supporting arguments for each. This will help you maintain coherence and clarity throughout the writing process.

Balancing Depth and Breadth in Your Paper

When organizing your research paper, strike a balance between delving deeply into specific points and providing a broader overview. While depth is important for thorough analysis, too much detail can overwhelm readers. Consider your target audience and their level of familiarity with the topic to determine the appropriate level of depth and breadth for your paper.

By understanding the importance of research paper structure and implementing effective organizational strategies, researchers can ensure their work is accessible, engaging, and influential. A well-structured research paper not only communicates ideas clearly but also enhances the overall impact of the study. With careful planning and attention to detail, researchers can master the art of structuring their research papers, making them a valuable contribution to their field of study.

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How To Write A Research Paper

Step-By-Step Tutorial With Examples + FREE Template

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | Expert Reviewer: Dr Eunice Rautenbach | March 2024

For many students, crafting a strong research paper from scratch can feel like a daunting task – and rightly so! In this post, we’ll unpack what a research paper is, what it needs to do , and how to write one – in three easy steps. 🙂 

Overview: Writing A Research Paper

What (exactly) is a research paper.

• How to write a research paper
• Stage 1 : Topic & literature search
• Stage 2 : Structure & outline
• Stage 3 : Iterative writing
• Key takeaways

Let’s start by asking the most important question, “ What is a research paper? ”.

Simply put, a research paper is a scholarly written work where the writer (that’s you!) answers a specific question (this is called a research question ) through evidence-based arguments . Evidence-based is the keyword here. In other words, a research paper is different from an essay or other writing assignments that draw from the writer’s personal opinions or experiences. With a research paper, it’s all about building your arguments based on evidence (we’ll talk more about that evidence a little later).

Now, it’s worth noting that there are many different types of research papers , including analytical papers (the type I just described), argumentative papers, and interpretative papers. Here, we’ll focus on analytical papers , as these are some of the most common – but if you’re keen to learn about other types of research papers, be sure to check out the rest of the blog .

With that basic foundation laid, let’s get down to business and look at how to write a research paper .

Overview: The 3-Stage Process

While there are, of course, many potential approaches you can take to write a research paper, there are typically three stages to the writing process. So, in this tutorial, we’ll present a straightforward three-step process that we use when working with students at Grad Coach.

These three steps are:

• Finding a research topic and reviewing the existing literature
• Developing a provisional structure and outline for your paper, and
• Writing up your initial draft and then refining it iteratively

Let’s dig into each of these.

Need a helping hand?

Step 1: Find a topic and review the literature

As we mentioned earlier, in a research paper, you, as the researcher, will try to answer a question . More specifically, that’s called a research question , and it sets the direction of your entire paper. What’s important to understand though is that you’ll need to answer that research question with the help of high-quality sources – for example, journal articles, government reports, case studies, and so on. We’ll circle back to this in a minute.

The first stage of the research process is deciding on what your research question will be and then reviewing the existing literature (in other words, past studies and papers) to see what they say about that specific research question. In some cases, your professor may provide you with a predetermined research question (or set of questions). However, in many cases, you’ll need to find your own research question within a certain topic area.

Finding a strong research question hinges on identifying a meaningful research gap – in other words, an area that’s lacking in existing research. There’s a lot to unpack here, so if you wanna learn more, check out the plain-language explainer video below.

Once you’ve figured out which question (or questions) you’ll attempt to answer in your research paper, you’ll need to do a deep dive into the existing literature – this is called a “ literature search ”. Again, there are many ways to go about this, but your most likely starting point will be Google Scholar .

If you’re new to Google Scholar, think of it as Google for the academic world. You can start by simply entering a few different keywords that are relevant to your research question and it will then present a host of articles for you to review. What you want to pay close attention to here is the number of citations for each paper – the more citations a paper has, the more credible it is (generally speaking – there are some exceptions, of course).

Ideally, what you’re looking for are well-cited papers that are highly relevant to your topic. That said, keep in mind that citations are a cumulative metric , so older papers will often have more citations than newer papers – just because they’ve been around for longer. So, don’t fixate on this metric in isolation – relevance and recency are also very important.

Beyond Google Scholar, you’ll also definitely want to check out academic databases and aggregators such as Science Direct, PubMed, JStor and so on. These will often overlap with the results that you find in Google Scholar, but they can also reveal some hidden gems – so, be sure to check them out.

Once you’ve worked your way through all the literature, you’ll want to catalogue all this information in some sort of spreadsheet so that you can easily recall who said what, when and within what context. If you’d like, we’ve got a free literature spreadsheet that helps you do exactly that.

Step 2: Develop a structure and outline

With your research question pinned down and your literature digested and catalogued, it’s time to move on to planning your actual research paper .

It might sound obvious, but it’s really important to have some sort of rough outline in place before you start writing your paper. So often, we see students eagerly rushing into the writing phase, only to land up with a disjointed research paper that rambles on in multiple

Now, the secret here is to not get caught up in the fine details . Realistically, all you need at this stage is a bullet-point list that describes (in broad strokes) what you’ll discuss and in what order. It’s also useful to remember that you’re not glued to this outline – in all likelihood, you’ll chop and change some sections once you start writing, and that’s perfectly okay. What’s important is that you have some sort of roadmap in place from the start.

At this stage you might be wondering, “ But how should I structure my research paper? ”. Well, there’s no one-size-fits-all solution here, but in general, a research paper will consist of a few relatively standardised components:

• Introduction
• Literature review
• Methodology

Let’s take a look at each of these.

First up is the introduction section . As the name suggests, the purpose of the introduction is to set the scene for your research paper. There are usually (at least) four ingredients that go into this section – these are the background to the topic, the research problem and resultant research question , and the justification or rationale. If you’re interested, the video below unpacks the introduction section in more detail. 

The next section of your research paper will typically be your literature review . Remember all that literature you worked through earlier? Well, this is where you’ll present your interpretation of all that content . You’ll do this by writing about recent trends, developments, and arguments within the literature – but more specifically, those that are relevant to your research question . The literature review can oftentimes seem a little daunting, even to seasoned researchers, so be sure to check out our extensive collection of literature review content here .

With the introduction and lit review out of the way, the next section of your paper is the research methodology . In a nutshell, the methodology section should describe to your reader what you did (beyond just reviewing the existing literature) to answer your research question. For example, what data did you collect, how did you collect that data, how did you analyse that data and so on? For each choice, you’ll also need to justify why you chose to do it that way, and what the strengths and weaknesses of your approach were.

Now, it’s worth mentioning that for some research papers, this aspect of the project may be a lot simpler . For example, you may only need to draw on secondary sources (in other words, existing data sets). In some cases, you may just be asked to draw your conclusions from the literature search itself (in other words, there may be no data analysis at all). But, if you are required to collect and analyse data, you’ll need to pay a lot of attention to the methodology section. The video below provides an example of what the methodology section might look like.

By this stage of your paper, you will have explained what your research question is, what the existing literature has to say about that question, and how you analysed additional data to try to answer your question. So, the natural next step is to present your analysis of that data . This section is usually called the “results” or “analysis” section and this is where you’ll showcase your findings.

Depending on your school’s requirements, you may need to present and interpret the data in one section – or you might split the presentation and the interpretation into two sections. In the latter case, your “results” section will just describe the data, and the “discussion” is where you’ll interpret that data and explicitly link your analysis back to your research question. If you’re not sure which approach to take, check in with your professor or take a look at past papers to see what the norms are for your programme.

Alright – once you’ve presented and discussed your results, it’s time to wrap it up . This usually takes the form of the “ conclusion ” section. In the conclusion, you’ll need to highlight the key takeaways from your study and close the loop by explicitly answering your research question. Again, the exact requirements here will vary depending on your programme (and you may not even need a conclusion section at all) – so be sure to check with your professor if you’re unsure.

Step 3: Write and refine

Finally, it’s time to get writing. All too often though, students hit a brick wall right about here… So, how do you avoid this happening to you?

Well, there’s a lot to be said when it comes to writing a research paper (or any sort of academic piece), but we’ll share three practical tips to help you get started.

First and foremost , it’s essential to approach your writing as an iterative process. In other words, you need to start with a really messy first draft and then polish it over multiple rounds of editing. Don’t waste your time trying to write a perfect research paper in one go. Instead, take the pressure off yourself by adopting an iterative approach.

Secondly , it’s important to always lean towards critical writing , rather than descriptive writing. What does this mean? Well, at the simplest level, descriptive writing focuses on the “ what ”, while critical writing digs into the “ so what ” – in other words, the implications. If you’re not familiar with these two types of writing, don’t worry! You can find a plain-language explanation here.

Last but not least, you’ll need to get your referencing right. Specifically, you’ll need to provide credible, correctly formatted citations for the statements you make. We see students making referencing mistakes all the time and it costs them dearly. The good news is that you can easily avoid this by using a simple reference manager . If you don’t have one, check out our video about Mendeley, an easy (and free) reference management tool that you can start using today.

Recap: Key Takeaways

We’ve covered a lot of ground here. To recap, the three steps to writing a high-quality research paper are:

• To choose a research question and review the literature
• To plan your paper structure and draft an outline
• To take an iterative approach to writing, focusing on critical writing and strong referencing

Remember, this is just a b ig-picture overview of the research paper development process and there’s a lot more nuance to unpack. So, be sure to grab a copy of our free research paper template to learn more about how to write a research paper.

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Writing Research Papers

• Research Paper Structure

Whether you are writing a B.S. Degree Research Paper or completing a research report for a Psychology course, it is highly likely that you will need to organize your research paper in accordance with American Psychological Association (APA) guidelines.  Here we discuss the structure of research papers according to APA style.

Major Sections of a Research Paper in APA Style

A complete research paper in APA style that is reporting on experimental research will typically contain a Title page, Abstract, Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion, and References sections. 1  Many will also contain Figures and Tables and some will have an Appendix or Appendices.  These sections are detailed as follows (for a more in-depth guide, please refer to " How to Write a Research Paper in APA Style ”, a comprehensive guide developed by Prof. Emma Geller). 2

What is this paper called and who wrote it? – the first page of the paper; this includes the name of the paper, a “running head”, authors, and institutional affiliation of the authors.  The institutional affiliation is usually listed in an Author Note that is placed towards the bottom of the title page.  In some cases, the Author Note also contains an acknowledgment of any funding support and of any individuals that assisted with the research project.

One-paragraph summary of the entire study – typically no more than 250 words in length (and in many cases it is well shorter than that), the Abstract provides an overview of the study.

Introduction

What is the topic and why is it worth studying? – the first major section of text in the paper, the Introduction commonly describes the topic under investigation, summarizes or discusses relevant prior research (for related details, please see the Writing Literature Reviews section of this website), identifies unresolved issues that the current research will address, and provides an overview of the research that is to be described in greater detail in the sections to follow.

What did you do? – a section which details how the research was performed.  It typically features a description of the participants/subjects that were involved, the study design, the materials that were used, and the study procedure.  If there were multiple experiments, then each experiment may require a separate Methods section.  A rule of thumb is that the Methods section should be sufficiently detailed for another researcher to duplicate your research.

What did you find? – a section which describes the data that was collected and the results of any statistical tests that were performed.  It may also be prefaced by a description of the analysis procedure that was used. If there were multiple experiments, then each experiment may require a separate Results section.

What is the significance of your results? – the final major section of text in the paper.  The Discussion commonly features a summary of the results that were obtained in the study, describes how those results address the topic under investigation and/or the issues that the research was designed to address, and may expand upon the implications of those findings.  Limitations and directions for future research are also commonly addressed.

List of articles and any books cited – an alphabetized list of the sources that are cited in the paper (by last name of the first author of each source).  Each reference should follow specific APA guidelines regarding author names, dates, article titles, journal titles, journal volume numbers, page numbers, book publishers, publisher locations, websites, and so on (for more information, please see the Citing References in APA Style page of this website).

Tables and Figures

Graphs and data (optional in some cases) – depending on the type of research being performed, there may be Tables and/or Figures (however, in some cases, there may be neither).  In APA style, each Table and each Figure is placed on a separate page and all Tables and Figures are included after the References.   Tables are included first, followed by Figures.   However, for some journals and undergraduate research papers (such as the B.S. Research Paper or Honors Thesis), Tables and Figures may be embedded in the text (depending on the instructor’s or editor’s policies; for more details, see "Deviations from APA Style" below).

Supplementary information (optional) – in some cases, additional information that is not critical to understanding the research paper, such as a list of experiment stimuli, details of a secondary analysis, or programming code, is provided.  This is often placed in an Appendix.

Variations of Research Papers in APA Style

Although the major sections described above are common to most research papers written in APA style, there are variations on that pattern.  These variations include: 

• Literature reviews – when a paper is reviewing prior published research and not presenting new empirical research itself (such as in a review article, and particularly a qualitative review), then the authors may forgo any Methods and Results sections. Instead, there is a different structure such as an Introduction section followed by sections for each of the different aspects of the body of research being reviewed, and then perhaps a Discussion section. 
• Multi-experiment papers – when there are multiple experiments, it is common to follow the Introduction with an Experiment 1 section, itself containing Methods, Results, and Discussion subsections. Then there is an Experiment 2 section with a similar structure, an Experiment 3 section with a similar structure, and so on until all experiments are covered.  Towards the end of the paper there is a General Discussion section followed by References.  Additionally, in multi-experiment papers, it is common for the Results and Discussion subsections for individual experiments to be combined into single “Results and Discussion” sections.

Departures from APA Style

In some cases, official APA style might not be followed (however, be sure to check with your editor, instructor, or other sources before deviating from standards of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association).  Such deviations may include:

• Placement of Tables and Figures  – in some cases, to make reading through the paper easier, Tables and/or Figures are embedded in the text (for example, having a bar graph placed in the relevant Results section). The embedding of Tables and/or Figures in the text is one of the most common deviations from APA style (and is commonly allowed in B.S. Degree Research Papers and Honors Theses; however you should check with your instructor, supervisor, or editor first). 
• Incomplete research – sometimes a B.S. Degree Research Paper in this department is written about research that is currently being planned or is in progress. In those circumstances, sometimes only an Introduction and Methods section, followed by References, is included (that is, in cases where the research itself has not formally begun).  In other cases, preliminary results are presented and noted as such in the Results section (such as in cases where the study is underway but not complete), and the Discussion section includes caveats about the in-progress nature of the research.  Again, you should check with your instructor, supervisor, or editor first.
• Class assignments – in some classes in this department, an assignment must be written in APA style but is not exactly a traditional research paper (for instance, a student asked to write about an article that they read, and to write that report in APA style). In that case, the structure of the paper might approximate the typical sections of a research paper in APA style, but not entirely.  You should check with your instructor for further guidelines.

Workshops and Downloadable Resources

• For in-person discussion of the process of writing research papers, please consider attending this department’s “Writing Research Papers” workshop (for dates and times, please check the undergraduate workshops calendar).

Downloadable Resources

• How to Write APA Style Research Papers (a comprehensive guide) [ PDF ]
• Tips for Writing APA Style Research Papers (a brief summary) [ PDF ]
• Example APA Style Research Paper (for B.S. Degree – empirical research) [ PDF ]
• Example APA Style Research Paper (for B.S. Degree – literature review) [ PDF ]

Further Resources

How-To Videos     

• Writing Research Paper Videos

APA Journal Article Reporting Guidelines

• Appelbaum, M., Cooper, H., Kline, R. B., Mayo-Wilson, E., Nezu, A. M., & Rao, S. M. (2018). Journal article reporting standards for quantitative research in psychology: The APA Publications and Communications Board task force report . American Psychologist , 73 (1), 3.
• Levitt, H. M., Bamberg, M., Creswell, J. W., Frost, D. M., Josselson, R., & Suárez-Orozco, C. (2018). Journal article reporting standards for qualitative primary, qualitative meta-analytic, and mixed methods research in psychology: The APA Publications and Communications Board task force report . American Psychologist , 73 (1), 26.  

External Resources

• Formatting APA Style Papers in Microsoft Word
• How to Write an APA Style Research Paper from Hamilton University
• WikiHow Guide to Writing APA Research Papers
• Sample APA Formatted Paper with Comments
• Sample APA Formatted Paper
• Tips for Writing a Paper in APA Style

1 VandenBos, G. R. (Ed). (2010). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.) (pp. 41-60).  Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

2 geller, e. (2018).  how to write an apa-style research report . [instructional materials]. , prepared by s. c. pan for ucsd psychology.

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• Formatting Research Papers
• Using Databases and Finding References
• What Types of References Are Appropriate?
• Evaluating References and Taking Notes
• Citing References
• Writing a Literature Review
• Writing Process and Revising
• Improving Scientific Writing
• Academic Integrity and Avoiding Plagiarism
• Writing Research Papers Videos

How to Write a Research Paper

Use the links below to jump directly to any section of this guide:

Research Paper Fundamentals

How to choose a topic or question, how to create a working hypothesis or thesis, common research paper methodologies, how to gather and organize evidence , how to write an outline for your research paper, how to write a rough draft, how to revise your draft, how to produce a final draft, resources for teachers .

It is not fair to say that no one writes anymore. Just about everyone writes text messages, brief emails, or social media posts every single day. Yet, most people don't have a lot of practice with the formal, organized writing required for a good academic research paper. This guide contains links to a variety of resources that can help demystify the process. Some of these resources are intended for teachers; they contain exercises, activities, and teaching strategies. Other resources are intended for direct use by students who are struggling to write papers, or are looking for tips to make the process go more smoothly.

The resources in this section are designed to help students understand the different types of research papers, the general research process, and how to manage their time. Below, you'll find links from university writing centers, the trusted Purdue Online Writing Lab, and more.

What is an Academic Research Paper?

"Genre and the Research Paper" (Purdue OWL)

There are different types of research papers. Different types of scholarly questions will lend themselves to one format or another. This is a brief introduction to the two main genres of research paper: analytic and argumentative. 

"7 Most Popular Types of Research Papers" (Personal-writer.com)

This resource discusses formats that high school students commonly encounter, such as the compare and contrast essay and the definitional essay. Please note that the inclusion of this link is not an endorsement of this company's paid service.

How to Prepare and Plan Out Writing a Research Paper

Teachers can give their students a step-by-step guide like these to help them understand the different steps of the research paper process. These guides can be combined with the time management tools in the next subsection to help students come up with customized calendars for completing their papers.

"Ten Steps for Writing Research Papers" (American University)  

This resource from American University is a comprehensive guide to the research paper writing process, and includes examples of proper research questions and thesis topics.

"Steps in Writing a Research Paper" (SUNY Empire State College)

This guide breaks the research paper process into 11 steps. Each "step" links to a separate page, which describes the work entailed in completing it.

How to Manage Time Effectively

The links below will help students determine how much time is necessary to complete a paper. If your sources are not available online or at your local library, you'll need to leave extra time for the Interlibrary Loan process. Remember that, even if you do not need to consult secondary sources, you'll still need to leave yourself ample time to organize your thoughts.

"Research Paper Planner: Timeline" (Baylor University)

This interactive resource from Baylor University creates a suggested writing schedule based on how much time a student has to work on the assignment.

"Research Paper Planner" (UCLA)

UCLA's library offers this step-by-step guide to the research paper writing process, which also includes a suggested planning calendar.

There's a reason teachers spend a long time talking about choosing a good topic. Without a good topic and a well-formulated research question, it is almost impossible to write a clear and organized paper. The resources below will help you generate ideas and formulate precise questions.

"How to Select a Research Topic" (Univ. of Michigan-Flint)

This resource is designed for college students who are struggling to come up with an appropriate topic. A student who uses this resource and still feels unsure about his or her topic should consult the course instructor for further personalized assistance.

"25 Interesting Research Paper Topics to Get You Started" (Kibin)

This resource, which is probably most appropriate for high school students, provides a list of specific topics to help get students started. It is broken into subsections, such as "paper topics on local issues."

"Writing a Good Research Question" (Grand Canyon University)

This introduction to research questions includes some embedded videos, as well as links to scholarly articles on research questions. This resource would be most appropriate for teachers who are planning lessons on research paper fundamentals.

"How to Write a Research Question the Right Way" (Kibin)

This student-focused resource provides more detail on writing research questions. The language is accessible, and there are embedded videos and examples of good and bad questions.

It is important to have a rough hypothesis or thesis in mind at the beginning of the research process. People who have a sense of what they want to say will have an easier time sorting through scholarly sources and other information. The key, of course, is not to become too wedded to the draft hypothesis or thesis. Just about every working thesis gets changed during the research process.

CrashCourse Video: "Sociology Research Methods" (YouTube)

Although this video is tailored to sociology students, it is applicable to students in a variety of social science disciplines. This video does a good job demonstrating the connection between the brainstorming that goes into selecting a research question and the formulation of a working hypothesis.

"How to Write a Thesis Statement for an Analytical Essay" (YouTube)

Students writing analytical essays will not develop the same type of working hypothesis as students who are writing research papers in other disciplines. For these students, developing the working thesis may happen as a part of the rough draft (see the relevant section below). 

"Research Hypothesis" (Oakland Univ.)

