components of a case study design

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• What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyze the case, other interesting articles.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

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Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

TipIf your research is more practical in nature and aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as you solve it, consider conducting action research instead.

Unlike quantitative or experimental research , a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

Example of an outlying case studyIn the 1960s the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania was discovered to have extremely low rates of heart disease compared to the US average. It became an important case study for understanding previously neglected causes of heart disease.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.

Example of a representative case studyIn the 1920s, two sociologists used Muncie, Indiana as a case study of a typical American city that supposedly exemplified the changing culture of the US at the time.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews , observations , and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

Example of a mixed methods case studyFor a case study of a wind farm development in a rural area, you could collect quantitative data on employment rates and business revenue, collect qualitative data on local people’s perceptions and experiences, and analyze local and national media coverage of the development.

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis , with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

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8 Essential Components of a Case Study (Includes Interview Questions)

By Boast on February 1, 2022

Building trust with your prospects is crucial to growing your business. However, earning that trust can be challenging. You need to show proof that you can deliver on your promises. One way to show proof is through case studies. In this blog, I’ll explain what case studies are and share the eight essential components of a case study.

What is a Case Study?

From a broad perspective, a case study is an in-depth analysis of a particular subject. Generally, the study covers a problem-solution-results format. When applied to the business world, a case study examines how a customer had a problem, found a solution using a particular product or service, and shares the results of the solution.

Case studies are an excellent way for businesses to highlight the relationship between their product or service and its customers. It shares real data and results as social proof for potential customers.

Generally speaking, case studies appear as a one-page written article with visuals to support the content. However, it doesn’t have to end there. Case studies can be converted into a video, infographic, or podcast to be shared on your website, podcast platforms, and social media.

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8 Essential Components of a Case Study

Case studies are a powerful way to show how your business has positively impacted your customers’ lives. To have the most success, including the following eight essential components of a case study is imperative. I’ve also included some questions to help guide your interview with your customer.

1. Start with a Compelling Title and Summary

As with any story, you should include an eye-catching headline. You want to keep the title short but relative to the story. Try to encompass the title around the work you did with your customer.

You should also include a brief summary of the entire story into 2-4 sentences. The summary is the first thing your audience will read after clicking on the title. You want to share with the reader what to expect as they continue to read. We recommend including bullet points after the summary to include key metrics to share their success.

2. Share Background Information About Your Customer

Before diving into the problem, you should share a little information about your customer. This will help your reader understand who your customer is and how long they’ve been using your product or service. In most cases, this information helps your reader find a connection.  

Use the following questions to guide you as you write an “about customer” section in your case study:

• What industry are they from? 
• Where are they located? 
• How many employees do they have? 
• How long have they been a customer?

3. Explain the Challenge Your Customer Faced

Once your readers understand who your customer is, it’s time to explain the problem or pain point your customer was experiencing. Describe the initial challenge your customer faced before using your product or service.

The problem is central to the story you’re telling. Prospects who are experiencing similar pain points will be able to relate well to the study. Consider asking the following questions:

• What were your pain points before using our product or service?
• What could have happened if you did not find a solution?
• Did you try other solutions before finding our product or service?

4. Discuss Your Customer’s Decision Process

It’s helpful to discuss your customer’s decision process and the steps they went through before discovering your product or service. Explaining this process may help potential customers work through their own situation.

In this section of your case study, you want to discuss how your customer found you. Try asking your customer these questions:

• How did you hear about our product or service?
• When evaluating your options, what was most important to you?
• Who was involved in the decision-making process?

Consider the goals and objectives your customer set in place as they began their journey to find a solution. Again, this information can help spark a connection between your reader and may drive them to give your product or service a try.

5. Explain the Solution and Implementation

After you share how your customer made the decision to choose your product or service as their solution, you want to explain how it was implemented. Focus on your customer’s experience with your onboarding process.

Sharing this process in your case study gives prospects a look into how your implementation process works. Try asking your customer the following questions:

• Did the implementation of our product/service meet your expectations?
• How long did it take to complete the onboarding process?
• Who was involved in the implementation process?

6. Share the End Results

Conclude your case study with the end results. Share the impressive metrics your customer achieved while using your product or service. Remember, the more numbers and hard data you can include, the better.