This resource provides some examples of hypotheses in social science disciplines like Political Science and Criminal Justice. These sample hypotheses may also be useful for students in other soft social sciences and humanities disciplines like History.

When grading a research paper, instructors look for a consistent methodology. This section will help you understand different methodological approaches used in research papers. Students will get the most out of these resources if they use them to help prepare for conversations with teachers or discussions in class.

"Types of Research Designs" (USC)

A "research design," used for complex papers, is related to the paper's method. This resource contains introductions to a variety of popular research designs in the social sciences. Although it is not the most intuitive site to read, the information here is very valuable. 

"Major Research Methods" (YouTube)

Although this video is a bit on the dry side, it provides a comprehensive overview of the major research methodologies in a format that might be more accessible to students who have struggled with textbooks or other written resources.

"Humanities Research Strategies" (USC)

This is a portal where students can learn about four methodological approaches for humanities papers: Historical Methodologies, Textual Criticism, Conceptual Analysis, and the Synoptic method.

"Selected Major Social Science Research Methods: Overview" (National Academies Press)

This appendix from the book  Using Science as Evidence in Public Policy , printed by National Academies Press, introduces some methods used in social science papers.

"Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: 6. The Methodology" (USC)

This resource from the University of Southern California's library contains tips for writing a methodology section in a research paper.

How to Determine the Best Methodology for You

Anyone who is new to writing research papers should be sure to select a method in consultation with their instructor. These resources can be used to help prepare for that discussion. They may also be used on their own by more advanced students.

"Choosing Appropriate Research Methodologies" (Palgrave Study Skills)

This friendly and approachable resource from Palgrave Macmillan can be used by students who are just starting to think about appropriate methodologies.

"How to Choose Your Research Methods" (NFER (UK))

This is another approachable resource students can use to help narrow down the most appropriate methods for their research projects.

The resources in this section introduce the process of gathering scholarly sources and collecting evidence. You'll find a range of material here, from introductory guides to advanced explications best suited to college students. Please consult the LitCharts  How to Do Academic Research guide for a more comprehensive list of resources devoted to finding scholarly literature.

Google Scholar

Students who have access to library websites with detailed research guides should start there, but people who do not have access to those resources can begin their search for secondary literature here.

"Gathering Appropriate Information" (Texas Gateway)

This resource from the Texas Gateway for online resources introduces students to the research process, and contains interactive exercises. The level of complexity is suitable for middle school, high school, and introductory college classrooms.

"An Overview of Quantitative and Qualitative Data Collection Methods" (NSF)

This PDF from the National Science Foundation goes into detail about best practices and pitfalls in data collection across multiple types of methodologies.

"Social Science Methods for Data Collection and Analysis" (Swiss FIT)

This resource is appropriate for advanced undergraduates or teachers looking to create lessons on research design and data collection. It covers techniques for gathering data via interviews, observations, and other methods.

"Collecting Data by In-depth Interviewing" (Leeds Univ.)

This resource contains enough information about conducting interviews to make it useful for teachers who want to create a lesson plan, but is also accessible enough for college juniors or seniors to make use of it on their own.

There is no "one size fits all" outlining technique. Some students might devote all their energy and attention to the outline in order to avoid the paper. Other students may benefit from being made to sit down and organize their thoughts into a lengthy sentence outline. The resources in this section include strategies and templates for multiple types of outlines. 

"Topic vs. Sentence Outlines" (UC Berkeley)

This resource introduces two basic approaches to outlining: the shorter topic-based approach, and the longer, more detailed sentence-based approach. This resource also contains videos on how to develop paper paragraphs from the sentence-based outline.

"Types of Outlines and Samples" (Purdue OWL)

The Purdue Online Writing Lab's guide is a slightly less detailed discussion of different types of outlines. It contains several sample outlines.

"Writing An Outline" (Austin C.C.)

This resource from a community college contains sample outlines from an American history class that students can use as models.

"How to Structure an Outline for a College Paper" (YouTube)

This brief (sub-2 minute) video from the ExpertVillage YouTube channel provides a model of outline writing for students who are struggling with the idea.

"Outlining" (Harvard)

This is a good resource to consult after completing a draft outline. It offers suggestions for making sure your outline avoids things like unnecessary repetition.

As with outlines, rough drafts can take on many different forms. These resources introduce teachers and students to the various approaches to writing a rough draft. This section also includes resources that will help you cite your sources appropriately according to the MLA, Chicago, and APA style manuals.

"Creating a Rough Draft for a Research Paper" (Univ. of Minnesota)

This resource is useful for teachers in particular, as it provides some suggested exercises to help students with writing a basic rough draft. 

Rough Draft Assignment (Duke of Definition)

This sample assignment, with a brief list of tips, was developed by a high school teacher who runs a very successful and well-reviewed page of educational resources.

"Creating the First Draft of Your Research Paper" (Concordia Univ.)

This resource will be helpful for perfectionists or procrastinators, as it opens by discussing the problem of avoiding writing. It also provides a short list of suggestions meant to get students writing.

Using Proper Citations

There is no such thing as a rough draft of a scholarly citation. These links to the three major citation guides will ensure that your citations follow the correct format. Please consult the LitCharts How to Cite Your Sources guide for more resources.

Chicago Manual of Style Citation Guide

Some call  The Chicago Manual of Style , which was first published in 1906, "the editors' Bible." The manual is now in its 17th edition, and is popular in the social sciences, historical journals, and some other fields in the humanities.

APA Citation Guide

According to the American Psychological Association, this guide was developed to aid reading comprehension, clarity of communication, and to reduce bias in language in the social and behavioral sciences. Its first full edition was published in 1952, and it is now in its sixth edition.

MLA Citation Guide

The Modern Language Association style is used most commonly within the liberal arts and humanities. The  MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing  was first published in 1985 and (as of 2008) is in its third edition.

Any professional scholar will tell you that the best research papers are made in the revision stage. No matter how strong your research question or working thesis, it is not possible to write a truly outstanding paper without devoting energy to revision. These resources provide examples of revision exercises for the classroom, as well as tips for students working independently.

"The Art of Revision" (Univ. of Arizona)

This resource provides a wealth of information and suggestions for both students and teachers. There is a list of suggested exercises that teachers might use in class, along with a revision checklist that is useful for teachers and students alike.

"Script for Workshop on Revision" (Vanderbilt University)

Vanderbilt's guide for leading a 50-minute revision workshop can serve as a model for teachers who wish to guide students through the revision process during classtime. 

"Revising Your Paper" (Univ. of Washington)

This detailed handout was designed for students who are beginning the revision process. It discusses different approaches and methods for revision, and also includes a detailed list of things students should look for while they revise.

"Revising Drafts" (UNC Writing Center)

This resource is designed for students and suggests things to look for during the revision process. It provides steps for the process and has a FAQ for students who have questions about why it is important to revise.

Conferencing with Writing Tutors and Instructors

No writer is so good that he or she can't benefit from meeting with instructors or peer tutors. These resources from university writing, learning, and communication centers provide suggestions for how to get the most out of these one-on-one meetings.

"Getting Feedback" (UNC Writing Center)

This very helpful resource talks about how to ask for feedback during the entire writing process. It contains possible questions that students might ask when developing an outline, during the revision process, and after the final draft has been graded.

"Prepare for Your Tutoring Session" (Otis College of Art and Design)

This guide from a university's student learning center contains a lot of helpful tips for getting the most out of working with a writing tutor.

"The Importance of Asking Your Professor" (Univ. of Waterloo)

This article from the university's Writing and Communication Centre's blog contains some suggestions for how and when to get help from professors and Teaching Assistants.

Once you've revised your first draft, you're well on your way to handing in a polished paper. These resources—each of them produced by writing professionals at colleges and universities—outline the steps required in order to produce a final draft. You'll find proofreading tips and checklists in text and video form.

"Developing a Final Draft of a Research Paper" (Univ. of Minnesota)

While this resource contains suggestions for revision, it also features a couple of helpful checklists for the last stages of completing a final draft.

Basic Final Draft Tips and Checklist (Univ. of Maryland-University College)

This short and accessible resource, part of UMUC's very thorough online guide to writing and research, contains a very basic checklist for students who are getting ready to turn in their final drafts.

Final Draft Checklist (Everett C.C.)

This is another accessible final draft checklist, appropriate for both high school and college students. It suggests reading your essay aloud at least once.

"How to Proofread Your Final Draft" (YouTube)

This video (approximately 5 minutes), produced by Eastern Washington University, gives students tips on proofreading final drafts.

"Proofreading Tips" (Georgia Southern-Armstrong)

This guide will help students learn how to spot common errors in their papers. It suggests focusing on content and editing for grammar and mechanics.

This final set of resources is intended specifically for high school and college instructors. It provides links to unit plans and classroom exercises that can help improve students' research and writing skills. You'll find resources that give an overview of the process, along with activities that focus on how to begin and how to carry out research. 

"Research Paper Complete Resources Pack" (Teachers Pay Teachers)

This packet of assignments, rubrics, and other resources is designed for high school students. The resources in this packet are aligned to Common Core standards.

"Research Paper—Complete Unit" (Teachers Pay Teachers)

This packet of assignments, notes, PowerPoints, and other resources has a 4/4 rating with over 700 ratings. It is designed for high school teachers, but might also be useful to college instructors who work with freshmen.

"Teaching Students to Write Good Papers" (Yale)

This resource from Yale's Center for Teaching and Learning is designed for college instructors, and it includes links to appropriate activities and exercises.

"Research Paper Writing: An Overview" (CUNY Brooklyn)

CUNY Brooklyn offers this complete lesson plan for introducing students to research papers. It includes an accompanying set of PowerPoint slides.

"Lesson Plan: How to Begin Writing a Research Paper" (San Jose State Univ.)

This lesson plan is designed for students in the health sciences, so teachers will have to modify it for their own needs. It includes a breakdown of the brainstorming, topic selection, and research question process. 

"Quantitative Techniques for Social Science Research" (Univ. of Pittsburgh)

This is a set of PowerPoint slides that can be used to introduce students to a variety of quantitative methods used in the social sciences.

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How to Structure a Research Paper: A Comprehensive Guide

Table of Contents

Are you struggling to structure your research paper? Do you find yourself getting lost in the sea of information, unable to organize your thoughts effectively? Worry not, for this comprehensive guide will provide you with all the necessary tips and tricks to structure your research paper like a pro.

Understanding the Requirements

Before you begin structuring your research paper, it’s essential to understand the requirements of the assignment. Different types of research papers have different requirements, and failing to follow them could result in a lower grade.

Start by reading the assignment guidelines thoroughly. Identify the type of research paper you’re writing and the specific requirements, such as the required length, formatting style, and number of sources. Make sure to take note of any specific instructions or restrictions, such as the type of sources you’re allowed to use.

Once you’ve identified the requirements, create a checklist to ensure you’ve covered all the necessary elements. This will help you stay on track and ensure that you’re meeting the requirements of the assignment.

Next, identify the research question or thesis statement. This will be the central argument of your paper and will guide the structure of your research. Make sure to keep the research question or thesis statement in mind as you structure your paper.

By understanding the requirements and identifying the research question or thesis statement, you’ll be better equipped to structure your research paper effectively.

Creating an Outline

Creating an outline is an essential step in structuring your research paper. An outline helps you organize your thoughts and ensures that your paper has a logical flow.

Start by dividing your paper into sections based on the requirements of the assignment. For example, if you’re writing a literature review, you may divide your paper into sections based on themes or categories.

Next, create subheadings for each section. These subheadings should be specific and descriptive, providing the reader with a clear idea of what to expect in each section.

Under each subheading, include bullet points or brief sentences outlining the main points you’ll cover in that section. This will help you stay on track and ensure that you’re covering all the necessary information.

Once you’ve created your outline, review it to ensure that it’s comprehensive and logical. Make any necessary adjustments and use your outline as a guide as you begin writing your research paper.

By creating an outline, you’ll ensure that your research paper has a clear structure and logical flow, making it easier for the reader to follow your argument.

The importance of creating an outline cannot be overstated. An outline helps you stay focused on the main ideas and arguments you want to convey in your research paper. It also helps you organize your thoughts and ideas and ensures that your paper has a logical flow.

An effective outline should include the following elements:

Introduction: This section should include your thesis statement or research question and provide a brief overview of what the reader can expect in the paper.

Body: This section should be divided into several subheadings, each with its main idea or argument. Each subheading should be specific and descriptive, providing the reader with a clear idea of what to expect in each section.

Conclusion: This section should summarize the main points of your research paper and how they support your thesis statement or research question.

References: This section should include a list of all the sources you used in your research paper.

By creating an outline that includes these key elements, you’ll ensure that your research paper has a clear structure and logical flow, making it easier for the reader to follow your argument.

Writing the Introduction

The introduction is the first section of your research paper, and it plays a crucial role in setting the tone for the rest of the paper. The purpose of the introduction is to provide the reader with an overview of your research paper, including your thesis statement or research question.

To write an effective introduction, start by providing some background information on the topic. This will help the reader understand the context of your research and why it’s important. Next, provide a clear and concise thesis statement or research question that outlines the main argument or point of your research paper.

In addition to providing background information and a thesis statement, an effective introduction should also include an overview of what the reader can expect in the paper. This can include a brief summary of the main points you’ll cover in each section of the paper.

To make your introduction more engaging, consider using a hook to grab the reader’s attention. This could be a quote, a surprising statistic, or an anecdote that relates to your topic.

By following these tips, you’ll be able to write an effective introduction that sets the tone for the rest of your research paper and engages the reader from the beginning.

Developing the Body

The body of your research paper is where you’ll present your arguments and evidence to support your thesis statement or research question. It’s essential to ensure that the body is well-developed and structured to provide a clear and convincing argument.

Start by organizing your research into themes or categories. This will help you avoid repetition and ensure that your arguments are presented in a logical order. Each theme or category should have its own subheading and be supported by evidence from your research.

As you write each section of the body, make sure to connect your arguments to your research question or thesis statement. This will help you stay focused and ensure that your arguments are relevant to the overall purpose of your paper.

Make sure to include transitions between sections to ensure that your paper flows smoothly. Transitions can be as simple as a sentence or two that connects the ideas from one section to the next.

Finally, make sure to provide evidence to support your arguments. This can include data, statistics, examples, or quotes from experts in the field. Make sure to cite your sources properly to avoid plagiarism and provide credibility to your arguments.

By developing the body of your research paper effectively, you’ll provide a clear and convincing argument that supports your thesis statement or research question.

In conclusion, structuring a research paper is essential to ensure that your arguments are presented effectively and convincingly. By understanding the requirements and creating an outline, you’ll provide a clear and logical structure for your paper.

When developing the body of your paper, make sure to organize your research into themes or categories and connect your arguments to your research question or thesis statement. Provide evidence to support your arguments and use transitions to ensure that your paper flows smoothly.

Remember to review and revise your paper to ensure that it’s coherent and well-structured. By following these tips and guidelines, you’ll be well on your way to structuring a research paper like a pro.

Writing Studio

Structuring your research paper.

!n an effort to make our handouts more accessible, we have begun converting our PDF handouts to web pages. Download this page as a PDF: Structuring Your Research Paper Return to Writing Studio Handouts

Many writers find it helpful to structure their research papers in one of the following ways. Keep in mind, some strategies may be more appropriate to some disciplines than to others; in some cases, you may also want to apply a combination of these approaches:

4 Approaches to Structuring Your Research Paper

1. problem-to-solution :.

In the first part of your paper, label a problem and explain its importance; in the second part, propose solutions for that problem based on your research.

2. Cause-to-Effect or Effect-to-Cause :

If your research question (RQ) is “How does free trade affect the economy in Indonesia?”, you are beginning with a cause (free trade) and trying to explain the effects (the economy in Indonesia). If your RQ is “Why is Indonesia impoverished?”, your paper will attempt to explain the causes of a certain phenomenon.

3. Unknown –> Known –> Unknown :

Raise a question (“unknown”), and use the research you have done (“known”) to answer it. After presenting your research and explaining your conclusions, you can label new questions raised by your research. What questions or problems have your sources overlooked?

4. Comparison-and-Contrast :

Do your researchers provide different data? Do they provide similar data but interpret the data differently? Evaluate the merits and shortcomings of different approaches, and be specific about where your evaluation is coming from.

5 Practice Exercises

1. take about 10-15 minutes and write what you want your final paper to look like..

This will help you identify themes that are important to bring to the forefront and will also give you a sense of what you’re working toward. (As you get further into developing your research paper, you may repeat this exercise and find that things have changed.)

2. On the blank side of a note-card, write down a specific topic that you are addressing.

On the back (lined) side of the card, write down the specific points that you want to make or discuss on that topic. Then, arrange your note-cards in an order that makes sense to you. This exercise may also help you to identify and set aside interesting-but-irrelevant topics from your research.

3. Establish a particular color for each topic that you need to address.

Go through your research notes and paper drafts and assign each sentence, sometimes each part of a sentence, its corresponding color. This will give you a visual indicator of how similar ideas may be grouped together. You may then wish to subdivide groups.

4. Cut and paste your paper, both physically and electronically.

Print off a copy of your notes or draft and cut it into paragraphs, chunks of paragraphs, sentences, or words. Then (in a room where there is not a fan or wind flow), rearrange the slips of paper in a way that makes sense to you; tape or glue them down in an order that you like. You could then electronically make those readjustments and reassess how this new structure contributes to building up your argument.

5. Once you have composed some paragraphs, try writing a one-sentence summary in the margin next to each.

Look at your one-sentence summaries, and see if you need to re-order paragraphs or parts of paragraphs to help establish continuity in your thought.

Adapted from Bruce Ballenger’s The Curious Researcher: A Guide to Writing Research Papers, Fourth Edition . NY: Pearson-Longman, 2004.

Last revised: July 2007 | Adapted for web delivery: November 2022

Reference management. Clean and simple.

How to start your research paper [step-by-step guide]

1. Choose your topic

2. find information on your topic, 3. create a thesis statement, 4. create a research paper outline, 5. organize your notes, 6. write your introduction, 7. write your first draft of the body, 9. write your conclusion, 10. revise again, edit, and proofread, frequently asked questions about starting your research paper, related articles.

Research papers can be short or in-depth, but no matter what type of research paper, they all follow pretty much the same pattern and have the same structure .

A research paper is a paper that makes an argument about a topic based on research and analysis.

There will be some basic differences, but if you can write one type of research paper, you can write another. Below is a step-by-step guide to starting and completing your research paper.

Choose a topic that interests you. Writing your research paper will be so much more pleasant with a topic that you actually want to know more about. Your interest will show in the way you write and effort you put into the paper. Consider these issues when coming up with a topic:

• make sure your topic is not too broad
• narrow it down if you're using terms that are too general

Academic search engines are a great source to find background information on your topic. Your institution's library will most likely provide access to plenty of online research databases. Take a look at our guide on how to efficiently search online databases for academic research to learn how to gather all the information needed on your topic.

Tip: If you’re struggling with finding research, consider meeting with an academic librarian to help you come up with more balanced keywords.

If you’re struggling to find a topic for your thesis, take a look at our guide on how to come up with a thesis topic .

The thesis statement is one of the most important elements of any piece of academic writing. It can be defined as a very brief statement of what the main point or central message of your paper is. Our thesis statement guide will help you write an excellent thesis statement.

In the next step, you need to create your research paper outline . The outline is the skeleton of your research paper. Simply start by writing down your thesis and the main ideas you wish to present. This will likely change as your research progresses; therefore, do not worry about being too specific in the early stages of writing your outline.

Then, fill out your outline with the following components:

• the main ideas that you want to cover in the paper
• the types of evidence that you will use to support your argument
• quotes from secondary sources that you may want to use

Organizing all the information you have gathered according to your outline will help you later on in the writing process. Analyze your notes, check for accuracy, verify the information, and make sure you understand all the information you have gathered in a way that you can communicate your findings effectively.

Start with the introduction. It will set the direction of your paper and help you a lot as you write. Waiting to write it at the end can leave you with a poorly written setup to an otherwise well-written paper.

The body of your paper argues, explains or describes your topic. Start with the first topic from your outline. Ideally, you have organized your notes in a way that you can work through your research paper outline and have all the notes ready.

After your first draft, take some time to check the paper for content errors. Rearrange ideas, make changes and check if the order of your paragraphs makes sense. At this point, it is helpful to re-read the research paper guidelines and make sure you have followed the format requirements. You can also use free grammar and proof reading checkers such as Grammarly .

Tip: Consider reading your paper from back to front when you undertake your initial revision. This will help you ensure that your argument and organization are sound.

Write your conclusion last and avoid including any new information that has not already been presented in the body of the paper. Your conclusion should wrap up your paper and show that your research question has been answered.

Allow a few days to pass after you finished writing the final draft of your research paper, and then start making your final corrections. The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill gives some great advice here on how to revise, edit, and proofread your paper.

Tip: Take a break from your paper before you start your final revisions. Then, you’ll be able to approach your paper with fresh eyes.

As part of your final revision, be sure to check that you’ve cited everything correctly and that you have a full bibliography. Use a reference manager like Paperpile to organize your research and to create accurate citations.

The first step to start writing a research paper is to choose a topic. Make sure your topic is not too broad; narrow it down if you're using terms that are too general.

The format of your research paper will vary depending on the journal you submit to. Make sure to check first which citation style does the journal follow, in order to format your paper accordingly. Check Getting started with your research paper outline to have an idea of what a research paper looks like.

The last step of your research paper should be proofreading. Allow a few days to pass after you finished writing the final draft of your research paper, and then start making your final corrections. The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill gives some great advice here on how to revise, edit and proofread your paper.

There are plenty of software you can use to write a research paper. We recommend our own citation software, Paperpile , as well as grammar and proof reading checkers such as Grammarly .

• How to write a research paper

Last updated

11 January 2024

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With proper planning, knowledge, and framework, completing a research paper can be a fulfilling and exciting experience. 

Though it might initially sound slightly intimidating, this guide will help you embrace the challenge. 

By documenting your findings, you can inspire others and make a difference in your field. Here's how you can make your research paper unique and comprehensive.

• What is a research paper?

Research papers allow you to demonstrate your knowledge and understanding of a particular topic. These papers are usually lengthier and more detailed than typical essays, requiring deeper insight into the chosen topic.

To write a research paper, you must first choose a topic that interests you and is relevant to the field of study. Once you’ve selected your topic, gathering as many relevant resources as possible, including books, scholarly articles, credible websites, and other academic materials, is essential. You must then read and analyze these sources, summarizing their key points and identifying gaps in the current research.

You can formulate your ideas and opinions once you thoroughly understand the existing research. To get there might involve conducting original research, gathering data, or analyzing existing data sets. It could also involve presenting an original argument or interpretation of the existing research.

Writing a successful research paper involves presenting your findings clearly and engagingly, which might involve using charts, graphs, or other visual aids to present your data and using concise language to explain your findings. You must also ensure your paper adheres to relevant academic formatting guidelines, including proper citations and references.

Overall, writing a research paper requires a significant amount of time, effort, and attention to detail. However, it is also an enriching experience that allows you to delve deeply into a subject that interests you and contribute to the existing body of knowledge in your chosen field.

• How long should a research paper be?

Research papers are deep dives into a topic. Therefore, they tend to be longer pieces of work than essays or opinion pieces. 

However, a suitable length depends on the complexity of the topic and your level of expertise. For instance, are you a first-year college student or an experienced professional? 

Also, remember that the best research papers provide valuable information for the benefit of others. Therefore, the quality of information matters most, not necessarily the length. Being concise is valuable.

Following these best practice steps will help keep your process simple and productive:

1. Gaining a deep understanding of any expectations

Before diving into your intended topic or beginning the research phase, take some time to orient yourself. Suppose there’s a specific topic assigned to you. In that case, it’s essential to deeply understand the question and organize your planning and approach in response. Pay attention to the key requirements and ensure you align your writing accordingly. 

This preparation step entails

Deeply understanding the task or assignment

Being clear about the expected format and length

Familiarizing yourself with the citation and referencing requirements 

Understanding any defined limits for your research contribution

Where applicable, speaking to your professor or research supervisor for further clarification

2. Choose your research topic

Select a research topic that aligns with both your interests and available resources. Ideally, focus on a field where you possess significant experience and analytical skills. In crafting your research paper, it's crucial to go beyond summarizing existing data and contribute fresh insights to the chosen area.

Consider narrowing your focus to a specific aspect of the topic. For example, if exploring the link between technology and mental health, delve into how social media use during the pandemic impacts the well-being of college students. Conducting interviews and surveys with students could provide firsthand data and unique perspectives, adding substantial value to the existing knowledge.

When finalizing your topic, adhere to legal and ethical norms in the relevant area (this ensures the integrity of your research, protects participants' rights, upholds intellectual property standards, and ensures transparency and accountability). Following these principles not only maintains the credibility of your work but also builds trust within your academic or professional community.

For instance, in writing about medical research, consider legal and ethical norms , including patient confidentiality laws and informed consent requirements. Similarly, if analyzing user data on social media platforms, be mindful of data privacy regulations, ensuring compliance with laws governing personal information collection and use. Aligning with legal and ethical standards not only avoids potential issues but also underscores the responsible conduct of your research.

3. Gather preliminary research

Once you’ve landed on your topic, it’s time to explore it further. You’ll want to discover more about available resources and existing research relevant to your assignment at this stage. 

This exploratory phase is vital as you may discover issues with your original idea or realize you have insufficient resources to explore the topic effectively. This key bit of groundwork allows you to redirect your research topic in a different, more feasible, or more relevant direction if necessary. 

Spending ample time at this stage ensures you gather everything you need, learn as much as you can about the topic, and discover gaps where the topic has yet to be sufficiently covered, offering an opportunity to research it further. 

4. Define your research question

To produce a well-structured and focused paper, it is imperative to formulate a clear and precise research question that will guide your work. Your research question must be informed by the existing literature and tailored to the scope and objectives of your project. By refining your focus, you can produce a thoughtful and engaging paper that effectively communicates your ideas to your readers.

5. Write a thesis statement

A thesis statement is a one-to-two-sentence summary of your research paper's main argument or direction. It serves as an overall guide to summarize the overall intent of the research paper for you and anyone wanting to know more about the research.

A strong thesis statement is:

Concise and clear: Explain your case in simple sentences (avoid covering multiple ideas). It might help to think of this section as an elevator pitch.

Specific: Ensure that there is no ambiguity in your statement and that your summary covers the points argued in the paper.

Debatable: A thesis statement puts forward a specific argument––it is not merely a statement but a debatable point that can be analyzed and discussed.

Here are three thesis statement examples from different disciplines:

Psychology thesis example: "We're studying adults aged 25-40 to see if taking short breaks for mindfulness can help with stress. Our goal is to find practical ways to manage anxiety better."

Environmental science thesis example: "This research paper looks into how having more city parks might make the air cleaner and keep people healthier. I want to find out if more green spaces means breathing fewer carcinogens in big cities."

UX research thesis example: "This study focuses on improving mobile banking for older adults using ethnographic research, eye-tracking analysis, and interactive prototyping. We investigate the usefulness of eye-tracking analysis with older individuals, aiming to spark debate and offer fresh perspectives on UX design and digital inclusivity for the aging population."

6. Conduct in-depth research

A research paper doesn’t just include research that you’ve uncovered from other papers and studies but your fresh insights, too. You will seek to become an expert on your topic––understanding the nuances in the current leading theories. You will analyze existing research and add your thinking and discoveries.  It's crucial to conduct well-designed research that is rigorous, robust, and based on reliable sources. Suppose a research paper lacks evidence or is biased. In that case, it won't benefit the academic community or the general public. Therefore, examining the topic thoroughly and furthering its understanding through high-quality research is essential. That usually means conducting new research. Depending on the area under investigation, you may conduct surveys, interviews, diary studies , or observational research to uncover new insights or bolster current claims.

7. Determine supporting evidence

Not every piece of research you’ve discovered will be relevant to your research paper. It’s important to categorize the most meaningful evidence to include alongside your discoveries. It's important to include evidence that doesn't support your claims to avoid exclusion bias and ensure a fair research paper.

8. Write a research paper outline

Before diving in and writing the whole paper, start with an outline. It will help you to see if more research is needed, and it will provide a framework by which to write a more compelling paper. Your supervisor may even request an outline to approve before beginning to write the first draft of the full paper. An outline will include your topic, thesis statement, key headings, short summaries of the research, and your arguments.

9. Write your first draft

Once you feel confident about your outline and sources, it’s time to write your first draft. While penning a long piece of content can be intimidating, if you’ve laid the groundwork, you will have a structure to help you move steadily through each section. To keep up motivation and inspiration, it’s often best to keep the pace quick. Stopping for long periods can interrupt your flow and make jumping back in harder than writing when things are fresh in your mind.

10. Cite your sources correctly

It's always a good practice to give credit where it's due, and the same goes for citing any works that have influenced your paper. Building your arguments on credible references adds value and authenticity to your research. In the formatting guidelines section, you’ll find an overview of different citation styles (MLA, CMOS, or APA), which will help you meet any publishing or academic requirements and strengthen your paper's credibility. It is essential to follow the guidelines provided by your school or the publication you are submitting to ensure the accuracy and relevance of your citations.

11. Ensure your work is original

It is crucial to ensure the originality of your paper, as plagiarism can lead to serious consequences. To avoid plagiarism, you should use proper paraphrasing and quoting techniques. Paraphrasing is rewriting a text in your own words while maintaining the original meaning. Quoting involves directly citing the source. Giving credit to the original author or source is essential whenever you borrow their ideas or words. You can also use plagiarism detection tools such as Scribbr or Grammarly to check the originality of your paper. These tools compare your draft writing to a vast database of online sources. If you find any accidental plagiarism, you should correct it immediately by rephrasing or citing the source.

12. Revise, edit, and proofread

One of the essential qualities of excellent writers is their ability to understand the importance of editing and proofreading. Even though it's tempting to call it a day once you've finished your writing, editing your work can significantly improve its quality. It's natural to overlook the weaker areas when you've just finished writing a paper. Therefore, it's best to take a break of a day or two, or even up to a week, to refresh your mind. This way, you can return to your work with a new perspective. After some breathing room, you can spot any inconsistencies, spelling and grammar errors, typos, or missing citations and correct them. 

• The best research paper format 

The format of your research paper should align with the requirements set forth by your college, school, or target publication. 

There is no one “best” format, per se. Depending on the stated requirements, you may need to include the following elements:

Title page: The title page of a research paper typically includes the title, author's name, and institutional affiliation and may include additional information such as a course name or instructor's name. 

Table of contents: Include a table of contents to make it easy for readers to find specific sections of your paper.

Abstract: The abstract is a summary of the purpose of the paper.

Methods : In this section, describe the research methods used. This may include collecting data , conducting interviews, or doing field research .

Results: Summarize the conclusions you drew from your research in this section.

Discussion: In this section, discuss the implications of your research . Be sure to mention any significant limitations to your approach and suggest areas for further research.

Tables, charts, and illustrations: Use tables, charts, and illustrations to help convey your research findings and make them easier to understand.

Works cited or reference page: Include a works cited or reference page to give credit to the sources that you used to conduct your research.

Bibliography: Provide a list of all the sources you consulted while conducting your research.

Dedication and acknowledgments : Optionally, you may include a dedication and acknowledgments section to thank individuals who helped you with your research.

• General style and formatting guidelines

Formatting your research paper means you can submit it to your college, journal, or other publications in compliance with their criteria.

Research papers tend to follow the American Psychological Association (APA), Modern Language Association (MLA), or Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS) guidelines.

Here’s how each style guide is typically used:

Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS):

CMOS is a versatile style guide used for various types of writing. It's known for its flexibility and use in the humanities. CMOS provides guidelines for citations, formatting, and overall writing style. It allows for both footnotes and in-text citations, giving writers options based on their preferences or publication requirements.

American Psychological Association (APA):

APA is common in the social sciences. It’s hailed for its clarity and emphasis on precision. It has specific rules for citing sources, creating references, and formatting papers. APA style uses in-text citations with an accompanying reference list. It's designed to convey information efficiently and is widely used in academic and scientific writing.

Modern Language Association (MLA):

MLA is widely used in the humanities, especially literature and language studies. It emphasizes the author-page format for in-text citations and provides guidelines for creating a "Works Cited" page. MLA is known for its focus on the author's name and the literary works cited. It’s frequently used in disciplines that prioritize literary analysis and critical thinking.

To confirm you're using the latest style guide, check the official website or publisher's site for updates, consult academic resources, and verify the guide's publication date. Online platforms and educational resources may also provide summaries and alerts about any revisions or additions to the style guide.

Citing sources

When working on your research paper, it's important to cite the sources you used properly. Your citation style will guide you through this process. Generally, there are three parts to citing sources in your research paper: 

First, provide a brief citation in the body of your essay. This is also known as a parenthetical or in-text citation. 

Second, include a full citation in the Reference list at the end of your paper. Different types of citations include in-text citations, footnotes, and reference lists. 

In-text citations include the author's surname and the date of the citation. 

Footnotes appear at the bottom of each page of your research paper. They may also be summarized within a reference list at the end of the paper. 

A reference list includes all of the research used within the paper at the end of the document. It should include the author, date, paper title, and publisher listed in the order that aligns with your citation style.

10 research paper writing tips:

Following some best practices is essential to writing a research paper that contributes to your field of study and creates a positive impact.

These tactics will help you structure your argument effectively and ensure your work benefits others:

Clear and precise language:  Ensure your language is unambiguous. Use academic language appropriately, but keep it simple. Also, provide clear takeaways for your audience.

Effective idea separation:  Organize the vast amount of information and sources in your paper with paragraphs and titles. Create easily digestible sections for your readers to navigate through.

Compelling intro:  Craft an engaging introduction that captures your reader's interest. Hook your audience and motivate them to continue reading.

Thorough revision and editing:  Take the time to review and edit your paper comprehensively. Use tools like Grammarly to detect and correct small, overlooked errors.

Thesis precision:  Develop a clear and concise thesis statement that guides your paper. Ensure that your thesis aligns with your research's overall purpose and contribution.

Logical flow of ideas:  Maintain a logical progression throughout the paper. Use transitions effectively to connect different sections and maintain coherence.

Critical evaluation of sources:  Evaluate and critically assess the relevance and reliability of your sources. Ensure that your research is based on credible and up-to-date information.

Thematic consistency:  Maintain a consistent theme throughout the paper. Ensure that all sections contribute cohesively to the overall argument.

Relevant supporting evidence:  Provide concise and relevant evidence to support your arguments. Avoid unnecessary details that may distract from the main points.

Embrace counterarguments:  Acknowledge and address opposing views to strengthen your position. Show that you have considered alternative arguments in your field.

7 research tips 

If you want your paper to not only be well-written but also contribute to the progress of human knowledge, consider these tips to take your paper to the next level:

Selecting the appropriate topic: The topic you select should align with your area of expertise, comply with the requirements of your project, and have sufficient resources for a comprehensive investigation.

Use academic databases: Academic databases such as PubMed, Google Scholar, and JSTOR offer a wealth of research papers that can help you discover everything you need to know about your chosen topic.

Critically evaluate sources: It is important not to accept research findings at face value. Instead, it is crucial to critically analyze the information to avoid jumping to conclusions or overlooking important details. A well-written research paper requires a critical analysis with thorough reasoning to support claims.

Diversify your sources: Expand your research horizons by exploring a variety of sources beyond the standard databases. Utilize books, conference proceedings, and interviews to gather diverse perspectives and enrich your understanding of the topic.

Take detailed notes: Detailed note-taking is crucial during research and can help you form the outline and body of your paper.

Stay up on trends: Keep abreast of the latest developments in your field by regularly checking for recent publications. Subscribe to newsletters, follow relevant journals, and attend conferences to stay informed about emerging trends and advancements. 

Engage in peer review: Seek feedback from peers or mentors to ensure the rigor and validity of your research . Peer review helps identify potential weaknesses in your methodology and strengthens the overall credibility of your findings.

• The real-world impact of research papers

Writing a research paper is more than an academic or business exercise. The experience provides an opportunity to explore a subject in-depth, broaden one's understanding, and arrive at meaningful conclusions. With careful planning, dedication, and hard work, writing a research paper can be a fulfilling and enriching experience contributing to advancing knowledge.

How do I publish my research paper? 

Many academics wish to publish their research papers. While challenging, your paper might get traction if it covers new and well-written information. To publish your research paper, find a target publication, thoroughly read their guidelines, format your paper accordingly, and send it to them per their instructions. You may need to include a cover letter, too. After submission, your paper may be peer-reviewed by experts to assess its legitimacy, quality, originality, and methodology. Following review, you will be informed by the publication whether they have accepted or rejected your paper. 

What is a good opening sentence for a research paper? 

Beginning your research paper with a compelling introduction can ensure readers are interested in going further. A relevant quote, a compelling statistic, or a bold argument can start the paper and hook your reader. Remember, though, that the most important aspect of a research paper is the quality of the information––not necessarily your ability to storytell, so ensure anything you write aligns with your goals.

Research paper vs. a research proposal—what’s the difference?

While some may confuse research papers and proposals, they are different documents. 

A research proposal comes before a research paper. It is a detailed document that outlines an intended area of exploration. It includes the research topic, methodology, timeline, sources, and potential conclusions. Research proposals are often required when seeking approval to conduct research. 

A research paper is a summary of research findings. A research paper follows a structured format to present those findings and construct an argument or conclusion.

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Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

Writing a Research Paper

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The Research Paper

There will come a time in most students' careers when they are assigned a research paper. Such an assignment often creates a great deal of unneeded anxiety in the student, which may result in procrastination and a feeling of confusion and inadequacy. This anxiety frequently stems from the fact that many students are unfamiliar and inexperienced with this genre of writing. Never fear—inexperience and unfamiliarity are situations you can change through practice! Writing a research paper is an essential aspect of academics and should not be avoided on account of one's anxiety. In fact, the process of writing a research paper can be one of the more rewarding experiences one may encounter in academics. What is more, many students will continue to do research throughout their careers, which is one of the reasons this topic is so important.

Becoming an experienced researcher and writer in any field or discipline takes a great deal of practice. There are few individuals for whom this process comes naturally. Remember, even the most seasoned academic veterans have had to learn how to write a research paper at some point in their career. Therefore, with diligence, organization, practice, a willingness to learn (and to make mistakes!), and, perhaps most important of all, patience, students will find that they can achieve great things through their research and writing.

The pages in this section cover the following topic areas related to the process of writing a research paper:

• Genre - This section will provide an overview for understanding the difference between an analytical and argumentative research paper.
• Choosing a Topic - This section will guide the student through the process of choosing topics, whether the topic be one that is assigned or one that the student chooses themselves.
• Identifying an Audience - This section will help the student understand the often times confusing topic of audience by offering some basic guidelines for the process.
• Where Do I Begin - This section concludes the handout by offering several links to resources at Purdue, and also provides an overview of the final stages of writing a research paper.

How to Write a Research Paper

If you already have a headache trying to understand what research paper is all about, we have created an ultimate guide for you on how to write a research paper. You will find all the answers to your questions regarding structure, planning, doing investigation, finding the topic that appeals to you. Plus, you will find out the secret to an excellent paper. Are you at the edge of your seat? Let us start with the basics then.

• What is a Research Paper
• Reasons for Writing a Research Paper
• Report Papers and Thesis Papers
• How to Start a Research Paper
• How to Choose a Topic for a Research Paper
• How to Write a Proposal for a Research Paper
• How to Write a Research Plan
• How to Do Research
• How to Write an Outline for a Research Paper
• How to Write a Thesis Statement for a Research Paper
• How to Write a Research Paper Rough Draft
• How to Write an Introduction for a Research Paper
• How to Write a Body of a Research Paper
• How to Write a Conclusion for a Research Paper
• How to Write an Abstract for a Research Paper
• How to Revise and Edit a Research Paper
• How to Write a Bibliography for a Research Paper
• What Makes a Good Research Paper

Research Paper Writing Services

What is a research paper.

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You probably know the saying ‘the devil is not as black as he is painted’. This particular saying is absolutely true when it comes to writing a research paper. Your feet are cold even with the thought of this assignment. You have heard terrifying stories from older students. You have never done this before, so certainly you are scared. What is a research paper? How should I start? What are all these requirements about?

Luckily, you have a friend in need. That is our writing service. First and foremost, let us clarify the definition. A research paper is a piece of academic writing that provides information about a particular topic that you’ve researched . In other words, you choose a topic: about historical events, the work of some artist, some social issues etc. Then you collect data on the given topic and analyze it. Finally, you put your analysis on paper. See, it is not as scary as it seems. If you are still having doubts, whether you can handle it yourself, we are here to help you. Our team of writers can help you choose the topic, or give you advice on how to plan your work, or how to start, or craft a paper for you. Just contact us 24/7 and see everything yourself.

5 Reasons for Writing a Research Paper

Why should I spend my time writing some academic paper? What is the use of it? Is not some practical knowledge more important? The list of questions is endless when it comes to a research paper. That is why we have outlined 5 main reasons why writing a research paper is a good thing.

• You will learn how to organize your time

If you want to write a research paper, you will have to learn how to manage your time. This type of assignment cannot be done overnight. It requires careful planning and you will need to learn how to do it. Later, you will be able to use these time-managing skills in your personal life, so why not developing them?

• You will discover your writing skills

You cannot know something before you try it. This rule relates to writing as well. You cannot claim that you cannot write until you try it yourself. It will be really difficult at the beginning, but then the words will come to your head themselves.

• You will improve your analytical skills

Writing a research paper is all about investigation and analysis. You will need to collect data, examine and classify it. These skills are needed in modern life more than anything else is.

• You will gain confidence

Once you do your own research, it gives you the feeling of confidence in yourself. The reason is simple human brain likes solving puzzles and your assignment is just another puzzle to be solved.