Apart from the measurable results, it’s also important to share the qualitative results. Explain the benefits your customer has received since using your product or service. Did they accomplish the goals and objectives they initially set out to achieve?

7. Include Supporting Visuals and Quotes

One component you don’t want to forget is supporting visuals and quotes. Visuals can range from images, infographics, GIFs, and videos. Images are some of the most common elements to include. Consider adding your customer’s logo, headshot, or photo from their business. Infographics can be helpful if there is a lot of data to be shared.

If you’re able to record an interview with your customer, you can turn the case study into a video testimonial as well. Video testimonials are a powerful way to share your customer’s story in a visual format. Hearing the words directly from your customer establishes an emotional connection, and emotions drive buying decisions .

Additionally, you should include direct quotes to add to your text. Select one or two quotes from your customer to enhance the content. Direct quotes provide a sense of authenticity to the story.

8. Don’t Forget the Call To Action (CTA)

Your case study is a form of Proof-Based Marketing , real proof that shows prospects how you’ve been able to help others. The last essential component to your case study should be a call to action or CTA. As with any marketing content, you want to include a CTA to bring in new leads and customers. 

When done correctly, your case study can also convince others experiencing similar problems to try out your product or service. It’s best to include your CTA throughout the case study as some prospects will take less convincing than others.

There you have it, eight essential components of a case study. We recommend including all of these elements into your case studies for the most success. Remember to include your customer throughout the process and get their written consent to use their information as marketing content.

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Writing a Case Study

What is a case study?

A Case study is: 

• An in-depth research design that primarily uses a qualitative methodology but sometimes​​ includes quantitative methodology.
• Used to examine an identifiable problem confirmed through research.
• Used to investigate an individual, group of people, organization, or event.
• Used to mostly answer "how" and "why" questions.

What are the different types of case studies?

Note: These are the primary case studies. As you continue to research and learn

about case studies you will begin to find a robust list of different types. 

Who are your case study participants?

What is triangulation ? 

Validity and credibility are an essential part of the case study. Therefore, the researcher should include triangulation to ensure trustworthiness while accurately reflecting what the researcher seeks to investigate.

How to write a Case Study?

When developing a case study, there are different ways you could present the information, but remember to include the five parts for your case study.

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The Ultimate Guide to Qualitative Research - Part 1: The Basics

• Introduction and overview
• What is qualitative research?
• What is qualitative data?
• Examples of qualitative data
• Qualitative vs. quantitative research
• Mixed methods
• Qualitative research preparation
• Theoretical perspective
• Theoretical framework
• Literature reviews

Research question

• Conceptual framework
• Conceptual vs. theoretical framework

Data collection

• Qualitative research methods
• Focus groups
• Observational research

What is a case study?

Applications for case study research, what is a good case study, process of case study design, benefits and limitations of case studies.

• Ethnographical research
• Ethical considerations
• Confidentiality and privacy
• Power dynamics
• Reflexivity

Case studies

Case studies are essential to qualitative research , offering a lens through which researchers can investigate complex phenomena within their real-life contexts. This chapter explores the concept, purpose, applications, examples, and types of case studies and provides guidance on how to conduct case study research effectively.

Whereas quantitative methods look at phenomena at scale, case study research looks at a concept or phenomenon in considerable detail. While analyzing a single case can help understand one perspective regarding the object of research inquiry, analyzing multiple cases can help obtain a more holistic sense of the topic or issue. Let's provide a basic definition of a case study, then explore its characteristics and role in the qualitative research process.

Definition of a case study

A case study in qualitative research is a strategy of inquiry that involves an in-depth investigation of a phenomenon within its real-world context. It provides researchers with the opportunity to acquire an in-depth understanding of intricate details that might not be as apparent or accessible through other methods of research. The specific case or cases being studied can be a single person, group, or organization – demarcating what constitutes a relevant case worth studying depends on the researcher and their research question .

Among qualitative research methods , a case study relies on multiple sources of evidence, such as documents, artifacts, interviews , or observations , to present a complete and nuanced understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. The objective is to illuminate the readers' understanding of the phenomenon beyond its abstract statistical or theoretical explanations.