• You will learn how to persuade the reader

When you write your paper, you should always remember that you are writing it for someone to read. Moreover, you want this someone to believe in your ideas. For this reason, you will have to learn different convincing methods and techniques. You will learn how to make your writing persuasive. In turns, you will be able to use these methods in real life.

What is the Difference between Report and Thesis Papers?

A common question is ‘what is the difference between a report paper and a thesis paper?’ The difference lies in the aim of these two assignments. While the former aims at presenting the information, the latter aims at providing your opinion on the matter. In other words, in a report paper you have to summarize your findings. In a thesis paper, you choose some issue and defend your point of view by persuading the reader. It is that simple.

A thesis paper is a more common assignment than a report paper. This task will help a professor to evaluate your analytical skills and skills to present your ideas logically. These skills are more important than just the ability to collect and summarize data.

How to Write a Research Paper Step by Step

Research comes from the French word  rechercher , meaning “to seek out.” Writing a research paper requires you to seek out information about a subject, take a stand on it, and back it up with the opinions, ideas, and views of others. What results is a printed paper variously known as a term paper or library paper, usually between five and fifteen pages long—most instructors specify a minimum length—in which you present your views and findings on the chosen subject.

It is not a secret that the majority of students hate writing a research paper. The reason is simple it steals your time and energy. Not to mention, constant anxiety that you will not be able to meet the deadline or that you will forget about some academic requirement.

We will not lie to you; a research paper is a difficult assignment. You will have to spend a lot of time. You will need to read, to analyze, and to search for the material. You will probably be stuck sometimes. However, if you organize your work smart, you will gain something that is worth all the effort – knowledge, experience, and high grades.

The reason why many students fail writing a research paper is that nobody explained them how to start and how to plan their work. Luckily, you have found our writing service and we are ready to shed the light on this dark matter.

We have created a step by step guide for you on how to write a research paper. We will dwell upon the structure, the writing tips, the writing strategies as well as academic requirements. Read this whole article and you will see that you can handle writing this assignment and our team of writers is here to assist you.

How to Start a Research Paper?

It all starts with the assignment. Your professor gives you the task. It may be either some general issue or specific topic to write about. Your assignment is your first guide to success. If you understand what you need to do according to the assignment, you are on the road to high results. Do not be scared to clarify your task if you need to. There is nothing wrong in asking a question if you want to do something right. You can ask your professor or you can ask our writers who know a thing or two in academic writing.

It is essential to understand the assignment. A good beginning makes a good ending, so start smart.

Learn how to start a research paper .

Choosing a Topic for a Research Paper

We have already mentioned that it is not enough to do great research. You need to persuade the reader that you have made some great research. What convinces better that an eye-catching topic? That is why it is important to understand how to choose a topic for a research paper.

First, you need to delimit the general idea to a more specific one. Secondly, you need to find what makes this topic interesting for you and for the academia. Finally, you need to refine you topic. Remember, it is not something you will do in one day. You can be reshaping your topic throughout your whole writing process. Still, reshaping not changing it completely. That is why keep in your head one main idea: your topic should be precise and compelling .

Learn how to choose a topic for a research paper .

How to Write a Proposal for a Research Paper?

If you do not know what a proposal is, let us explain it to you. A proposal should answer three main questions:

• What is the main aim of your investigation?
• Why is your investigation important?
• How are you going to achieve the results?

In other words, proposal should show why your topic is interesting and how you are going to prove it. As to writing requirements, they may differ. That is why make sure you find out all the details at your department. You can ask your departmental administrator or find information online at department’s site. It is crucial to follow all the administrative requirements, as it will influence your grade.

Learn how to write a proposal for a research paper .

How to Write a Research Plan?

The next step is writing a plan. You have already decided on the main issues, you have chosen the bibliography, and you have clarified the methods. Here comes the planning. If you want to avoid writer’s block, you have to structure you work. Discuss your strategies and ideas with your instructor. Think thoroughly why you need to present some data and ideas first and others second. Remember that there are basic structure elements that your research paper should include:

• Thesis Statement
• Introduction
• Bibliography

You should keep in mind this skeleton when planning your work. This will keep your mind sharp and your ideas will flow logically.

Learn how to write a research plan .

How to Do Research?

Your research will include three stages: collecting data, reading and analyzing it, and writing itself.

First, you need to collect all the material that you will need for you investigation: films, documents, surveys, interviews, and others. Secondly, you will have to read and analyze. This step is tricky, as you need to do this part smart. It is not enough just to read, as you cannot keep in mind all the information. It is essential that you make notes and write down your ideas while analyzing some data. When you get down to the stage number three, writing itself, you will already have the main ideas written on your notes. Plus, remember to jot down the reference details. You will then appreciate this trick when you will have to write the bibliography.

If you do your research this way, it will be much easier for you to write the paper. You will already have blocks of your ideas written down and you will just need to add some material and refine your paper.

Learn how to do research .

How to Write an Outline for a Research Paper?

To make your paper well organized you need to write an outline. Your outline will serve as your guiding star through the writing process. With a great outline you will not get sidetracked, because you will have a structured plan to follow. Both you and the reader will benefit from your outline. You present your ideas logically and you make your writing coherent according to your plan. As a result, this outline guides the reader through your paper and the reader enjoys the way you demonstrate your ideas.

Learn how to write an outline for a research paper . See research paper outline examples .

How to Write a Thesis Statement for a Research Paper?

Briefly, the thesis is the main argument of your research paper. It should be precise, convincing and logical. Your thesis statement should include your point of view supported by evidence or logic. Still, remember it should be precise. You should not beat around the bush, or provide all the possible evidence you have found. It is usually a single sentence that shows your argument. In on sentence you should make a claim, explain why it significant and convince the reader that your point of view is important.

Learn how to write a thesis statement for a research paper . See research paper thesis statement examples .

Should I Write a Rough Draft for a Research Paper?

Do you know any writer who put their ideas on paper, then never edited them and just published? Probably, no writer did so. Writing a research paper is no exception. It is impossible to cope with this assignment without writing a rough draft.

Your draft will help you understand what you need to polish to make your paper perfect. All the requirements, academic standards make it difficult to do everything flawlessly at the first attempt. Make sure you know all the formatting requirements: margins, words quantity, reference requirements, formatting styles etc.

Learn how to write a rough draft for a research paper .

How to Write an Introduction for a Research Paper?

Let us make it more vivid for you. We have narrowed down the tips on writing an introduction to the three main ones:

• Include your thesis in your introduction

Remember to include the thesis statement in your introduction. Usually, it goes at the end of the first paragraph.

• Present the main ideas of the body

You should tell the main topics you are going to discuss in the main body. For this reason, before writing this part of introduction, make sure you know what is your main body is going to be about. It should include your main ideas.

• Polish your thesis and introduction

When you finish the main body of your paper, come back to the thesis statement and introduction. Restate something if needed. Just make it perfect; because introduction is like the trailer to your paper, it should make the reader want to read the whole piece.

Learn how to write an introduction for a research paper . See research paper introduction examples .

How to Write a Body of a Research Paper?

A body is the main part of your research paper. In this part, you will include all the needed evidence; you will provide the examples and support your argument.

It is important to structure your paragraphs thoroughly. That is to say, topic sentence and the evidence supporting the topic. Stay focused and do not be sidetracked. You have your outline, so follow it.

Here are the main tips to keep in head when writing a body of a research paper:

• Let the ideas flow logically
• Include only relevant information
• Provide the evidence
• Structure the paragraphs
• Make the coherent transition from one paragraph to another

See? When it is all structured, it is not as scary as it seemed at the beginning. Still, if you have doubts, you can always ask our writers for help.

Learn how to write a body of a research paper . See research paper transition examples .

How to Write a Conclusion for a Research Paper?

Writing a good conclusion is important as writing any other part of the paper. Remember that conclusion is not a summary of what you have mentioned before. A good conclusion should include your last strong statement.

If you have written everything according to the plan, the reader already knows why your investigation is important. The reader has already seen the evidence. The only thing left is a strong concluding thought that will organize all your findings.

Never include any new information in conclusion. You need to conclude, not to start a new discussion.

Learn how to write a conclusion for a research paper .

How to Write an Abstract for a Research Paper?

An abstract is a brief summary of your paper, usually 100-200 words. You should provide the main gist of your paper in this short summary. An abstract can be informative, descriptive or proposal. Depending on the type of abstract, you need to write, the requirements will differ.

To write an informative abstract you have to provide the summary of the whole paper. Informative summary. In other words, you need to tell about the main points of your work, the methods used, the results and the conclusion of your research.

To write a descriptive abstract you will not have to provide any summery. You should write a short teaser of your paper. That is to say, you need to write an overview of your paper. The aim of a descriptive abstract is to interest the reader.

Finally, to write a proposal abstract you will need to write the basic summary as for the informative abstract. However, the difference is the following: you aim at persuading someone to let you write on the topic. That is why, a proposal abstract should present your topic as the one worth investigating.

Learn how to write an abstract for a research paper .

Should I Revise and Edit a Research Paper?

Revising and editing your paper is essential if you want to get high grades. Let us help you revise your paper smart:

• Check your paper for spelling and grammar mistakes
• Sharpen the vocabulary
• Make sure there are no slang words in your paper
• Examine your paper in terms of structure
• Compare your topic, thesis statement to the whole piece
• Check your paper for plagiarism

If you need assistance with proofreading and editing your paper, you can turn to the professional editors at our service. They will help you polish your paper to perfection.

Learn how to revise and edit a research paper .

How to Write a Bibliography for a Research Paper?

First, let us make it clear that bibliography and works cited are two different things. Works cited are those that you cited in your paper. Bibliography should include all the materials you used to do your research. Still, remember that bibliography requirements differ depending on the formatting style of your paper. For this reason, make sure you ask you professor all the requirements you need to meet to avoid any misunderstanding.

Learn how to write a bibliography for a research paper .

The Key Secret to a Good Research Paper

Now when you know all the stages of writing a research paper, you are ready to find the key to a good research paper:

• Choose the topic that really interests you
• Make the topic interesting for you even if it is not at the beginning
• Follow the step by step guide and do not get sidetracked
• Be persistent and believe in yourself
• Really do research and write your paper from scratch
• Learn the convincing writing techniques and use them
• Follow the requirements of your assignment
• Ask for help if needed from real professionals

Feeling more confident about your paper now? We are sure you do. Still, if you need help, you can always rely on us 24/7.

We hope we have made writing a research paper much easier for you. We realize that it requires lots of time and energy. We believe when you say that you cannot handle it anymore. For this reason, we have been helping students like you for years. Our professional team of writers is ready to tackle any challenge.

All our authors are experienced writers crafting excellent academic papers. We help students meet the deadline and get the top grades they want. You can see everything yourself. All you need to do is to place your order online and we will contact you. Writing a research paper with us is truly easy, so why do not you check it yourself?

Additional Resources for Research Paper Writing:

• Anthropology Research
• Career Research
• Communication Research
• Criminal Justice Research
• Health Research
• Political Science Research
• Psychology Research
• Sociology Research

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How to Write a Research Paper Introduction (with Examples)

The research paper introduction section, along with the Title and Abstract, can be considered the face of any research paper. The following article is intended to guide you in organizing and writing the research paper introduction for a quality academic article or dissertation.

The research paper introduction aims to present the topic to the reader. A study will only be accepted for publishing if you can ascertain that the available literature cannot answer your research question. So it is important to ensure that you have read important studies on that particular topic, especially those within the last five to ten years, and that they are properly referenced in this section. 1 What should be included in the research paper introduction is decided by what you want to tell readers about the reason behind the research and how you plan to fill the knowledge gap. The best research paper introduction provides a systemic review of existing work and demonstrates additional work that needs to be done. It needs to be brief, captivating, and well-referenced; a well-drafted research paper introduction will help the researcher win half the battle.

The introduction for a research paper is where you set up your topic and approach for the reader. It has several key goals:

• Present your research topic
• Capture reader interest
• Summarize existing research
• Position your own approach
• Define your specific research problem and problem statement
• Highlight the novelty and contributions of the study
• Give an overview of the paper’s structure

The research paper introduction can vary in size and structure depending on whether your paper presents the results of original empirical research or is a review paper. Some research paper introduction examples are only half a page while others are a few pages long. In many cases, the introduction will be shorter than all of the other sections of your paper; its length depends on the size of your paper as a whole.

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Table of Contents

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The introduction in a research paper is placed at the beginning to guide the reader from a broad subject area to the specific topic that your research addresses. They present the following information to the reader

• Scope: The topic covered in the research paper
• Context: Background of your topic
• Importance: Why your research matters in that particular area of research and the industry problem that can be targeted

The research paper introduction conveys a lot of information and can be considered an essential roadmap for the rest of your paper. A good introduction for a research paper is important for the following reasons:

• It stimulates your reader’s interest: A good introduction section can make your readers want to read your paper by capturing their interest. It informs the reader what they are going to learn and helps determine if the topic is of interest to them.
• It helps the reader understand the research background: Without a clear introduction, your readers may feel confused and even struggle when reading your paper. A good research paper introduction will prepare them for the in-depth research to come. It provides you the opportunity to engage with the readers and demonstrate your knowledge and authority on the specific topic.
• It explains why your research paper is worth reading: Your introduction can convey a lot of information to your readers. It introduces the topic, why the topic is important, and how you plan to proceed with your research.
• It helps guide the reader through the rest of the paper: The research paper introduction gives the reader a sense of the nature of the information that will support your arguments and the general organization of the paragraphs that will follow. It offers an overview of what to expect when reading the main body of your paper.

What are the parts of introduction in the research?

A good research paper introduction section should comprise three main elements: 2

• What is known: This sets the stage for your research. It informs the readers of what is known on the subject.
• What is lacking: This is aimed at justifying the reason for carrying out your research. This could involve investigating a new concept or method or building upon previous research.
• What you aim to do: This part briefly states the objectives of your research and its major contributions. Your detailed hypothesis will also form a part of this section.

How to write a research paper introduction?

The first step in writing the research paper introduction is to inform the reader what your topic is and why it’s interesting or important. This is generally accomplished with a strong opening statement. The second step involves establishing the kinds of research that have been done and ending with limitations or gaps in the research that you intend to address. Finally, the research paper introduction clarifies how your own research fits in and what problem it addresses. If your research involved testing hypotheses, these should be stated along with your research question. The hypothesis should be presented in the past tense since it will have been tested by the time you are writing the research paper introduction.

The following key points, with examples, can guide you when writing the research paper introduction section:

• Highlight the importance of the research field or topic
• Describe the background of the topic
• Present an overview of current research on the topic

Example: The inclusion of experiential and competency-based learning has benefitted electronics engineering education. Industry partnerships provide an excellent alternative for students wanting to engage in solving real-world challenges. Industry-academia participation has grown in recent years due to the need for skilled engineers with practical training and specialized expertise. However, from the educational perspective, many activities are needed to incorporate sustainable development goals into the university curricula and consolidate learning innovation in universities.

• Reveal a gap in existing research or oppose an existing assumption
• Formulate the research question

Example: There have been plausible efforts to integrate educational activities in higher education electronics engineering programs. However, very few studies have considered using educational research methods for performance evaluation of competency-based higher engineering education, with a focus on technical and or transversal skills. To remedy the current need for evaluating competencies in STEM fields and providing sustainable development goals in engineering education, in this study, a comparison was drawn between study groups without and with industry partners.

• State the purpose of your study
• Highlight the key characteristics of your study
• Describe important results
• Highlight the novelty of the study.
• Offer a brief overview of the structure of the paper.

Example: The study evaluates the main competency needed in the applied electronics course, which is a fundamental core subject for many electronics engineering undergraduate programs. We compared two groups, without and with an industrial partner, that offered real-world projects to solve during the semester. This comparison can help determine significant differences in both groups in terms of developing subject competency and achieving sustainable development goals.

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With Paperpal Copilot, create a research paper introduction effortlessly. In this step-by-step guide, we’ll walk you through how Paperpal transforms your initial ideas into a polished and publication-ready introduction.

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You can use the same process to develop each section of your article, and finally your research paper in half the time and without any of the stress.

The purpose of the research paper introduction is to introduce the reader to the problem definition, justify the need for the study, and describe the main theme of the study. The aim is to gain the reader’s attention by providing them with necessary background information and establishing the main purpose and direction of the research.

The length of the research paper introduction can vary across journals and disciplines. While there are no strict word limits for writing the research paper introduction, an ideal length would be one page, with a maximum of 400 words over 1-4 paragraphs. Generally, it is one of the shorter sections of the paper as the reader is assumed to have at least a reasonable knowledge about the topic. 2 For example, for a study evaluating the role of building design in ensuring fire safety, there is no need to discuss definitions and nature of fire in the introduction; you could start by commenting upon the existing practices for fire safety and how your study will add to the existing knowledge and practice.

When deciding what to include in the research paper introduction, the rest of the paper should also be considered. The aim is to introduce the reader smoothly to the topic and facilitate an easy read without much dependency on external sources. 3 Below is a list of elements you can include to prepare a research paper introduction outline and follow it when you are writing the research paper introduction. Topic introduction: This can include key definitions and a brief history of the topic. Research context and background: Offer the readers some general information and then narrow it down to specific aspects. Details of the research you conducted: A brief literature review can be included to support your arguments or line of thought. Rationale for the study: This establishes the relevance of your study and establishes its importance. Importance of your research: The main contributions are highlighted to help establish the novelty of your study Research hypothesis: Introduce your research question and propose an expected outcome. Organization of the paper: Include a short paragraph of 3-4 sentences that highlights your plan for the entire paper

Cite only works that are most relevant to your topic; as a general rule, you can include one to three. Note that readers want to see evidence of original thinking. So it is better to avoid using too many references as it does not leave much room for your personal standpoint to shine through. Citations in your research paper introduction support the key points, and the number of citations depend on the subject matter and the point discussed. If the research paper introduction is too long or overflowing with citations, it is better to cite a few review articles rather than the individual articles summarized in the review. A good point to remember when citing research papers in the introduction section is to include at least one-third of the references in the introduction.

The literature review plays a significant role in the research paper introduction section. A good literature review accomplishes the following: Introduces the topic – Establishes the study’s significance – Provides an overview of the relevant literature – Provides context for the study using literature – Identifies knowledge gaps However, remember to avoid making the following mistakes when writing a research paper introduction: Do not use studies from the literature review to aggressively support your research Avoid direct quoting Do not allow literature review to be the focus of this section. Instead, the literature review should only aid in setting a foundation for the manuscript.

Remember the following key points for writing a good research paper introduction: 4

• Avoid stuffing too much general information: Avoid including what an average reader would know and include only that information related to the problem being addressed in the research paper introduction. For example, when describing a comparative study of non-traditional methods for mechanical design optimization, information related to the traditional methods and differences between traditional and non-traditional methods would not be relevant. In this case, the introduction for the research paper should begin with the state-of-the-art non-traditional methods and methods to evaluate the efficiency of newly developed algorithms.
• Avoid packing too many references: Cite only the required works in your research paper introduction. The other works can be included in the discussion section to strengthen your findings.
• Avoid extensive criticism of previous studies: Avoid being overly critical of earlier studies while setting the rationale for your study. A better place for this would be the Discussion section, where you can highlight the advantages of your method.
• Avoid describing conclusions of the study: When writing a research paper introduction remember not to include the findings of your study. The aim is to let the readers know what question is being answered. The actual answer should only be given in the Results and Discussion section.

To summarize, the research paper introduction section should be brief yet informative. It should convince the reader the need to conduct the study and motivate him to read further. If you’re feeling stuck or unsure, choose trusted AI academic writing assistants like Paperpal to effortlessly craft your research paper introduction and other sections of your research article.

1. Jawaid, S. A., & Jawaid, M. (2019). How to write introduction and discussion. Saudi Journal of Anaesthesia, 13(Suppl 1), S18.

2. Dewan, P., & Gupta, P. (2016). Writing the title, abstract and introduction: Looks matter!. Indian pediatrics, 53, 235-241.

3. Cetin, S., & Hackam, D. J. (2005). An approach to the writing of a scientific Manuscript1. Journal of Surgical Research, 128(2), 165-167.

4. Bavdekar, S. B. (2015). Writing introduction: Laying the foundations of a research paper. Journal of the Association of Physicians of India, 63(7), 44-6.

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This paper is in the following e-collection/theme issue:

Published on 26.4.2024 in Vol 26 (2024)

Patients’ Representations of Perceived Distance and Proximity to Telehealth in France: Qualitative Study

Authors of this article:

Original Paper

• Amélie Loriot 1 * , MSc   ; 
• Fabrice Larceneux 1 * , PhD   ; 
• Valérie Guillard 1 * , PhD   ; 
• Jean-Philippe Bertocchio 2, 3 * , MD, PhD  

1 Paris Dauphine–PSL (Paris Sciences & Lettres) University, Paris, France

2 Service Thyroïde – Tumeurs Endocrines, Hôpital de la Pitié-Salpêtrière, Assistance Publique – Hôpitaux de Paris, Paris, France

3 SKEZI, Annecy, France

*all authors contributed equally

Corresponding Author:

Amélie Loriot, MSc

Paris Dauphine–PSL (Paris Sciences & Lettres) University

Place du Maréchal de Lattre de Tassigny

Paris, 75116

Phone: 33 144054405

Email: [email protected]

Background: In the last 2 decades, new technologies have emerged in health care. The COVID-19 pandemic further accelerated the adoption of technology by both health care professionals and patients. These technologies create remote care practices that bring several benefits to the health care system: easier access to care, improved communication with physicians, and greater continuity of care. However, disparities in the acceptance and use of telehealth tools still exist among patients. These tools also disrupt conventional medical practices and prompt a new reassessment of the perceptions of distance and proximity as physical (ie, time and space dimensions) and nonphysical (ie, behavioral dimensions) concepts. The reasons why patients do or do not adopt telehealth tools for their care and therefore their perspectives on telehealth remain unanswered questions.