Characteristics of case studies

Case studies typically possess a number of distinct characteristics that set them apart from other research methods. These characteristics include a focus on holistic description and explanation, flexibility in the design and data collection methods, reliance on multiple sources of evidence, and emphasis on the context in which the phenomenon occurs.

Furthermore, case studies can often involve a longitudinal examination of the case, meaning they study the case over a period of time. These characteristics allow case studies to yield comprehensive, in-depth, and richly contextualized insights about the phenomenon of interest.

The role of case studies in research

Case studies hold a unique position in the broader landscape of research methods aimed at theory development. They are instrumental when the primary research interest is to gain an intensive, detailed understanding of a phenomenon in its real-life context.

In addition, case studies can serve different purposes within research - they can be used for exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory purposes, depending on the research question and objectives. This flexibility and depth make case studies a valuable tool in the toolkit of qualitative researchers.

Remember, a well-conducted case study can offer a rich, insightful contribution to both academic and practical knowledge through theory development or theory verification, thus enhancing our understanding of complex phenomena in their real-world contexts.

What is the purpose of a case study?

Case study research aims for a more comprehensive understanding of phenomena, requiring various research methods to gather information for qualitative analysis . Ultimately, a case study can allow the researcher to gain insight into a particular object of inquiry and develop a theoretical framework relevant to the research inquiry.

Why use case studies in qualitative research?

Using case studies as a research strategy depends mainly on the nature of the research question and the researcher's access to the data.

Conducting case study research provides a level of detail and contextual richness that other research methods might not offer. They are beneficial when there's a need to understand complex social phenomena within their natural contexts.

The explanatory, exploratory, and descriptive roles of case studies

Case studies can take on various roles depending on the research objectives. They can be exploratory when the research aims to discover new phenomena or define new research questions; they are descriptive when the objective is to depict a phenomenon within its context in a detailed manner; and they can be explanatory if the goal is to understand specific relationships within the studied context. Thus, the versatility of case studies allows researchers to approach their topic from different angles, offering multiple ways to uncover and interpret the data .

The impact of case studies on knowledge development

Case studies play a significant role in knowledge development across various disciplines. Analysis of cases provides an avenue for researchers to explore phenomena within their context based on the collected data.

This can result in the production of rich, practical insights that can be instrumental in both theory-building and practice. Case studies allow researchers to delve into the intricacies and complexities of real-life situations, uncovering insights that might otherwise remain hidden.

Types of case studies

In qualitative research , a case study is not a one-size-fits-all approach. Depending on the nature of the research question and the specific objectives of the study, researchers might choose to use different types of case studies. These types differ in their focus, methodology, and the level of detail they provide about the phenomenon under investigation.

Understanding these types is crucial for selecting the most appropriate approach for your research project and effectively achieving your research goals. Let's briefly look at the main types of case studies.

Exploratory case studies

Exploratory case studies are typically conducted to develop a theory or framework around an understudied phenomenon. They can also serve as a precursor to a larger-scale research project. Exploratory case studies are useful when a researcher wants to identify the key issues or questions which can spur more extensive study or be used to develop propositions for further research. These case studies are characterized by flexibility, allowing researchers to explore various aspects of a phenomenon as they emerge, which can also form the foundation for subsequent studies.

Descriptive case studies

Descriptive case studies aim to provide a complete and accurate representation of a phenomenon or event within its context. These case studies are often based on an established theoretical framework, which guides how data is collected and analyzed. The researcher is concerned with describing the phenomenon in detail, as it occurs naturally, without trying to influence or manipulate it.

Explanatory case studies

Explanatory case studies are focused on explanation - they seek to clarify how or why certain phenomena occur. Often used in complex, real-life situations, they can be particularly valuable in clarifying causal relationships among concepts and understanding the interplay between different factors within a specific context.

Intrinsic, instrumental, and collective case studies

These three categories of case studies focus on the nature and purpose of the study. An intrinsic case study is conducted when a researcher has an inherent interest in the case itself. Instrumental case studies are employed when the case is used to provide insight into a particular issue or phenomenon. A collective case study, on the other hand, involves studying multiple cases simultaneously to investigate some general phenomena.

Each type of case study serves a different purpose and has its own strengths and challenges. The selection of the type should be guided by the research question and objectives, as well as the context and constraints of the research.

The flexibility, depth, and contextual richness offered by case studies make this approach an excellent research method for various fields of study. They enable researchers to investigate real-world phenomena within their specific contexts, capturing nuances that other research methods might miss. Across numerous fields, case studies provide valuable insights into complex issues.

Critical information systems research

Case studies provide a detailed understanding of the role and impact of information systems in different contexts. They offer a platform to explore how information systems are designed, implemented, and used and how they interact with various social, economic, and political factors. Case studies in this field often focus on examining the intricate relationship between technology, organizational processes, and user behavior, helping to uncover insights that can inform better system design and implementation.

Health research

Health research is another field where case studies are highly valuable. They offer a way to explore patient experiences, healthcare delivery processes, and the impact of various interventions in a real-world context.

Case studies can provide a deep understanding of a patient's journey, giving insights into the intricacies of disease progression, treatment effects, and the psychosocial aspects of health and illness.

Asthma research studies

Specifically within medical research, studies on asthma often employ case studies to explore the individual and environmental factors that influence asthma development, management, and outcomes. A case study can provide rich, detailed data about individual patients' experiences, from the triggers and symptoms they experience to the effectiveness of various management strategies. This can be crucial for developing patient-centered asthma care approaches.

Other fields

Apart from the fields mentioned, case studies are also extensively used in business and management research, education research, and political sciences, among many others. They provide an opportunity to delve into the intricacies of real-world situations, allowing for a comprehensive understanding of various phenomena.

Case studies, with their depth and contextual focus, offer unique insights across these varied fields. They allow researchers to illuminate the complexities of real-life situations, contributing to both theory and practice.

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Understanding the key elements of case study design is crucial for conducting rigorous and impactful case study research. A well-structured design guides the researcher through the process, ensuring that the study is methodologically sound and its findings are reliable and valid. The main elements of case study design include the research question , propositions, units of analysis, and the logic linking the data to the propositions.

The research question is the foundation of any research study. A good research question guides the direction of the study and informs the selection of the case, the methods of collecting data, and the analysis techniques. A well-formulated research question in case study research is typically clear, focused, and complex enough to merit further detailed examination of the relevant case(s).

Propositions

Propositions, though not necessary in every case study, provide a direction by stating what we might expect to find in the data collected. They guide how data is collected and analyzed by helping researchers focus on specific aspects of the case. They are particularly important in explanatory case studies, which seek to understand the relationships among concepts within the studied phenomenon.

Units of analysis

The unit of analysis refers to the case, or the main entity or entities that are being analyzed in the study. In case study research, the unit of analysis can be an individual, a group, an organization, a decision, an event, or even a time period. It's crucial to clearly define the unit of analysis, as it shapes the qualitative data analysis process by allowing the researcher to analyze a particular case and synthesize analysis across multiple case studies to draw conclusions.

Argumentation

This refers to the inferential model that allows researchers to draw conclusions from the data. The researcher needs to ensure that there is a clear link between the data, the propositions (if any), and the conclusions drawn. This argumentation is what enables the researcher to make valid and credible inferences about the phenomenon under study.

Understanding and carefully considering these elements in the design phase of a case study can significantly enhance the quality of the research. It can help ensure that the study is methodologically sound and its findings contribute meaningful insights about the case.

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Conducting a case study involves several steps, from defining the research question and selecting the case to collecting and analyzing data . This section outlines these key stages, providing a practical guide on how to conduct case study research.

Defining the research question

The first step in case study research is defining a clear, focused research question. This question should guide the entire research process, from case selection to analysis. It's crucial to ensure that the research question is suitable for a case study approach. Typically, such questions are exploratory or descriptive in nature and focus on understanding a phenomenon within its real-life context.

Selecting and defining the case

The selection of the case should be based on the research question and the objectives of the study. It involves choosing a unique example or a set of examples that provide rich, in-depth data about the phenomenon under investigation. After selecting the case, it's crucial to define it clearly, setting the boundaries of the case, including the time period and the specific context.

Previous research can help guide the case study design. When considering a case study, an example of a case could be taken from previous case study research and used to define cases in a new research inquiry. Considering recently published examples can help understand how to select and define cases effectively.