Objective: We explored the barriers as well as the motivations for patients to adopt telehealth tools. We specifically focused on the social representations of telehealth to establish a comprehensive conceptual framework to get a better understanding of how telehealth is perceived by patients.

Methods: This study uses a qualitative design through in-depth individual interviews. Participants were recruited using a convenience sampling method with balanced consideration of gender, age, location (urban/rural), and socioeconomic background. After collecting informed consent, interviews were transcribed and analyzed using the thematic analysis methodology.

Results: We conducted 14 interviews, with which data saturation was reached. The 2 main opposed dimensions, perceived proximity and distance, emerged as an essential structure for understanding the social representations of telehealth. A logic of engagement versus hostility emerged as the main tension in adopting telehealth, almost ideological. Interestingly, practical issues emerged regarding the adoption of telehealth: A logic of integration was opposed to a logic of constraints. Altogether, those dimensions enabled us to conceptualize a semiotic square, providing 4 categories with a coherent body of social representations. Due to the dynamic nature of these representations, we proposed 2 “paths” through which adherence to telehealth may improve.

Conclusions: Our semiotic square illustrating patients’ adherence to telehealth differentiates socially beneficial versus socially dangerous considerations and pragmatic from ideological postures. It shows how crucial it is to consider perceived distance and proximity to better understand barriers and motivations to adopting telehealth. These representations can also be considered as leverage that could be modified to encourage the step-by-step adhesion process. Even if reducing the perceived temporal distance to in-person meeting and enhancing the perceived proximity of access to care may be seen as efficient ways to adopt telehealth tools, telehealth can also be perceived as a care practice that threatens the patient-physician relationship. The patient-oriented perceived value turns out to be critical in the future development of and adherence to telehealth tools.

Introduction

Telehealth, a subset of ehealth still ongoing.

Many technologies have been developed in eHealth in recent years. Defined as the “use of information and communication technologies in support of health and health-related fields, including health care services, health monitoring, health literature, and health education, knowledge and research” [ 1 ], eHealth covers a wide range of practices. First, mobile apps and connected devices are referred to as mobile health (mHealth). Second, telehealth (ie, the practice of medicine using information and communication technologies) covers 5 practices: teleconsultation, teleexpertise, medical regulation, remote medical monitoring, and remote medical assistance.

Recent research focusing on remote care has indicated some confusion regarding the wording used to refer to health-related technologies [ 2 ]. For instance, the terms “telemedicine” and “telehealth” are often used interchangeably [ 3 ]. However, some researchers highlight a difference between these 2 concepts. Whereas telemedicine is limited to remote clinical services, telehealth is broader and refers to remote clinical services as well as remote nonclinical services, like administrative meetings [ 4 ]. Thus, telehealth has been defined as “the use of electronic information and telecommunication technologies to support and promote long-distance clinical health care, patient and professional health-related education, public health and health administration” [ 5 ].

eHealth is expected to lead to significant changes in the delivery of care and medical practices [ 6 ]. Because of (1) disparities in access to health care, (2) the aging population, and (3) budget constraints limiting public policies, the development of eHealth devices can be seen as a solution to the future challenges faced by the health system in many high-income countries [ 7 ]. Before the COVID-19 crisis, there were significant disparities in the use of eHealth tools between European countries [ 8 ]. A global shift occurred during the pandemic: The use of many eHealth tools became necessary, democratizing their use in terms of communication, monitoring, or care delivery, and the use of technology to provide health services has accelerated [ 9 , 10 ]. Telehealth may now concern everyone.

Benefits and Barriers of Telehealth

The practice of telehealth presents many benefits for patients, including (1) better access to health care services, in particular in isolated regions like rural areas; (2) improved continuity of care; (3) increased availability of health information [ 11 ]; and (4) empowerment of patients [ 12 ]. As such, telehealth is supposed to increase efficiency and quality of care [ 10 ] and favors patient-centered care by enabling better communication between patients and health care professionals [ 13 ].

However, researchers have pointed out that many barriers exist that limit health equity for all patients. Significant disparities remain regarding the access to, adherence to, and use of telehealth tools [ 14 , 15 ]. In particular, little is known about the role of digital health literacy [ 13 , 15 , 16 ] (ie, “the ability to search for, find, understand and evaluate health information from electronic sources and to apply knowledge acquired to solve a health problem” [ 17 ]). Among individuals in rural areas, low levels of education are associated with lower use of digital health tools [ 18 ]. Some scholars argue that online interactions are impersonal and dangerous because of the lack of a physical examination [ 10 ] and that telehealth may threaten the quality of the relationship between physicians and patients [ 19 ].

Studies among health care professionals have also shown a reluctance to adopt these technologies because of a fear of “dehumanization” by virtualizing patients and care [ 20 ]. This feeling of dehumanization of care could explain negative attitudes toward telehealth [ 21 ].

Patients tend to attribute significant importance to health care professionals’ physical and emotional presence [ 22 ] and direct interactions with them [ 7 ]. However, the digitalization of health is transforming these relationships [ 23 ]: Telehealth disrupts medical practices and reduces physical interactions between patients and physicians. However, it leads to reconsidering notions of distance and proximity [ 23 ], including physical and nonphysical dimensions (ie, cognitive or relational aspects that are perceived by individuals) [ 24 - 26 ]. Physical proximity and perceived proximity are not necessarily aligned. Indeed, individuals can feel themselves close to an element that is physically far but also to perceive it far when it is physically close [ 26 ]. Perceived proximity has a cognitive dimension that refers to “a mental assessment of how distant someone else seems” and an affective component, since these representations are subject to emotions rather than rational thought [ 26 , 27 ]. In health care, Talbot et al [ 28 ] investigated the perceptions French physicians may have about telehealth using the conceptual framework of proximity of Boschma [ 25 ] that includes the following 5 dimensions of proximity: cognitive, organizational, social, institutional, and geographical. However, how patients react to these changes in care delivery and the representations of these practices remain unanswered questions. Therefore, exploring patient’s representations of telehealth is important to better understand psychological mechanisms underlying the adherence to telehealth. The theory of social representations is fruitful in overcoming this limitation.

The Social Representations Theory

The theoretical background of social representations provides a framework for understanding how new concepts become common knowledge. Defined as a collective elaboration “of a social object by the community for the purpose of behaving and communicating” [ 29 ], social representations consist of a system of values, ideas, and practices that enable individuals to orient themselves in their material and social world as well as to master it and provide a code for social exchange [ 30 ]. Therefore, social representations provide people with a common frame of communication that is built in everyday interactions. More precisely, a social representation corresponds to thoughts and feelings being expressed in verbal and overt behavior of actors that constitutes an object for a social group [ 31 ].

Although social representations are commonly shared, some may be more polemical, reflecting oppositions between social groups in society [ 32 ]. In addition, social representations have a dynamic nature across and within social groups of people, and societal practices, communication, and the process of knowledge are strongly connected, particularly in the health field, which has been one of the leading research areas for this theory [ 33 - 35 ].

Interestingly, social representations constitute a structure explaining behaviors that result not only from an individual cognitive process but also from social and cultural representations and that are shared collectively [ 36 , 37 ]. Social representations have been shown to be a significant indicator of attitudes [ 38 , 39 ]. However, social representations of patients have never been studied in the context of telehealth specifically. A qualitative study is well suited to understand these representations. The objective of our qualitative research was to establish a comprehensive conceptual framework to gain a better understanding of how telehealth influences perceived proximity or distance for patients and therefore, to better apprehend their barriers as well as their motivations to adopting telehealth tools.

Study Design

A qualitative study was conducted with an interpretative approach to explore patients’ representations of telehealth and their perception of proximity toward it. We adopted an inductive, constructivist perspective, assuming that people construct their life-worlds through their representations and interpretations of telehealth as a social fact to which they attribute specific terms and meanings.

Setting and Sample

Qualitative in-depth individual interviews were set up using a semistructured thematic interview guide. Convenience sampling was used to recruit participants. Variation sampling was sought [ 40 ] with consideration of gender, age, location (urban/rural), and socioeconomic background ( Multimedia Appendix 1 ). We used the saturation criterion to stop recruitment. This criterion is the point at which gathering more data about a theoretical construct reveals no new properties nor yields any further theoretical insights [ 41 ]. This saturation point is usually reached with 9 to 17 interviews [ 42 ].

Data Collection

After obtaining informed consent, patients were contacted, and an appointment for an interview was set. Interviews lasted from 45 minutes to 75 minutes and were performed directly inside the family home or conducted through the digital platform Microsoft Teams because of the geographical distance between the researcher and the participant. The study took place in May 2022. A total of 14 interviews were gathered: 8 participants were female, 6 were male, and their mean age was 52 (range 23-83) years. Of the interviews, 11 interviews were run face to face, and 4 were online.

The interview guide explored various aspects of how health and telehealth are perceived; including defining what constitutes perceived good health; understanding respondents’ relationship with their own health; examining how they seek health-related information; discussing challenges in accessing care as related to geographical, temporal, and perceived distances; and evaluating respondents’ overall and specific relationships with technology within the context of health care. This comprehensive approach aimed to gain insights into how individuals perceive telehealth and their level of engagement with it.

During each interview, we wrote down our impressions that could possibly impact the interpretation of results. Interviews were digitally audio-recorded with permission, and verbatims were transcribed.

Ethical Considerations

At the beginning of each interview, potential participants were given comprehensive information about the context, objectives, and methods of the study. The interviewees were informed that they could withdraw from this study at any time. After allowing enough time for any questions or clarification they may have required, all the participants gave their informed consent. The study design was reviewed and approved by the Research Ethics Committee of Paris Dauphine–PSL (Paris Sciences & Lettres) University (20231128/01). Additionally, following national legislation, data were pseudonymized during the transcription process in a way that no participant could be directly identified: A number was assigned to each participant with no record of any directly identifying data. Participants received no compensation for participating in this research.

Data Analysis

First, we conducted a vertical analysis and read the transcripts to get an impression of the whole data set. Second, transcribed data were analyzed using a horizontal thematic analysis to develop a narrative of the findings through a categorical approach using qualitative software (NVivo Version 12). We followed the grounded theory approach to code verbatim [ 43 ]: Each transcript was coded inductively by manually marking central key words that could represent a code. The codes were then grouped under themes that emerged through the analysis process. Finally, we categorized the data by collapsing codes that conveyed similar meanings. Multimedia Appendix 2 presents an example of our analysis process.

After the first step of the analysis of social representations, which was to record all the dimensions that emerged from the participants, we used the semiotic square method to map semantic categories highlighting opposing and complementary concepts [ 44 ]. This structure enables the understanding of the tension among symbolic meanings and the elements by which meaning is being expressed [ 45 ]. The semiotic square has been often applied in consumer research [ 46 ] and specifically to explore consumers’ relationships with technology ideology [ 47 ].

First, a specific definition of telehealth emerged from the patient perspective. If researchers define telehealth broadly, the interview analysis revealed that telehealth is associated with teleconsultation for a large majority of patients and rarely with other practices. It concerns mainly remote care and is associated with questions about the quality of interactions with the physician.

Second, the content analysis revealed 4 main types of social representations of telehealth: the expected opposition between engagement and hostility and a more subtle distinction between integration and constraint.

Representations of Proximity: the Logic of Engagement

Our analysis of interviews revealed the first category of very positive social representations related to telehealth that led to a logic of engagement and adherence to this practice. This commitment is based on the idea of optimization of health services. The strong proximity with its practice is explained by a feeling of comfort and a perception of convenience. Telehealth is considered an easy, practical tool. Participant 4 (P4) mentioned:

I found it practical and comfortable.

Perceived practicality and convenience underline the actual benefits of adopting telehealth. Indeed, this practice enables a reduction of the perceived temporal distance to the consultation, leading to representations of efficiency and effectiveness (P13) on one hand and allowing reinforcement of access to care, which creates a feeling of personal usefulness (P8), on the other hand. Participant 13 (P13) mentioned:

Now that everything is overbooked in their appointments, (...), we are at about 15 days/3 weeks for getting any new appointment, both by phone or by Doctolib, in video, it is a little faster.

In addition, participant 8 (P8) said:

It is so quick, it makes everyday life easier!

From this perspective, the main issue behind social representations of proximity is related to an improvement of the functional proximity to telehealth.

Representations of Distance: the Logic of Hostility

At the opposite end to that of the first category, the second category of social representations follows a logic of hostility toward telehealth. It reveals a strong rejection of its development. Although adherence follows a view of functional proximity, rejection is explained by a lack of perceived relational proximity caused by telehealth. These representations of perceived distance reveal a profound fear of the dehumanization of medicine. Telehealth is seen as a dehumanizing practice that is destructive of human interaction by virtualizing both patients and care, as Kaplan [ 20 ] mentioned. This was confirmed by participant 6 (P6), who stated:

It kills the human contact, which is really important to me. I definitely prefer having the secretary over the phone to tell me there is an appointment in three weeks.

The major component of this category is the perceived deterioration of the relationship with the physician. Great importance is given to the human dimension in care. However, the interviews revealed these representations are based on a feeling of detachment from the caregiver caused by telehealth. This emphasizes the impersonal nature of the relationship. Participant 2 (P2) stated:

We dematerialize everything. It brings detachment from the caregiver.

From this perspective, the development of a relationship with perceived proximity and trust seems incompatible with distant and remote care. The virtual nature of this link is intrinsically considered as the opposite of human interaction. Participant 1 (P1) stated:

I do not like it. I like to see the person right in front of me.

Here, social representations of telehealth found an increase of perceived distance between the patient and physician. The perception of actual proximity to the physician tends to disappear with telehealth, which reinforces emotional and affective distance [ 48 ]. These representations finally highlight the fact that telehealth cannot replace an in-person consultation. For instance, participant 5 (P5) stated:

I would not make [a remote physician] my referring physician. There need to be a close relationship with him. I must be able to give him my trust. I am not sure that I will always have the same doctor when using teleconsultation.

Altogether, these depictions of distance nurture the perception that telehealth has a detrimental or potentially harmful impact on society, as it undermines the interpersonal nature of care.

In addition to these 2 opposite categories of representations, proximity versus distance, more nuanced types of social representations also emerged within the verbatims. We labelled them “nondistance” and “nonproximity” representations.

Representations of Nondistance: the Logic of Integration

The third category of social representations reflects “nondistance” to telehealth, as these representations are related neither to total adherence nor to rejection but rather follow a logic of integration: Participants highlighted the actual possibility to choose to use (or not) telehealth tools. Representations do not reflect a full engagement with this practice but rather a nonrejection of telehealth.

First, these representations of nondistance highlight the functional aspects of this practice. In this context, developing a relational proximity with the physician was not judged as necessary. For instance, participant 4 (P4) stated:

I felt more like I was with a teleoperator than a physician. It felt like there was a script behind it, but why not, that is not necessarily a bad thing.

This situation is not seen as a problem; the efficient and nonrelational aspect of the consultation is valued here. Thus, this representation shows a greater emphasis on the functional proximity rather than on the relational proximity [ 24 ].

The importance given to the functional aspects of telehealth was also revealed through the way specific health practices are elicited. For instance, telehealth was mainly seen as a backup or emergency solution, leading to occasional use according to the situation. Participant 5 (P5) stated:

It can be a first step to detect an emergency. For example, if you cannot get a doctor during the weekend, we have remote visits (...) So, to me, it is an emergency solution.

Because it is convenient, patients do not reject telehealth, especially when there is no need to be seen in person, for example for a prescription renewal, as suggested by participant 4 (P4):

It depends on what you are looking for in the consultation. If it is for a medication renewal, yes, I would recommend it.

Thus, these representations of nondistance do not refer to hostility nor engagement toward telehealth but rather to tolerance. The practice is adopted but not entirely accepted. Indeed, the use of telehealth should remain occasional. Participant 11 (P11) said:

If I were starting using a teleconsultation system, I would say to myself ‘no more than three times in a row.’ The fourth time, you still have to go, once every two years for a check-up, I would tend to say that.

Tolerance comes also with some reluctance about the reliability of this practice. Telehealth was perceived as less reliable than a physical consultation because there is no physical contact and no auscultation, which seems to lead to mistrust, as suggested by participants 10 (P10) and 14 (P14).

Auscultation is one of the first things you learn in medicine, like touching the patient. Try to get an auscultation from a machine, to put its hands on the belly. [P10]

When I had my operation, I had a consultation with the anesthesiologist by teleconsultation. It was silly, he told me to pull my tongue out (...) No, for me this is ridiculous! [P14]

Overall, social representations related to nondistance reveal nonrejection of telehealth under conditions of efficiency and reliability. The choice of using telehealth tools is made under specific circumstances and leads to occasional use, based on high value placed on simplicity and functional aspects.

Representations of Nonproximity: the Logic of Constraint

Within the fourth category, social representations are related to “nonproximity,” a label that reflects a logic of constraint. Whereas representations of proximity highlight engagement and active behavior toward telehealth, representations of nonproximity depict situations of the use of telehealth when there is no other choice, as participant 10 (P10) mentioned:

Is telehealth a good thing? Like everyone else, I use it because I am left with no alternative option.

Patients come to telehealth whenever they have no or few alternatives, considering telehealth as a last option, such as during a lockdown for example, as explained by participant 3 (P3):

If I had to use it, it would really be out of obligation, like during a lockdown, and because I do not have the possibility to move around.

In this perspective, telehealth tools are not really accepted and should remain a second option to physical in-person consultations, mainly because telehealth requires digital literacy. Participant 7 (P7) explained:

For the elderly, it is a problem! I have to schedule their appointments from my own mobile phone because they do not have access to the internet.

Thus, like the representations of perceived distance, the representations of nonproximity are also mostly negative. However, they do not reflect a total rejection of the practice of telehealth but rather a nonadherence as patients come to it when they have no other option.

Finally, our qualitative analysis allowed us to structure a semiotic square ( Figure 1 ) with 2 main categories of social representations of telehealth (ie, perceived proximity and perceived distance) as well as subsequent tensions in the discourse. The negation of these 2 terms forms 2 other categories illustrating 4 distinctive classes of meanings highlighting nuanced representations of perceived proximity and distance to telehealth and the opposite and complementary relationships [ 49 ]. The main components of the 4 categories are summarized in Figure 1 . Interestingly, 2 additional analyses of the semiotic square improve our vision of social representations of telehealth, one based on a vertical reading and the other based on a horizontal reading.

Telehealth: Socially Beneficial Versus Socially Dangerous

From a vertical reading of the relationships between the categories, there are 2 structuring representations of telehealth. In the left part of the semiotic square ( Figure 1 ), the complementary relationship, linking proximity and nondistance, refers to favorable representations as well as to discourse encouraging the development of telehealth. These tools are perceived as socially beneficial for all stakeholders, but there is room for improvement in generalizing their use.

Within these favorable representations of telehealth, adherence and nonrejection are based on 2 main drivers. First, trust in the physician is crucial as he or she is considered a legitimate expert, as suggested by participant 4 (P4):

I feel that doctors are experts (...), I trust them entirely because to me they seem to be experts.

Consequently, positive representations of telehealth seem to be linked to the perceived relational proximity with the health care professional. Second, these representations stem from familiarity with the tool. Being familiar with the term “telehealth” and knowing what it means generate a feeling of closeness toward it. Participant 5 (P5) stated:

I heard [about telehealth] because in my profession—I work with pharmacies—we talk about it.

In the right part of the square is the complementary relationship combining perceived distance and nonproximity. This underlines representations of hostility and skepticism toward telehealth, which are considered socially harmful or even dangerous for society. Rejection and nonadherence seem to be explained mainly by insufficient digital literacy as well as difficulties accessing the Internet and telehealth tools, as suggested by participant 9 (P9):

No, I do not use the Internet at all! (...) There are surely many things to do but I do not know how to do them...

This revealed a substantial cognitive distance to telehealth and ultimately making care practices feel more complex. The ancestral role of auscultation in medical consultation and the importance given to touching patients are noted, showing that the lack of perceived physical proximity between the patient and physician tends to reinforce the psychological distance toward telehealth and ultimately the rejection of its practice. Participant 4 (P4) said:

The ability itself of performing an actual auscultation by touching people and listening to them using a stethoscope is being lost at the expense of the care to improve the development of technology.

Telehealth: Ideological Versus Pragmatic Postures

A horizontal reading highlights the similarity of the logics of engagement and hostility, both based on ideological postures: pros and cons of the practice of telehealth depending on whether it seems to belong to the “good” versus “bad” for the society. More efficiencies appear to be pros, and less of a human relationship appears to be a con. Conversely, the logics of integration and constrain reflect pragmatic postures: how to deal with the tool and on what occasion. Sometimes, it appears to be accepted because it is convenient and adapted to specific situations, sometimes because there is no other choice. Interestingly, ideological postures tend to separate opposite groups, while the pragmatic views tend to rebuild a link between the nondistance and nonproximity groups. These nuanced, more balanced perceptions invite us to think about the practical implications, elaborating “paths” of social representations to drive patients toward less rejection of and more adherence to telehealth.

Main Findings

Using qualitative methods, our findings suggest a new conceptual framework to apprehend telehealth from patients’ perspectives based on 4 categories of social representations. First, perceived proximity was associated with social representations reflecting the idea that telehealth is intrinsically an efficient, practical, and effective solution. This logic of engagement is in line with a strong belief in progress and technological tools to face the challenges of the health care system, namely the issue of access to care. On the opposite side, social representations were more related to a feeling of distance from telehealth, enforcing an unfavorable attitude and leading to a rejection of these tools. This logic of hostility is mainly anchored in a fear of dehumanization of society. Telehealth is blamed for compromising the quality of the relations and for accelerating the loss of human contact between patients and physicians. This perceived distance from telehealth highlights a situation of exclusion, especially for patients who do not have access to digital technology or who do not have sufficient digital literacy. Aside from these 2 categories, 2 more nuanced types of representations emerged. First, from a logic of integration, social representations revealed that telehealth is appealing but showed worries and fears about its reliability. This practice can be conditionally accepted according to a situational approach. Second, a logic of constraint reflected social representations based on skepticism but leading to acceptance when there are no alternatives.

From a theoretical point of view, our results, based on a semiotic square, bring new elements to the literature of perceived proximity. We have shown that telehealth leads to reconsidering proximity through several dimensions. Although not diminishing the geographical or physical gap between the patient and the health care provider, technological tools, such as a teleconsultation from home, can enhance accessibility to health care. The relational dimension of proximity, already identified by Boschma [ 25 ], seems to also be impacted by telehealth. Indeed, many social representations have shown that this perception of proximity with the caregiver is reduced by telehealth and revealed a fear of dehumanization in the relationship. In addition, we showed that perceived functional proximity to telehealth leads to increased adherence and a favorable attitude to its development, which should encourage policymakers to strengthen this aspect in communication strategies for telehealth. These findings also constitute a societal contribution. In addition, this research has revealed 2 major oppositions embedded in the social representations. The first one consists of “good,” or a socially beneficial position, versus “bad,” or a socially dangerous position. The second one highlights the posture, rather “ideological” or “pragmatic,” leading to contributions to public policy aiming to foster adherence to eHealth tools.

Building a semiotic square also revealed potential changes in people’s representations of telehealth and thus the potential to contribute to change attitudes toward these tools. They may be adapted to patients’ concerns and aspects that patients value in the practice of consultation. Our qualitative material brings insight to how these representations can be obstacles to the adoption of telehealth, as well as elements that can foster adherence. We propose considering paths through which patients’ representations could evolve. Mobilizing the social representations along these paths could first alleviate the perception of distance to the health care professional then enable the perceived proximity to telehealth. Our analysis emphasized some risks in how telehealth is implemented. If telehealth is developed without considering representations expressing reluctancy, individuals who are subjected to the use of telehealth may remain hostile to its development, may gradually feel a distance to it, and may finally totally reject this practice (coming from nonproximity to distance). To avoid such a vicious circle, 2 paths ( Figure 2 ) may create an increased feeling of proximity to telehealth.

The first path consists of transforming representations related to a perceived nondistance into a perceived proximity to telehealth. This pathway adopts a functional approach to consultation. The challenge is to dispel fears about the technological feasibility of using digital health tools to eliminate skepticism and reinforce favorable representations. It would then be necessary to reassure patients about the importance of any human contact during medical consultations. Highlighting the regular and immediate exchanges with physicians that telehealth allows would be perceived as helpful. Developing remote auscultation solutions and increasing communication about them by highlighting the accuracy and reliability of these technologies would help to alleviate these concerns and encourage adherence to these tools. Finally, reinforcing the benefits in terms of efficiency, time optimization, and practicality would contribute to (1) reducing the perceived temporal distance of access to care and (2) increasing the perceived functional proximity to telehealth.

The second path consists of (1) transforming representations related to a perceived distance into a feeling of nonproximity and subsequently (2) fostering the perceived proximity to telehealth. This path is mainly aimed at individuals who attach great importance to the relational and human dimension of care. The first challenge would be to strengthen trust in the health care system because representations and attitudes toward telehealth are intrinsically linked to the relationship patients develop with the health care system and physicians. It is also necessary to improve access to digital technology to reduce the cognitive distance and to increase their perception of proximity. Finally, highlighting and communicating about the strengthening of relational and affective proximity, allowed by telehealth when facilitating contact between patients and physicians, could lead to favorable representations and attitudes. Therefore, conceiving a system of medical support with a health care professional in telehealth booths could be an effective solution.

Limitations and Research Avenues

This study has some limitations. First, our sample did not include patients with a broad range of diseases: Very few of them had chronic diseases. Due to the sample size, we could not cover all medical specialties: For instance, ophthalmology and the need for emergency surgery may bring specific representations of telehealth for patients. It could also be interesting to interview people from other rural areas known as “medical deserts” (ie, regions with inadequate access to health care). In addition, we interviewed patients who do not practice as health care professionals. To broaden our research findings, we could incorporate additional insights by examining the perceptions of telehealth among other groups, particularly caregivers.

The development of telehealth tools leads to new challenges in medical practice. The social representations telehealth brings go beyond the perception of proximity and distance, are multifaceted, and include postures and attitudes. The social representations revealed by the semiotic square on perceived proximity to telehealth underscore the importance of designing health care strategies based on a patient-centric approach in the implementation of digital health tools.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank all the participants in this study.

Data Availability

The data sets generated and analyzed during this study are available upon reasonable request from the corresponding author.

Authors' Contributions

This study was carried out by all authors working collaboratively. AL initiated the proposal. AL and FL conceived the study, collected the data, and performed the qualitative analysis. AL wrote the first draft of the manuscript. FL, VG, and JPB participated in data interpretation and revised the manuscript. All authors approved the final version of the manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

JPB is a physician and works at SKEZI, a company that develops digital tools in health. The remaining authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.

Characteristics of patients.

Example of the qualitative analysis process used in this research.

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Abbreviations

Edited by A Mavragani; submitted 13.01.23; peer-reviewed by S Tubeuf, H Yu; comments to author 13.03.23; revised version received 08.05.23; accepted 19.12.23; published 26.04.24.

©Amélie Loriot, Fabrice Larceneux, Valérie Guillard, Jean-Philippe Bertocchio. Originally published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research (https://www.jmir.org), 26.04.2024.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work, first published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research, is properly cited. The complete bibliographic information, a link to the original publication on https://www.jmir.org/, as well as this copyright and license information must be included.

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This project aims to radically change the way plastic waste is processed via a new biotechnology paradigm: engineering highly active enzymes and microbes capable of breaking down polyesters in a decentralized network of “living” waste receptacles. 

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Researchers detect a new molecule in space

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New research from the group of MIT Professor Brett McGuire has revealed the presence of a previously unknown molecule in space. The team's open-access paper, “ Rotational Spectrum and First Interstellar Detection of 2-Methoxyethanol Using ALMA Observations of NGC 6334I ,” appears in April 12 issue of The Astrophysical Journal Letters .

Zachary T.P. Fried , a graduate student in the McGuire group and the lead author of the publication, worked to assemble a puzzle comprised of pieces collected from across the globe, extending beyond MIT to France, Florida, Virginia, and Copenhagen, to achieve this exciting discovery. 

“Our group tries to understand what molecules are present in regions of space where stars and solar systems will eventually take shape,” explains Fried. “This allows us to piece together how chemistry evolves alongside the process of star and planet formation. We do this by looking at the rotational spectra of molecules, the unique patterns of light they give off as they tumble end-over-end in space. These patterns are fingerprints (barcodes) for molecules. To detect new molecules in space, we first must have an idea of what molecule we want to look for, then we can record its spectrum in the lab here on Earth, and then finally we look for that spectrum in space using telescopes.”

Searching for molecules in space

The McGuire Group has recently begun to utilize machine learning to suggest good target molecules to search for. In 2023, one of these machine learning models suggested the researchers target a molecule known as 2-methoxyethanol. 

“There are a number of 'methoxy' molecules in space, like dimethyl ether, methoxymethanol, ethyl methyl ether, and methyl formate, but 2-methoxyethanol would be the largest and most complex ever seen,” says Fried. To detect this molecule using radiotelescope observations, the group first needed to measure and analyze its rotational spectrum on Earth. The researchers combined experiments from the University of Lille (Lille, France), the New College of Florida (Sarasota, Florida), and the McGuire lab at MIT to measure this spectrum over a broadband region of frequencies ranging from the microwave to sub-millimeter wave regimes (approximately 8 to 500 gigahertz). 

The data gleaned from these measurements permitted a search for the molecule using Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) observations toward two separate star-forming regions: NGC 6334I and IRAS 16293-2422B. Members of the McGuire group analyzed these telescope observations alongside researchers at the National Radio Astronomy Observatory (Charlottesville, Virginia) and the University of Copenhagen, Denmark. 

“Ultimately, we observed 25 rotational lines of 2-methoxyethanol that lined up with the molecular signal observed toward NGC 6334I (the barcode matched!), thus resulting in a secure detection of 2-methoxyethanol in this source,” says Fried. “This allowed us to then derive physical parameters of the molecule toward NGC 6334I, such as its abundance and excitation temperature. It also enabled an investigation of the possible chemical formation pathways from known interstellar precursors.”

Looking forward

Molecular discoveries like this one help the researchers to better understand the development of molecular complexity in space during the star formation process. 2-methoxyethanol, which contains 13 atoms, is quite large for interstellar standards — as of 2021, only six species larger than 13 atoms were detected outside the solar system , many by McGuire’s group, and all of them existing as ringed structures.  

“Continued observations of large molecules and subsequent derivations of their abundances allows us to advance our knowledge of how efficiently large molecules can form and by which specific reactions they may be produced,” says Fried. “Additionally, since we detected this molecule in NGC 6334I but not in IRAS 16293-2422B, we were presented with a unique opportunity to look into how the differing physical conditions of these two sources may be affecting the chemistry that can occur.”

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Got tinnitus a device that tickles the tongue helps this musician find relief.

Allison Aubrey

After using the Lenire device for an hour each day for 12 weeks, Victoria Banks says her tinnitus is "barely noticeable." David Petrelli/Victoria Banks hide caption

After using the Lenire device for an hour each day for 12 weeks, Victoria Banks says her tinnitus is "barely noticeable."

Imagine if every moment is filled with a high-pitched buzz or ring that you can't turn off.

More than 25 million adults in the U.S., have a condition called tinnitus, according to the American Tinnitus Association. It can be stressful, even panic-inducing and difficult to manage. Dozens of factors can contribute to the onset of tinnitus, including hearing loss, exposure to loud noise or a viral illness.

There's no cure, but there are a range of strategies to reduce the symptoms and make it less bothersome, including hearing aids, mindfulness therapy , and one newer option – a device approved by the FDA to treat tinnitus using electrical stimulation of the tongue.

The device has helped Victoria Banks, a singer and songwriter in Nashville, Tenn., who developed tinnitus about three years ago.

"The noise in my head felt like a bunch of cicadas," Banks says. "It was terrifying." The buzz made it difficult for her to sing and listen to music. "It can be absolutely debilitating," she says.

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Tinnitus bothers millions of americans. here's how to turn down the noise.

Banks tried taking dietary supplements , but those didn't help. She also stepped up exercise, but that didn't bring relief either. Then she read about a device called Lenire, which was approved by the FDA in March 2023. It includes a plastic mouthpiece with stainless steel electrodes that electrically stimulate the tongue. It is the first device of its kind to be approved for tinnitus.

"This had worked for other people, and I thought I'm willing to try anything at this point," Banks recalls.

She sought out audiologist Brian Fligor, who treats severe cases of tinnitus in the Boston area. Fligor was impressed by the results of a clinical trial that found 84% of participants who tried Lenire experienced a significant reduction in symptoms. He became one of the first providers in the U.S. to use the device with his patients. Fligor also served on an advisory panel assembled by the company who developed it.

"A good candidate for this device is somebody who's had tinnitus for at least three months," Fligor says, emphasizing that people should be evaluated first to make sure there's not an underlying medical issue.

Tinnitus often accompanies hearing loss, but Victoria Banks' hearing was fine and she had no other medical issue, so she was a good candidate.

Banks used the device for an hour each day for 12 weeks. During the hour-long sessions, the electrical stimulation "tickles" the tongue, she says. In addition, the device includes a set of headphones that play a series of tones and ocean-wave sounds.

The device works, in part, by shifting the brain's attention away from the buzz. We're wired to focus on important information coming into our brains, Fligor says. Think of it as a spotlight at a show pointed at the most important thing on the stage. "When you have tinnitus and you're frustrated or angry or scared by it, that spotlight gets really strong and focused on the tinnitus," Fligor says.

"It's the combination of what you're feeling through the nerves in your tongue and what you're hearing through your ears happening in synchrony that causes the spotlight in your brain to not be so stuck on the tinnitus," Fligor explains.

A clinical trial found 84% of people who used the device experienced a significant reduction in symptoms. Brian Fligor hide caption

A clinical trial found 84% of people who used the device experienced a significant reduction in symptoms.

"It unsticks your spotlight" and helps desensitize people to the perceived noise that their tinnitus creates, he says.

Banks says the ringing in her ears did not completely disappear, but now it's barely noticeable on most days.

"It's kind of like if I lived near a waterfall and the waterfall was constantly going," she says. Over time, the waterfall sound fades out of consciousness.

"My brain is now focusing on other things," and the buzz is no longer so distracting. She's back to listening to music, writing music, and performing music." I'm doing all of those things," she says.

When the buzz comes back into focus, Banks says a refresher session with the device helps.

A clinical trial found that 84% of people who tried Lenire , saw significant improvements in their condition. To measure changes, the participants took a questionnaire that asked them to rate how much tinnitus was impacting their sleep, sense of control, feelings of well-being and quality of life. After 12 weeks of using the device, participants improved by an average of 14 points.

"Where this device fits into the big picture, is that it's not a cure-all, but it's quickly become my go-to," for people who do not respond to other ways of managing tinnitus, Fligor says.

One down-side is the cost. Banks paid about $4,000 for the Lenire device, and insurance doesn't cover it. She put the expense on her credit card and paid it off gradually.

Fligor hopes that as the evidence of its effectiveness accumulates, insurers will begin to cover it. Despite the cost, more than 80% of participants in the clinical trial said they would recommend the device to a friend with tinnitus.

But, it's unclear how long the benefits last. Clinical trials have only evaluated Lenire over a 1-year period. "How durable are the effects? We don't really know yet," says audiologist Marc Fagelson, the scientific advisory committee chair of the American Tinnitus Association. He says research is promising but there's still more to learn.

Fagelson says the first step he takes with his patients is an evaluation for hearing loss. Research shows that hearing aids can be an effective treatment for tinnitus among people who have both tinnitus and hearing loss, which is much more common among older adults. An estimated one-third of adults 65 years of age and older who have hearing loss, also have tinnitus.

"We do see a lot of patients, even with very mild loss, who benefit from hearing aids," Fagelson says, but in his experience it's about 50-50 in terms of improving tinnitus. Often, he says people with tinnitus need to explore options beyond hearing aids.

Bruce Freeman , a scientist at the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, says he's benefitted from both hearing aids and Lenire. He was fitted for the device in Ireland where it was developed, before it was available in the U.S.

Freeman agrees that the ringing never truly disappears, but the device has helped him manage the condition. He describes the sounds that play through the device headphones as very calming and "almost hypnotic" and combined with the tongue vibration, it's helped desensitize him to the ring.

Freeman – who is a research scientist – says he's impressed with the results of research, including a study published in Nature, Scientific Reports that points to significant improvements among clinical trial participants with tinnitus.

Freeman experienced a return of his symptoms when he stopped using the device. "Without it the tinnitus got worse," he says. Then, when he resumed use, it improved.

Freeman believes his long-term exposure to noisy instruments in his research laboratory may have played a role in his condition, and also a neck injury from a bicycle accident that fractured his vertebra. "All of those things converged," he says.

Freeman has developed several habits that help keep the high-pitched ring out of his consciousness and maintain good health. "One thing that does wonders is swimming," he says, pointing to the swooshing sound of water in his ears. "That's a form of mindfulness," he explains.

When it comes to the ring of tinnitus, "it comes and goes," Freeman says. For now, it has subsided into the background, he told me with a sense of relief. "The last two years have been great," he says – a combination of the device, hearing aids and the mindfulness that comes from a swim.

This story was edited by Jane Greenhalgh

• ringing in ears
• hearing loss

• Open access
• Published: 24 April 2024

Quantum mechanical analysis of yttrium-stabilized zirconia and alumina: implications for mechanical performance of esthetic crowns

• Ravinder S. Saini 1 ,
• Abdulkhaliq Ali F. Alshadidi 1 ,
• Vishwanath Gurumurthy 1 ,
• Abdulmajeed Okshah 1 ,
• Sunil Kumar Vaddamanu 1 ,
• Rayan Ibrahim H. Binduhayyim 1 ,
• Saurabh Chaturvedi 2 ,
• Shashit Shetty Bavabeedu 3 &
• Artak Heboyan 4 , 5 , 6  

European Journal of Medical Research volume  29 , Article number:  254 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Metrics details

Yttrium-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) and alumina are the most commonly used dental esthetic crown materials. This study aimed to provide detailed information on the comparison between yttrium-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) and alumina, the two materials most often used for esthetic crowns in dentistry.

Methodology

The ground-state energy of the materials was calculated using the Cambridge Serial Total Energy Package (CASTEP) code, which employs a first-principles method based on density functional theory (DFT). The electronic exchange–correlation energy was evaluated using the generalized gradient approximation (GGA) within the Perdew (Burke) Ernzerhof scheme.

Optimization of the geometries and investigation of the optical properties, dynamic stability, band structures, refractive indices, and mechanical properties of these materials contribute to a holistic understanding of these materials. Geometric optimization of YSZ provides important insights into its dynamic stability based on observations of its crystal structure and polyhedral geometry, which show stable configurations. Alumina exhibits a distinctive charge, kinetic, and potential (CKP) geometry, which contributes to its interesting structural framework and molecular-level stability. The optical properties of alumina were evaluated using pseudo-atomic computations, demonstrating its responsiveness to external stimuli. The refractive indices, reflectance, and dielectric functions indicate that the transmission of light by alumina depends on numerous factors that are essential for the optical performance of alumina as a material for esthetic crowns. The band structures of both the materials were explored, and the band gap of alumina was determined to be 5.853 eV. In addition, the band structure describes electronic transitions that influence the conductivity and optical properties of a material. The stability of alumina can be deduced from its bandgap, an essential property that determines its use as a dental material. Refractive indices are vital optical properties of esthetic crown materials. Therefore, the ability to understand their refractive-index graphs explains their transparency and color distortion through how the material responds to light..The regulated absorption characteristics exhibited by YSZ render it a highly attractive option for the development of esthetic crowns, as it guarantees minimal color distortion.

The acceptability of materials for esthetic crowns is strongly determined by mechanical properties such as elastic stiffness constants, Young's modulus, and shear modulus. YSZ is a highly durable material for dental applications, owing to its superior mechanical strength.

Introduction

An esthetic dental crown is an esthetic restoration used to replace the original shape, color, size, and thickness of teeth that are damaged or weakened [ 1 ]. This dental procedure is routinely used when a tooth has extensive decay coupled with structural damage, or when the tooth lacks a cosmetically acceptable appearance [ 2 ]. The principal aim of an esthetic crown is to safeguard the damaged tooth while simultaneously improving its function and esthetics [ 3 ].

The materials used to make esthetic crowns are different, and the choice depends on the location of the tooth, chewing needs, and patient preference [ 4 , 5 ]. Porcelain or ceramic crowns are natural-looking teeth that are especially suitable for the front teeth or areas of the mouth where the teeth are visible [ 6 ]. Porcelain-fused-to-metal crowns combine the esthetic appeal of porcelain with the added strength derived from a metal substructure. Zirconia crowns have become increasingly popular because of their strength and appearance. Zirconia ceramics can withstand chipping and cracking. It can be used in anterior and posterior crowns [ 7 , 8 ]. For cases in which both esthetics and strength are important, the solution is porcelain-fused-to-zirconia crowns, which combine the esthetics of porcelain with the strength of zirconia and can also be used for posterior teeth [ 9 ].