Developing a detailed case study protocol

A case study protocol outlines the procedures and general rules to be followed during the case study. This includes the data collection methods to be used, the sources of data, and the procedures for analysis. Having a detailed case study protocol ensures consistency and reliability in the study.

The protocol should also consider how to work with the people involved in the research context to grant the research team access to collecting data. As mentioned in previous sections of this guide, establishing rapport is an essential component of qualitative research as it shapes the overall potential for collecting and analyzing data.

Collecting data

Gathering data in case study research often involves multiple sources of evidence, including documents, archival records, interviews, observations, and physical artifacts. This allows for a comprehensive understanding of the case. The process for gathering data should be systematic and carefully documented to ensure the reliability and validity of the study.

Analyzing and interpreting data

The next step is analyzing the data. This involves organizing the data , categorizing it into themes or patterns , and interpreting these patterns to answer the research question. The analysis might also involve comparing the findings with prior research or theoretical propositions.

Writing the case study report

The final step is writing the case study report . This should provide a detailed description of the case, the data, the analysis process, and the findings. The report should be clear, organized, and carefully written to ensure that the reader can understand the case and the conclusions drawn from it.

Each of these steps is crucial in ensuring that the case study research is rigorous, reliable, and provides valuable insights about the case.

The type, depth, and quality of data in your study can significantly influence the validity and utility of the study. In case study research, data is usually collected from multiple sources to provide a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case. This section will outline the various methods of collecting data used in case study research and discuss considerations for ensuring the quality of the data.

Interviews are a common method of gathering data in case study research. They can provide rich, in-depth data about the perspectives, experiences, and interpretations of the individuals involved in the case. Interviews can be structured , semi-structured , or unstructured , depending on the research question and the degree of flexibility needed.

Observations

Observations involve the researcher observing the case in its natural setting, providing first-hand information about the case and its context. Observations can provide data that might not be revealed in interviews or documents, such as non-verbal cues or contextual information.

Documents and artifacts

Documents and archival records provide a valuable source of data in case study research. They can include reports, letters, memos, meeting minutes, email correspondence, and various public and private documents related to the case.

These records can provide historical context, corroborate evidence from other sources, and offer insights into the case that might not be apparent from interviews or observations.

Physical artifacts refer to any physical evidence related to the case, such as tools, products, or physical environments. These artifacts can provide tangible insights into the case, complementing the data gathered from other sources.

Ensuring the quality of data collection

Determining the quality of data in case study research requires careful planning and execution. It's crucial to ensure that the data is reliable, accurate, and relevant to the research question. This involves selecting appropriate methods of collecting data, properly training interviewers or observers, and systematically recording and storing the data. It also includes considering ethical issues related to collecting and handling data, such as obtaining informed consent and ensuring the privacy and confidentiality of the participants.

Data analysis

Analyzing case study research involves making sense of the rich, detailed data to answer the research question. This process can be challenging due to the volume and complexity of case study data. However, a systematic and rigorous approach to analysis can ensure that the findings are credible and meaningful. This section outlines the main steps and considerations in analyzing data in case study research.

Organizing the data

The first step in the analysis is organizing the data. This involves sorting the data into manageable sections, often according to the data source or the theme. This step can also involve transcribing interviews, digitizing physical artifacts, or organizing observational data.

Categorizing and coding the data

Once the data is organized, the next step is to categorize or code the data. This involves identifying common themes, patterns, or concepts in the data and assigning codes to relevant data segments. Coding can be done manually or with the help of software tools, and in either case, qualitative analysis software can greatly facilitate the entire coding process. Coding helps to reduce the data to a set of themes or categories that can be more easily analyzed.

Identifying patterns and themes

After coding the data, the researcher looks for patterns or themes in the coded data. This involves comparing and contrasting the codes and looking for relationships or patterns among them. The identified patterns and themes should help answer the research question.

Interpreting the data

Once patterns and themes have been identified, the next step is to interpret these findings. This involves explaining what the patterns or themes mean in the context of the research question and the case. This interpretation should be grounded in the data, but it can also involve drawing on theoretical concepts or prior research.

Verification of the data

The last step in the analysis is verification. This involves checking the accuracy and consistency of the analysis process and confirming that the findings are supported by the data. This can involve re-checking the original data, checking the consistency of codes, or seeking feedback from research participants or peers.