The advantages of metal crowns (made from gold or metal alloys) are their strength and durability [ 10 ]. However, because of their metallic appearance, these crowns are less commonly used in visible areas of the mouth. Composite resin crowns are made of tooth-colored filling materials that can be used to create temporary crowns [ 11 ]. Although less durable compared to some materials, composite resin crowns offer an esthetically pleasing alternative [ 12 , 13 ].

The choice of crown material is based on a concerted decision between the dentist and patient, considering oral health, specific tooth requirements, and personal esthetic preferences [ 14 ]. This approach allows the operator to customize the treatment for each individual patient so that the selected crown material is tailored to their own individual requirements and contributes to the functional and esthetic requirements [ 4 ]. Yttrium-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) and alumina are two types of ceramics that are frequently used to make ceramic dental crowns, with their own advantages for application in dentistry [ 15 , 16 ].

The main component of YSZ is zirconium oxide (ZrO2), which is used with yttrium oxide (Y2O3) as the stabilizing agent [ 17 ]. Yttrium is added to prevent the transformation from a tetragonal to monoclinic crystal structure, thus improving its mechanical properties [ 18 ]. YSZ has excellent strength, toughness, and hardness and is a viable material for dental crowns. Its high fracture resistance protects the crown from chipping or cracking and is biocompatible with the oral environment [ 19 ]. In terms of esthetics, YSZ can be matched in color to more natural teeth, and additional translucency adds to the more natural appearance of restorations. It is suitable for both anterior and posterior teeth [ 20 ].

Alumina crowns, in contrast, are largely made of aluminum oxide (aluminum trioxide or Al 6 2O 3 ), which is a ceramic that is well known for its hardness and resistance to wear [ 21 ]. Alumina exhibits notable hardness and wear resistance that contribute to its durability [ 22 , 23 ]. It has excellent biocompatibility with oral tissues and can be made to match the color of natural teeth; while it is less translucent than YSZ, the esthetics of alumina crowns are continuously improved through material processing [ 24 ]. Alumina crowns are commonly used for anterior teeth where esthetics are a primary concern, and they may be chosen for cases where wear resistance is a key consideration [ 25 , 26 ]. Yttrium-stabilized zirconia and alumina are suitable options for the production of esthetic dental crowns. The choice between the two materials depends on the location of the tooth, type of clinical requirement, and patient’s choice [ 27 ]. These ceramics continue to evolve as new advancements in material science become available to the dental profession, which ultimately allows dentists to provide optimized functional and esthetic outcomes in restorative dentistry [ 28 , 29 ].

In this study, we comprehensively analyzed the mechanical properties, Density of states (DOS), integrated DOS, band structures, optical properties, and stress properties of yttrium-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) and alumina, specifically in the context of their application in esthetic dental crowns. The calculations were based on the computational approach of the CASTEP (Cambridge Serial Total Energy Package) code. The results were verified to provide ideas regarding the structural, electronic, and optical parameters of these materials and to identify their potential usefulness in esthetic crown applications.

Material and methodology

The Cambridge Serial Total Energy Package (CASTEP) code [ 30 , 31 ], utilizing a first-principles approach grounded in density functional theory (DFT), was employed to calculate the ground-state energy of the materials. The generalized gradient approximation (GGA) within the Perdew (Burke) Ernzerhof scheme was used to evaluate the electronic exchange–correlation energy. Vanderbilt-type norm-conserving pseudopotentials, along with a Koelling–Harmon relativistic treatment, were applied to represent the interaction between the valence electrons and ion cores. This pseudopotential selection balances the computational efficiency with the accuracy [ 32 , 33 ]. The valence electron configurations considered were 1s 2 2s 2 2p 4 for 0, 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 1 for Al in alumina, and 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 3d 10 4s 2 4p 6 4d 1 5s 2 for Y and 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 3d 10 4s 2 4p 6 4d 2 5s 2 for zirconia in YSZ.

Geometry optimization for yttrium-stabilized zirconia and alumina was performed using the limited-memory Broyden–Fletcher–Goldfarb–Shanno (LBFGS) minimization scheme to achieve the lowest energy structure. A plane-wave cutoff energy of 500 eV for alumina and 625 eV for YSZ was used for the expansion. Brillouin zone (BZ) integration was conducted using the Monkhorst–Pack method, employing the k-point for alumina (3 × 3 × 1) and YSZ (2 × 2 × 2). The geometry optimization employed convergence tolerances of 10 -4  eV/atom for total energy, 10 -2  Å for maximum lattice point displacement, 0.03 eV Å -1 for maximum ionic Hellmann–Feynman force, and 0.05 GPa for maximum stress tolerance. To guarantee accurate structural, elastic, and electronic band structure property estimates while preserving the computational efficiency, finite basis set modifications were used.

Results and discussion

Structural properties.

The structural properties of alumina were determined through a geometry optimization process employing the LBFGS (limited-memory Broyden–Fletcher–Goldfarb–Shanno) minimization scheme [ 34 ]. The optimization involved an unbounded number of LBFGS updates with a preconditioned LBFGS activated using an exponential (EXP) stabilization constant of 0.1000 and a parameter A value of 3.0000. The real lattice parameters were a  = 4.759 Å, b  = 4.759 Å, and c  = 12.991 Å, with corresponding cell angles of α  = 90.000°, β  = 90.000°, and γ  = 120.000°. The current volume of the unit cell was calculated as 254.803051 A 3 , resulting in a density of 2.400943 AMU/A 3 or 3.986860 g/cm 3 . The crystal system was identified as trigonal with a hexagonal geometry. The rhombohedral centers were determined to be at coordinates (0, 0, 0), (2/3, 1/3, 1/3), and (1/3, 2/3, 2/3), corresponding to crystal class – 3 m. Additionally, the LBFGS optimization results indicated a final enthalpy of − 9.29467617 × 10 3  eV, a final frequency of 543.62876 cm -1 , and a final bulk modulus of 220.64766 GPa. These optimization parameters, including the estimated bulk modulus and frequency, are crucial for obtaining the lowest-energy structure of alumina, providing insights into its stable geometric configuration and overall structural characteristics.

The structural properties of yttrium-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) were also investigated through geometry optimization using the LBFGS (limited-memory Broyden–Fletcher–Goldfarb–Shanno) minimization scheme. The optimization process utilized an unbounded number of LBFGS updates with an activated preconditioned LBFGS, employing an exponential (EXP) stabilization constant of 0.1000 and a parameter A value of 3.0000. The nearest-neighbor distance, cutoff distance, and parameter mu were determined automatically, whereas the variable cell method with a fixed basis quality was employed. The optimization comprised a maximum of 2 steps, with an estimated bulk modulus of 500.0 GPa and frequency of 1668 cm -1 . The real lattice parameters for the unit cell were identified as a  = 5.154630 Å, b  = 5.154630 Å, and c  = 5.154630 Å, resulting in a cubic geometry with cell angles of α  = 90.000°, β  = 90.000°, and γ  = 90.000°. The current cell volume was calculated as 136.959604 A 3 , resulting in a density of 30.452467 AMU/A 3 or 50.567510 g/cm 3 . The crystal system was characterized as cubic, the geometry was cubic, and the rhombohedral centers were specified at the coordinates (0,0,0). The crystal class was identified as 1, and the space group as P 1 with space number 1. The LBFGS optimization results indicated a final enthalpy of 4.89620241 × 10 5  eV, an unchanged final frequency value from the initial value, and a final bulk modulus of 117.20470 GPa. These findings offer insight into the stable geometric configuration, crystal structure, and overall structural properties of yttrium-stabilized zirconia.

Figure  1 data offer insights into the geometry (Fig.  1 (a)), polyhedron (Fig.  1 (b)), and charge, kinetic, and potential (CKP) (Fig.  1 (c)) energy of alumina (Al 6 2O 3 ) having aluminum (Al) in the + 3 oxidation state and oxygen (O) in the − 2 oxidation state. In Fig.  1 (a), the unit cell of alumina exhibits the following lattice parameters: a  = 4.759 Å, b  = 4.759 Å, c  = 12.991 Å, with angles α  =  β  = 90° and γ  = 120°. The current cell volume was 254.803051 Å 3 and the density was 2.400943 AMU/A 3 or 3.986860 g/cm 3 . The crystal structure was characterized as a supercell containing three primitive cells.

a Coordination environment, b polyhedron, and c charge, kinetics, and potential (CKP) of alumina

In crystallography, a polyhedron is a three-dimensional geometric shape formed by connecting neighboring atoms around a central atom. As shown in Fig.  1 (b), the crystal structures of alumina and aluminum atoms are typically surrounded by oxygen atoms, forming a coordination polyhedron around each aluminum center. In the polyhedron (Fig.  1 (b)), alumina comprises 30 ions distributed between two species, oxygen (O) and aluminum (Al). The highest number of species was 18. The fractional coordinates of the atoms were specified by detailing their positions within a unit cell. As shown in Fig.  1 (c), the potential energy density is influenced by the arrangement of the charged particles (nuclei and electrons). In alumina, the potential energy density is shaped by electrostatic interactions between the positively charged aluminum ions and negatively charged oxygen ions. The ionic character of Al–O bonds contributes to the potential energy landscape.

The crystal structure of yttrium-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) is described in terms of its unit cell parameters ( a  = 5.154630 Å, b  = 5.154630 Å, c  = 5.154630 Å), as shown in Fig.  2 (a). The angles between the lattice vectors were all 90°( α  =  β  =  γ  = 90°) with the same cubic crystal system geometry. The unit cells contained oxygen (O), yttrium (Y), and zirconium (Zr). In Fig.  2 (b), the polyhedron, in the context of crystallography, typically refers to a coordination polyhedron around a specific atom. In YSZ, the coordination polyhedra around Y, Zr, and O atoms depend on the crystal structure. For YSZ, the central atoms could be zirconium (Zr), yttrium (Y), or oxygen (O). The zirconium and yttrium atoms may exhibit polyhedral coordination with the surrounding oxygen atoms. Oxygen atoms typically form polyhedra around cationic species, such as Zr and Y. Ellipsoids are often associated with the electron density distribution around an atom. In the context of electronic structure calculations, an ellipsoidal representation of the charge density or electron cloud is used to describe the spatial distribution of the electrons. In Fig.  2 (c), the zirconium and yttrium atoms in yttrium-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) have associated ellipsoids that describe their thermal vibrations. These ellipsoids were centered at the average positions of the Zr and Y atoms.

a coordination environment, b polyhedron, and c ellipsoid geometry of Yttrium-Stabilized Zirconia (YSZ)

Optical properties and dynamic stability of alumina and yttrium-stabilized zirconia

Band structure.

Figure  3 shows the band structure of alumina, which provides details of its electronic properties. The X-axis of the graph shows the high-symmetry points in the Brillouin zone. In this case, they are labeled as G, A, H, K, M, and L. These points correspond to definite crystallographic directions in the reciprocal lattice of the material. The broadening at the G and A points on the axis shown in Fig.  3 suggests the fanning out (dispersion) of the electronic states at the high-symmetry points. Therefore, this can indicate electronic transitions or electronic interactions occurring at G and A. The Y-axis gives the energy in electron volt (eV) units, which encompasses—− 20 to 20 eV, the energy level associated with the electronic states of the material.

Band structure of alumina

The band gap of alumina was 5.853 eV. The bandgap represents the energy difference between the top of the valence band and bottom of the conduction band. The band structure of alumina is crucial for understanding its electronic behavior. The wide bandgap of 5.853 eV [ 35 ] indicates that alumina is an insulating material, implying that it does not conduct electricity well. This property is desirable for applications such as esthetic crowns in dentistry. The insulating nature of alumina ensures that it does not interfere with electrical signals in the surrounding biological environment, making it suitable for use in dental crowns where electrical conductivity could be problematic. Overall, the band structure of alumina, with a significant band gap and specific broadening at high-symmetry points, supports its feasibility as a material for esthetic crowns, ensuring both electrical insulation and potentially favorable optical characteristics.

Moreover, the bandgap of alumina is a key factor in determining its stability. In general, materials with larger bandgaps are more stable. The bandgap represents the energy required to transition electrons from the valence to the conduction band. Alumina, which has a bandgap of 5.853 eV, is considered to have a relatively wide bandgap. A wide band gap indicates a large energy difference between the filled valence band and the empty conduction band. This large energy separation suggests that alumina is less prone to electron excitation and conductivity, making it an insulator. As an insulator, alumina is less likely to undergo spontaneous electron transitions, which contribute to its overall stability.

In contrast, in Fig.  4 , the Y-axis represents the energy values of the electronic bands in electron volts (eV). The range was—-15 to 15 eV. In any case, the x-axis is almost the same as the previous one. The bandgap of yttrium-stabilized zirconia was 7.631 eV [ 36 ]. The bandgap represents the energy difference between the valence and conduction bands. A larger bandgap indicates a better insulation. Moreover, materials with larger bandgaps are more stable. Yttrium-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) is known for its high strength and resistance to fracture, making it a popular choice for dental ceramics, especially for esthetic crowns.

Band structure graph of Yttrium-Stabilized Zirconia

Refractive index

The refractive index ( n ) of a material is a dimensionless quantity that provides a quantitative description of the bending or refraction of light as it enters a material from a different medium. The refractive index is often represented as (n + i k), where ( n ) is the real part and ( k ) is the imaginary part. The real part of the refractive index (n) describes how much the speed of light in the material is lowered with respect to the speed of light in vacuum. The positive values of ( n ) imply that the material is one in which the speed of light is attenuated. The imaginary part of the refractive index ( k ) is part of the optical index, which is directly related to the absorption or attenuation of light in the material.

The real part of the refractive index, the upward trend at 9 eV in Fig.  5 , suggests an increase in the refractive index, indicating increased slowing of light at this point. The downward trend at 24 Hz indicated a decrease in the refractive index, suggesting a reduction in the slowing of light. The imaginary part of the refractive index, the broadening from to the 6–24 frequency in the ( k ) values, indicates increased absorption or attenuation of light in this frequency range.

Refractive index of alumina

The refractive index is an important parameter in optical materials used for esthetic crown applications [ 37 ]. The positive values of ( n ) suggest that alumina can influence the speed of light, which is relevant for optical applications. The absorption indicated by ( k ) values may need to be considered, especially in esthetic applications where light transmission and appearance are crucial. Controlling the absorption properties is vital in esthetic crowns to prevent unwanted color distortions and to ensure that the crown appears natural.

The refractive index is directly associated with the dispersion of light. Achieving a harmonious color match with natural teeth requires careful control of the refractive index, particularly in the context of the broadening observed in the given frequency range. Figure  5 presents an overview of the optical behavior of alumina. The consistency of the refractive index and its response to light is critical for ensuring the optical clarity and esthetically pleasing appearance of an esthetic crown.

On the other hand, the refractive-index graph in Fig.  6 for yttrium-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) provides essential information about its optical properties, shedding light on its suitability for esthetic crown. The constant value of the refractive index ( n ) in the range of 6–18 frequency indicates that YSZ maintains a consistent optical behavior within this frequency range. This consistency is beneficial for achieving uniform optical properties in esthetic crowns. The sharp decrease from 5 to 1 on the y-axis suggests a substantial change in the refractive index, which may have implications for light transmission and color perception. The subsequent upward trend to 1.5 indicates a recovery in the refractive index. The sharp downward trend in the imaginary part of the refractive index ( k ) up to 10 eV indicates low light absorption within this frequency range. This is advantageous for esthetic crowns, as it suggests minimal color distortion due to absorption. The subsequent stabilization and slight upward trend of ( k ) beyond 10 eV indicate controlled absorption properties, contributing to the stability and color accuracy of the material. A constant refractive index within certain frequency ranges is desirable for achieving optical clarity and maintaining a natural appearance in esthetic crowns. The controlled absorption properties indicated by ( k ) contribute to the prevention of unwanted color distortions, ensuring that the crown closely matches natural teeth. The consistent refractive index values and controlled absorption properties suggest the stability of the optical performance of the YSZ. This is crucial for long-term durability and esthetic success of crown restorations.

Refractive index graph of Yttrium-Stabilized Zirconia

In comparison, alumina exhibits varying refractive index trends with absorption ( k ) in the observed frequency range. YSZ maintains a constant refractive index, indicating consistent optical behavior. YSZ exhibits better-controlled absorption, suggesting improved stability and color accuracy. The optical characteristics of YSZ make it a promising material for esthetic crown applications. In conclusion, yttrium-stabilized zirconia exhibits more desirable optical characteristics than alumina, making it a potentially superior material for esthetic crown applications, owing to its stable refractive index and controlled absorption properties.

• Mechanical properties

Stiffness matrix of alumina and yttrium-stabilized zirconia

The elastic stiffness constants (Cij) [ 38 ] of alumina, represented in GPa, provide crucial information regarding the response of the material to the applied stress and deformation, as shown in Table  1 . The data in Table  1 for the elastic stiffness constants of alumina are presented for a 6 × 6 matrix.

The high elastic stiffness constants, particularly those of the diagonal elements (C11, C22, C33, C44, C55, and C66), suggest that alumina is mechanically stable and can withstand stress and deformation. Stability is a crucial factor in dental restorations because it ensures that the crown material can endure forces exerted during mastication without undergoing significant deformation. The off-diagonal terms (C12, C13, C23, C14, C15, C16, C24, C25, and C26) indicate the anisotropic nature of alumina. Anisotropy implies that the mechanical properties of a material vary with the direction. Anisotropic behavior is important in esthetic crowns, as it allows for tailored mechanical properties depending on the orientation of the crown and its interaction with surrounding teeth.

The elastic stiffness constants allow the material to resist wear and deformation, thereby enhancing the long-term durability of the dental restorations. The values in the matrix that contribute to the mechanical integrity of the alumina crown would permit its use for esthetic crowns that need to withstand a variety of mechanical stresses, and knowing the elastic stiffness constants becomes important when we consider the proper design and fabrication of an esthetic crown because these values will need to be able to predict how the material under study will deform to the ideal loading conditions in such a way that its performance will be optimized; on the other hand, the elastic stiffness constants (Cij) of yttrium-stabilized zirconia (YSZ), also represented in GPa, are given in a 6 × 6 matrix in Table  2 .

The high values of the elastic stiffness constants, particularly those of the diagonal elements (C11, C22, C33, C44, C55, and C66), indicate that YSZ is mechanically stiff and exhibits excellent resistance to deformation under stress. High stiffness is advantageous in dental restorations because it contributes to the ability of the material to withstand forces exerted during biting and chewing. The diagonal terms of the matrix are identical, indicating isotropic behavior. Isotropy implies that the mechanical properties of the material are consistent in all the directions. Isotropic behavior simplifies the design and fabrication process for esthetic crowns, as the material responds uniformly to applied stress, ensuring predictable and reliable performance. The elastic stiffness constants influence the durability and resistance of the material to wear. YSZ’s stiffness of YSZ contributes to its ability to maintain its structural integrity over time, ensuring its long-term success as a dental restoration material. Understanding the elastic stiffness constants is crucial for designing esthetic crowns with precise mechanical properties. This enables dental professionals to tailor the material response to specific loading conditions and optimize the crown performance. While elastic stiffness is critical for mechanical performance, other factors, such as biocompatibility and esthetics, also play a role in the feasibility of YSZ for esthetic crowns. YSZ is known for its biocompatibility, and its natural color can contribute to visually appealing esthetic outcomes.

Comparing these values, YSZ has relatively higher values in its matrix than alumina, which means that YSZ is stiffer. In terms of the isotropic properties, the diagonal terms are the same for both values, indicating that they are isotropic. YSZ, which is stiffer, is more likely to have higher durability and resistance to deformation than alumina. Both materials offer precision in crown design owing to their isotropic behavior. The choice between them may depend on specific design requirements. This comparison indicates that YSZ generally has higher stiffness values, which may be advantageous in certain applications.

Average properties of alumina and yttrium-stabilized zirconia

The feasibility of alumina for esthetic crown applications is supported by its mechanical and optical properties derived from the average properties obtained through the Voigt, Reuss, and Hill averaging schemes listed in Table  3 .

The mechanical strength of a material is often characterized by parameters such as Young’s modulus ( E ), bulk modulus ( K ), and shear modulus ( G ). The Young’s modulus measures a material's stiffness, indicating how much it will deform under a given load. High values of the Young’s modulus imply that the material is stiff and resistant to deformation. A high Young’s modulus indicates that alumina can maintain its shape and resist bending or flexing, which is crucial for dental crowns subjected to biting and chewing forces. The bulk modulus is a measure of the resistance of a material to volume change under pressure. The high bulk modulus values indicate that the material was resistant to compression. In dental crowns that experience pressure from biting forces, a high bulk modulus is essential for maintaining the structural integrity of the crown and preventing undesirable changes in volume. The shear modulus measures the resistance of a material to deformation caused by shear stress. This represents the ability of a material to withstand the forces that act parallel to its surface. High shear modulus values imply that the material can resist shear forces, making it mechanically robust. In dental applications, resistance to shear force is crucial for the longevity and stability of crowns during mastication. The combination of the high Young's modulus and shear modulus values indicates that alumina can provide precise and stable crown fabrication. This is important for achieving an accurate fit and long-term durability of the dental crowns.

On the other hand, the average properties of yttrium-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) provide insights into its mechanical behavior in Table  4 , and these properties play a significant role in determining its feasibility as a material for esthetic crowns.

This averaging scheme provides an upper bound for the material properties. The high values of the bulk modulus (KV = 360.61 GPa), Young’s modulus (EV = 850.86 GPa), and shear modulus (GV = 384.39 GPa) indicate that YSZ is a stiff material with excellent resistance to deformation. This is advantageous for dental crowns because it suggests that YSZ can withstand forces associated with biting and chewing. This scheme provides a lower bound for the material properties. The values of the bulk modulus (KR = 360.61 GPa), Young's modulus (ER = 832.4 GPa), and shear modulus (GR = 373.18 GPa) obtained through Reuss averaging confirmed the stiffness and mechanical robustness of YSZ. The values of bulk modulus (KH = 360.61 GPa), Young’s modulus (EH = 841.66 GPa), and shear modulus (GH = 378.79 GPa) suggest that YSZ maintains a consistently high level of stiffness across the different averaging schemes.

The values of Poisson’s ratio obtained through different averaging schemes (νV = 0.10675, νR = 0.11528, νH = 0.111) suggest that YSZ has a relatively low Poisson’s ratio. A lower Poisson’s ratio is favorable for dental crowns because it indicates a lower susceptibility to deformation and better ability to maintain shape under stress. In general, the high stiffness, resistance to deformation, and low Poisson's ratio of YSZ, as indicated by its averaged properties, make it a feasible material for esthetic crowns.

In comparison, yttrium-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) exhibits a higher bulk modulus, Young's modulus, and shear modulus, along with a lower Poisson's ratio than alumina. These mechanical properties collectively suggest that YSZ is a stiffer and more resistant material, making it potentially more suitable for applications such as esthetic crowns, where mechanical strength and durability are crucial.

The eigenvalues of the stiffness matrix represent the natural frequencies at which a material vibrates when it is subjected to mechanical stimuli. In the context of alumina in Table  5 , the eigenvalues of its stiffness matrix (represented by λ1 to λ6) correspond to different modes of vibration and provide insights into its mechanical behavior.

The eigenvalues represent the stiffness or rigidity of alumina in different directions. Higher eigenvalues suggest higher stiffness in these specific directions, contributing to the overall stability of the material. The eigenvalues are associated with the natural frequencies of vibrations. Understanding these frequencies is crucial in applications where the material may be subjected to mechanical vibrations, ensuring that the material does not resonate or deform undesirably under specific loads.

In the context of esthetic crowns, the eigenvalues provide insights into how alumina responds to forces and stresses. Higher eigenvalues indicate a greater resistance to deformation, which is essential for maintaining the structural integrity of dental restorations.

On the other hand, in the context of yttrium-stabilized zirconia (YSZ), the eigenvalues (λ1 to λ6) provide insights into its mechanical behavior and structural characteristics in Table  6 . Equal values of the first three eigenvalues (λ1, λ2, and λ3) indicate isotropic or uniform stiffness in those directions. This property is beneficial in dental applications where consistent material behavior is desired. The last three eigenvalues (λ4, λ5, and λ6) were higher, indicating an increased stiffness in specific directions. This anisotropic stiffness provides YSZ with tailored mechanical properties, making it suitable for applications in which strength and resistance to deformation are crucial.

Moreover, the higher eigenvalues in certain directions suggest that YSZ can effectively resist deformations and stresses. This durability is essential for esthetic crowns to ensure long-term performance without mechanical failure.

In contrast, the eigenvalues of the stiffness matrix highlight the mechanical differences between yttrium-stabilized zirconia and alumina. YSZ exhibits a more isotropic stiffness profile with a higher overall stiffness, making it suitable for applications that require enhanced mechanical properties, such as esthetic crowns in dentistry.

Elastic moduli of yttrium-stabilized zirconia and alumina

Table 7 provides information about the variations in the elastic moduli of alumina, including the Young's modulus (Fig.  7 and (Additional file 1 : Figure S1 for 2D representation), linear compressibility, shear modulus, and Poisson's ratio. These variations are crucial for understanding the response of the material to mechanical stress and play a significant role in the suitability of alumina for esthetic crown applications.

3D representation of Young’s modulus of alumina

The range from E min (266.16 GPa) to E max (399.71 GPa) represents the variation in Young's modulus. This variation describes the stiffness of the material and its ability to withstand deformation under an applied stress. An anisotropy value of 1.502 indicates that the stiffness of the material varied in different crystallographic directions.

The variation from β min (1.5841 TPa^–1) to β max (1.8125 TPa^–1) represents the linear compressibility of alumina (Fig.  8 and (Additional file 1 : Figure S2 for 2D representation). This property indicates that the material responds to compressive stress. Furthermore, the range from G min (103.75 GPa) to G max (173.38 GPa) represents the variation in the shear modulus (Fig.  9 and (Additional file 1 : Figure S3 for 2D representation). The shear modulus reflects the resistance of a material to deformation under shear stress. Moreover, the range from ν min (0.053073) to ν max (0.3787) represents the variation in Poisson’s ratio (Fig.  10 and (Additional file 1 : Figure S4 for 2D representation). This ratio describes the tendency of the material to contract laterally when longitudinally compressed.

3D representation of linear alumina compressibility

3D representation of the shear modulus of alumina

3D representation of Poisson’s ratio of alumina

The anisotropy values for each property indicate the extent to which the material varies in different crystallographic directions, and the axis values indicate the orientation of the crystallographic axes with respect to the measurement axes. Nonetheless, this anisotropy allows the stiffness of alumina to be tailored in different directions. For dental applications, crown materials must closely resemble the mechanical properties of the natural teeth. The anisotropy values and axis information are helpful during fabrication to orient the crown with respect to the optimized mechanical properties of the material for the given directions.

In conclusion, variations in the elastic moduli of alumina are vital for tailoring the mechanical properties of materials to meet the specific requirements of esthetic crown applications. These properties ensure that the crown exhibits appropriate stiffness, deformation response, and dimensional stability, thereby contributing to the overall success of the dental restorations.

However, variations in the elastic moduli of yttrium-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) are important for esthetic crown applications for several reasons.

Young’s modulus ( E ) represents the stiffness of the material (Table  8 , Fig.  11 , and (Figure S5 for the 2D representation). The variation from E min (716.92 GPa) to E max (932.53 GPa) allows for controlled stiffness in different directions. This is crucial for mimicking the mechanical behavior of natural teeth and ensuring that the esthetic crown exhibits an appropriate level of rigidity.

3D representation of Young’s modulus of Yttrium-Stabilized Zirconia

The constant values of linear compressibility ( β min and β max at 0.92437 TPa^–1) indicate a consistent response to compressive stress (Fig.  12 and (Additional file 1 : Figure S6 for 2D representation). In esthetic crown applications, where the material may experience compressive forces during biting and chewing, predictable linear compressibility is essential for stability and reliability.

3D representation of the linear compressibility of Yttrium-Stabilized Zirconia

The variation in shear modulus ( G min to G max from 306.73 GPa to 436.17 GPa) reflects YSZ's ability to resist deformation under shear stress (Fig.  13 and (Additional file 1 : Figure S7 for 2D representation). This property is critical for ensuring that the esthetic crown maintains its structural integrity, especially in areas where shear forces are applied during mastication.

3D representation of the shear modulus of Yttrium-Stabilized Zirconia

The range of Poisson's ratio values ( ν min to ν max from − 0.0057521 to 0.20403) provides insights into the response of YSZ to longitudinal compression (Fig.  14 and (Additional file 1 : Figure S8 for 2D representation). Understanding the lateral contraction behavior is vital for preventing dimensional changes and maintaining the stability of the esthetic crown. The anisotropy values and axis information help align the crown orientation with the optimal mechanical properties of YSZ in specific directions. This enables manufacturers to customize crown structures based on the anisotropic nature of materials.

3D representation of Poisson’s ratio of Yttrium-Stabilized Zirconia

Overall, these variations in elastic moduli allow tailoring of the mechanical properties of YSZ to meet the specific demands of esthetic crown applications. This material can be designed to provide the right balance between stiffness, compressibility, shear resistance, and dimensional stability, thereby ensuring the long-term success and functionality of dental restorations. YSZ generally exhibits higher Young’s modulus, shear modulus, and anisotropy values than alumina.

Overall, YSZ and alumina possess different strengths and advantages when used in esthetic crowns, and the former seems to be a promising material with high mechanical strength, stable optical properties, and geometries. Alumina, on the other hand, shows a unique CKP geometry, as well as stable band structures and esthetically desirable optical properties, making it suitable for use in esthetic crown designs. In conclusion, dental practitioners should have knowledge of the scientific basis for material selection; however, the best choice may ultimately be specific to individual cases, requiring a delicate balancing act.

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Acknowledgements

1. All the authors are thankfull to the King Khalid University , Saudi Arabia for the financial Support. 2. All the authors would like to thank Mr Wahid Hussain for his assistance with Quantum Analysis.

The authors extend their appreciation to the Deanship of Scientific Research at King Khalid University for funding this work through the Small Group Research Project under Grant Number RGP1/331/44.

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Department of Dental Technology, COAMS, King Khalid University, Abha, Saudi Arabia

Ravinder S. Saini, Abdulkhaliq Ali F. Alshadidi, Vishwanath Gurumurthy, Abdulmajeed Okshah, Sunil Kumar Vaddamanu & Rayan Ibrahim H. Binduhayyim

Department of Prosthetic Dentistry, College of Dentistry, King Khalid University, Abha, Saudi Arabia

Saurabh Chaturvedi

Department of Restorative Dental Sciences, College of Dentistry, King Khalid University, Abha, Saudi Arabia

Shashit Shetty Bavabeedu

Department of Research Analytics, Saveetha Dental College and Hospitals, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences, Saveetha University, Chennai, 600 077, India

Artak Heboyan

Department of Prosthodontics, Faculty of Stomatology, Yerevan State Medical University after Mkhitar Heratsi, Str. Koryun 2, 0025, Yerevan, Armenia

Department of Prosthodontics, School of Dentistry, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, North Karegar St, Tehran, Iran

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Conceptualization and methodology: Ravinder Saini, Abdulkhaliq Shadidi. Data curation and formal analysis: Vishwanath Gurumurthy, Sunil Vaddamanu. Investigation and resources: Abdulmajeed Okshah, Rayan Binduhayyim. Original draft preparation: Ravinder S Saini, and Artak Heboyan. Writing, reviewing and editing: Saurabh Chaturvedi, Shashit Bavabeedu. Supervision and project administration: Ravinder Saini, Artak Heboyan. Funding acquisition: Ravinder Saini.

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Supplementary Information

Additional file1 : fig. s1..

2D representation of Young's modulus of Alumina in xy, xz and yz plane. Fig. S2. 2D representation of linear compressibility of Alumina in xy, xz and yz plane. Fig. S3. 2D representation of Shear modulus of Alumina in xy, xz and yz plane. Fig. S4. 2D representation of Poisson's ratio of Alumina in xy, xz and yz plane. Fig. S5. 2D representation of Youngs’s modulus of Yttrium-Stabilized Zirconia in xy, xz and yz plane. Fig. S6. 2D representation of linear compressibility of Yttrium-Stabilized Zirconia in xy, xz and yz plane. Fig. S7. 2D representation of Shear modulus of Yttrium-Stabilized Zirconia in xy, xz and yz plane. Fig. S8. 2D representation of Poisson’s ratio of Yttrium-Stabilized Zirconia in xy, xz and yz plane.

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Saini, R.S., Alshadidi, A.A.F., Gurumurthy, V. et al. Quantum mechanical analysis of yttrium-stabilized zirconia and alumina: implications for mechanical performance of esthetic crowns. Eur J Med Res 29 , 254 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40001-024-01851-2

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s40001-024-01851-2

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A growing share of Americans say reducing crime should be a top priority for the president and Congress to address this year. Around six-in-ten U.S. adults (58%) hold that view today, up from 47% at the beginning of Joe Biden’s presidency in 2021.

We conducted this analysis to learn more about U.S. crime patterns and how those patterns have changed over time.

The analysis relies on statistics published by the FBI, which we accessed through the Crime Data Explorer , and the Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS), which we accessed through the  National Crime Victimization Survey data analysis tool .

To measure public attitudes about crime in the U.S., we relied on survey data from Pew Research Center and Gallup.

Additional details about each data source, including survey methodologies, are available by following the links in the text of this analysis.

With the issue likely to come up in this year’s presidential election, here’s what we know about crime in the United States, based on the latest available data from the federal government and other sources.

How much crime is there in the U.S.?

It’s difficult to say for certain. The  two primary sources of government crime statistics  – the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and the Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS) – paint an incomplete picture.

The FBI publishes  annual data  on crimes that have been reported to law enforcement, but not crimes that haven’t been reported. Historically, the FBI has also only published statistics about a handful of specific violent and property crimes, but not many other types of crime, such as drug crime. And while the FBI’s data is based on information from thousands of federal, state, county, city and other police departments, not all law enforcement agencies participate every year. In 2022, the most recent full year with available statistics, the FBI received data from 83% of participating agencies .

BJS, for its part, tracks crime by fielding a  large annual survey of Americans ages 12 and older and asking them whether they were the victim of certain types of crime in the past six months. One advantage of this approach is that it captures both reported and unreported crimes. But the BJS survey has limitations of its own. Like the FBI, it focuses mainly on a handful of violent and property crimes. And since the BJS data is based on after-the-fact interviews with crime victims, it cannot provide information about one especially high-profile type of offense: murder.

All those caveats aside, looking at the FBI and BJS statistics side-by-side  does  give researchers a good picture of U.S. violent and property crime rates and how they have changed over time. In addition, the FBI is transitioning to a new data collection system – known as the National Incident-Based Reporting System – that eventually will provide national information on a much larger set of crimes , as well as details such as the time and place they occur and the types of weapons involved, if applicable.

Which kinds of crime are most and least common?

Property crime in the U.S. is much more common than violent crime. In 2022, the FBI reported a total of 1,954.4 property crimes per 100,000 people, compared with 380.7 violent crimes per 100,000 people.  

By far the most common form of property crime in 2022 was larceny/theft, followed by motor vehicle theft and burglary. Among violent crimes, aggravated assault was the most common offense, followed by robbery, rape, and murder/nonnegligent manslaughter.

BJS tracks a slightly different set of offenses from the FBI, but it finds the same overall patterns, with theft the most common form of property crime in 2022 and assault the most common form of violent crime.

How have crime rates in the U.S. changed over time?

Both the FBI and BJS data show dramatic declines in U.S. violent and property crime rates since the early 1990s, when crime spiked across much of the nation.

Using the FBI data, the violent crime rate fell 49% between 1993 and 2022, with large decreases in the rates of robbery (-74%), aggravated assault (-39%) and murder/nonnegligent manslaughter (-34%). It’s not possible to calculate the change in the rape rate during this period because the FBI  revised its definition of the offense in 2013 .

The FBI data also shows a 59% reduction in the U.S. property crime rate between 1993 and 2022, with big declines in the rates of burglary (-75%), larceny/theft (-54%) and motor vehicle theft (-53%).

Using the BJS statistics, the declines in the violent and property crime rates are even steeper than those captured in the FBI data. Per BJS, the U.S. violent and property crime rates each fell 71% between 1993 and 2022.

While crime rates have fallen sharply over the long term, the decline hasn’t always been steady. There have been notable increases in certain kinds of crime in some years, including recently.

In 2020, for example, the U.S. murder rate saw its largest single-year increase on record – and by 2022, it remained considerably higher than before the coronavirus pandemic. Preliminary data for 2023, however, suggests that the murder rate fell substantially last year .

How do Americans perceive crime in their country?

Americans tend to believe crime is up, even when official data shows it is down.

In 23 of 27 Gallup surveys conducted since 1993 , at least 60% of U.S. adults have said there is more crime nationally than there was the year before, despite the downward trend in crime rates during most of that period.

While perceptions of rising crime at the national level are common, fewer Americans believe crime is up in their own communities. In every Gallup crime survey since the 1990s, Americans have been much less likely to say crime is up in their area than to say the same about crime nationally.

Public attitudes about crime differ widely by Americans’ party affiliation, race and ethnicity, and other factors . For example, Republicans and Republican-leaning independents are much more likely than Democrats and Democratic leaners to say reducing crime should be a top priority for the president and Congress this year (68% vs. 47%), according to a recent Pew Research Center survey.

How does crime in the U.S. differ by demographic characteristics?

Some groups of Americans are more likely than others to be victims of crime. In the  2022 BJS survey , for example, younger people and those with lower incomes were far more likely to report being the victim of a violent crime than older and higher-income people.

There were no major differences in violent crime victimization rates between male and female respondents or between those who identified as White, Black or Hispanic. But the victimization rate among Asian Americans (a category that includes Native Hawaiians and other Pacific Islanders) was substantially lower than among other racial and ethnic groups.

The same BJS survey asks victims about the demographic characteristics of the offenders in the incidents they experienced.

In 2022, those who are male, younger people and those who are Black accounted for considerably larger shares of perceived offenders in violent incidents than their respective shares of the U.S. population. Men, for instance, accounted for 79% of perceived offenders in violent incidents, compared with 49% of the nation’s 12-and-older population that year. Black Americans accounted for 25% of perceived offenders in violent incidents, about twice their share of the 12-and-older population (12%).

As with all surveys, however, there are several potential sources of error, including the possibility that crime victims’ perceptions about offenders are incorrect.

How does crime in the U.S. differ geographically?

There are big geographic differences in violent and property crime rates.

For example, in 2022, there were more than 700 violent crimes per 100,000 residents in New Mexico and Alaska. That compares with fewer than 200 per 100,000 people in Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Hampshire and Maine, according to the FBI.

The FBI notes that various factors might influence an area’s crime rate, including its population density and economic conditions.

What percentage of crimes are reported to police? What percentage are solved?

Most violent and property crimes in the U.S. are not reported to police, and most of the crimes that  are  reported are not solved.

In its annual survey, BJS asks crime victims whether they reported their crime to police. It found that in 2022, only 41.5% of violent crimes and 31.8% of household property crimes were reported to authorities. BJS notes that there are many reasons why crime might not be reported, including fear of reprisal or of “getting the offender in trouble,” a feeling that police “would not or could not do anything to help,” or a belief that the crime is “a personal issue or too trivial to report.”

Most of the crimes that are reported to police, meanwhile,  are not solved , at least based on an FBI measure known as the clearance rate . That’s the share of cases each year that are closed, or “cleared,” through the arrest, charging and referral of a suspect for prosecution, or due to “exceptional” circumstances such as the death of a suspect or a victim’s refusal to cooperate with a prosecution. In 2022, police nationwide cleared 36.7% of violent crimes that were reported to them and 12.1% of the property crimes that came to their attention.

Which crimes are most likely to be reported to police? Which are most likely to be solved?

Around eight-in-ten motor vehicle thefts (80.9%) were reported to police in 2022, making them by far the most commonly reported property crime tracked by BJS. Household burglaries and trespassing offenses were reported to police at much lower rates (44.9% and 41.2%, respectively), while personal theft/larceny and other types of theft were only reported around a quarter of the time.

Among violent crimes – excluding homicide, which BJS doesn’t track – robbery was the most likely to be reported to law enforcement in 2022 (64.0%). It was followed by aggravated assault (49.9%), simple assault (36.8%) and rape/sexual assault (21.4%).

The list of crimes  cleared  by police in 2022 looks different from the list of crimes reported. Law enforcement officers were generally much more likely to solve violent crimes than property crimes, according to the FBI.

The most frequently solved violent crime tends to be homicide. Police cleared around half of murders and nonnegligent manslaughters (52.3%) in 2022. The clearance rates were lower for aggravated assault (41.4%), rape (26.1%) and robbery (23.2%).

When it comes to property crime, law enforcement agencies cleared 13.0% of burglaries, 12.4% of larcenies/thefts and 9.3% of motor vehicle thefts in 2022.

Are police solving more or fewer crimes than they used to?

Nationwide clearance rates for both violent and property crime are at their lowest levels since at least 1993, the FBI data shows.

Police cleared a little over a third (36.7%) of the violent crimes that came to their attention in 2022, down from nearly half (48.1%) as recently as 2013. During the same period, there were decreases for each of the four types of violent crime the FBI tracks:

• Police cleared 52.3% of reported murders and nonnegligent homicides in 2022, down from 64.1% in 2013.
• They cleared 41.4% of aggravated assaults, down from 57.7%.
• They cleared 26.1% of rapes, down from 40.6%.
• They cleared 23.2% of robberies, down from 29.4%.

The pattern is less pronounced for property crime. Overall, law enforcement agencies cleared 12.1% of reported property crimes in 2022, down from 19.7% in 2013. The clearance rate for burglary didn’t change much, but it fell for larceny/theft (to 12.4% in 2022 from 22.4% in 2013) and motor vehicle theft (to 9.3% from 14.2%).

Note: This is an update of a post originally published on Nov. 20, 2020.

• Criminal Justice

John Gramlich is an associate director at Pew Research Center

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