Like any research method , case study research has its strengths and limitations. Researchers must be aware of these, as they can influence the design, conduct, and interpretation of the study.

Understanding the strengths and limitations of case study research can also guide researchers in deciding whether this approach is suitable for their research question . This section outlines some of the key strengths and limitations of case study research.

Benefits include the following:

• Rich, detailed data: One of the main strengths of case study research is that it can generate rich, detailed data about the case. This can provide a deep understanding of the case and its context, which can be valuable in exploring complex phenomena.
• Flexibility: Case study research is flexible in terms of design , data collection , and analysis . A sufficient degree of flexibility allows the researcher to adapt the study according to the case and the emerging findings.
• Real-world context: Case study research involves studying the case in its real-world context, which can provide valuable insights into the interplay between the case and its context.
• Multiple sources of evidence: Case study research often involves collecting data from multiple sources , which can enhance the robustness and validity of the findings.

On the other hand, researchers should consider the following limitations:

• Generalizability: A common criticism of case study research is that its findings might not be generalizable to other cases due to the specificity and uniqueness of each case.
• Time and resource intensive: Case study research can be time and resource intensive due to the depth of the investigation and the amount of collected data.
• Complexity of analysis: The rich, detailed data generated in case study research can make analyzing the data challenging.
• Subjectivity: Given the nature of case study research, there may be a higher degree of subjectivity in interpreting the data , so researchers need to reflect on this and transparently convey to audiences how the research was conducted.

Being aware of these strengths and limitations can help researchers design and conduct case study research effectively and interpret and report the findings appropriately.

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Designing and Conducting Case Studies

This guide examines case studies, a form of qualitative descriptive research that is used to look at individuals, a small group of participants, or a group as a whole. Researchers collect data about participants using participant and direct observations, interviews, protocols, tests, examinations of records, and collections of writing samples. Starting with a definition of the case study, the guide moves to a brief history of this research method. Using several well documented case studies, the guide then looks at applications and methods including data collection and analysis. A discussion of ways to handle validity, reliability, and generalizability follows, with special attention to case studies as they are applied to composition studies. Finally, this guide examines the strengths and weaknesses of case studies.

Definition and Overview

Case study refers to the collection and presentation of detailed information about a particular participant or small group, frequently including the accounts of subjects themselves. A form of qualitative descriptive research, the case study looks intensely at an individual or small participant pool, drawing conclusions only about that participant or group and only in that specific context. Researchers do not focus on the discovery of a universal, generalizable truth, nor do they typically look for cause-effect relationships; instead, emphasis is placed on exploration and description.

Case studies typically examine the interplay of all variables in order to provide as complete an understanding of an event or situation as possible. This type of comprehensive understanding is arrived at through a process known as thick description, which involves an in-depth description of the entity being evaluated, the circumstances under which it is used, the characteristics of the people involved in it, and the nature of the community in which it is located. Thick description also involves interpreting the meaning of demographic and descriptive data such as cultural norms and mores, community values, ingrained attitudes, and motives.

Unlike quantitative methods of research, like the survey, which focus on the questions of who, what, where, how much, and how many, and archival analysis, which often situates the participant in some form of historical context, case studies are the preferred strategy when how or why questions are asked. Likewise, they are the preferred method when the researcher has little control over the events, and when there is a contemporary focus within a real life context. In addition, unlike more specifically directed experiments, case studies require a problem that seeks a holistic understanding of the event or situation in question using inductive logic--reasoning from specific to more general terms.

In scholarly circles, case studies are frequently discussed within the context of qualitative research and naturalistic inquiry. Case studies are often referred to interchangeably with ethnography, field study, and participant observation. The underlying philosophical assumptions in the case are similar to these types of qualitative research because each takes place in a natural setting (such as a classroom, neighborhood, or private home), and strives for a more holistic interpretation of the event or situation under study.

Unlike more statistically-based studies which search for quantifiable data, the goal of a case study is to offer new variables and questions for further research. F.H. Giddings, a sociologist in the early part of the century, compares statistical methods to the case study on the basis that the former are concerned with the distribution of a particular trait, or a small number of traits, in a population, whereas the case study is concerned with the whole variety of traits to be found in a particular instance" (Hammersley 95).

Case studies are not a new form of research; naturalistic inquiry was the primary research tool until the development of the scientific method. The fields of sociology and anthropology are credited with the primary shaping of the concept as we know it today. However, case study research has drawn from a number of other areas as well: the clinical methods of doctors; the casework technique being developed by social workers; the methods of historians and anthropologists, plus the qualitative descriptions provided by quantitative researchers like LePlay; and, in the case of Robert Park, the techniques of newspaper reporters and novelists.

Park was an ex-newspaper reporter and editor who became very influential in developing sociological case studies at the University of Chicago in the 1920s. As a newspaper professional he coined the term "scientific" or "depth" reporting: the description of local events in a way that pointed to major social trends. Park viewed the sociologist as "merely a more accurate, responsible, and scientific reporter." Park stressed the variety and value of human experience. He believed that sociology sought to arrive at natural, but fluid, laws and generalizations in regard to human nature and society. These laws weren't static laws of the kind sought by many positivists and natural law theorists, but rather, they were laws of becoming--with a constant possibility of change. Park encouraged students to get out of the library, to quit looking at papers and books, and to view the constant experiment of human experience. He writes, "Go and sit in the lounges of the luxury hotels and on the doorsteps of the flophouses; sit on the Gold Coast settees and on the slum shakedowns; sit in the Orchestra Hall and in the Star and Garter Burlesque. In short, gentlemen [sic], go get the seats of your pants dirty in real research."

But over the years, case studies have drawn their share of criticism. In fact, the method had its detractors from the start. In the 1920s, the debate between pro-qualitative and pro-quantitative became quite heated. Case studies, when compared to statistics, were considered by many to be unscientific. From the 1930's on, the rise of positivism had a growing influence on quantitative methods in sociology. People wanted static, generalizable laws in science. The sociological positivists were looking for stable laws of social phenomena. They criticized case study research because it failed to provide evidence of inter subjective agreement. Also, they condemned it because of the few number of cases studied and that the under-standardized character of their descriptions made generalization impossible. By the 1950s, quantitative methods, in the form of survey research, had become the dominant sociological approach and case study had become a minority practice.

Educational Applications

The 1950's marked the dawning of a new era in case study research, namely that of the utilization of the case study as a teaching method. "Instituted at Harvard Business School in the 1950s as a primary method of teaching, cases have since been used in classrooms and lecture halls alike, either as part of a course of study or as the main focus of the course to which other teaching material is added" (Armisted 1984). The basic purpose of instituting the case method as a teaching strategy was "to transfer much of the responsibility for learning from the teacher on to the student, whose role, as a result, shifts away from passive absorption toward active construction" (Boehrer 1990). Through careful examination and discussion of various cases, "students learn to identify actual problems, to recognize key players and their agendas, and to become aware of those aspects of the situation that contribute to the problem" (Merseth 1991). In addition, students are encouraged to "generate their own analysis of the problems under consideration, to develop their own solutions, and to practically apply their own knowledge of theory to these problems" (Boyce 1993). Along the way, students also develop "the power to analyze and to master a tangled circumstance by identifying and delineating important factors; the ability to utilize ideas, to test them against facts, and to throw them into fresh combinations" (Merseth 1991).

In addition to the practical application and testing of scholarly knowledge, case discussions can also help students prepare for real-world problems, situations and crises by providing an approximation of various professional environments (i.e. classroom, board room, courtroom, or hospital). Thus, through the examination of specific cases, students are given the opportunity to work out their own professional issues through the trials, tribulations, experiences, and research findings of others. An obvious advantage to this mode of instruction is that it allows students the exposure to settings and contexts that they might not otherwise experience. For example, a student interested in studying the effects of poverty on minority secondary student's grade point averages and S.A.T. scores could access and analyze information from schools as geographically diverse as Los Angeles, New York City, Miami, and New Mexico without ever having to leave the classroom.

The case study method also incorporates the idea that students can learn from one another "by engaging with each other and with each other's ideas, by asserting something and then having it questioned, challenged and thrown back at them so that they can reflect on what they hear, and then refine what they say" (Boehrer 1990). In summary, students can direct their own learning by formulating questions and taking responsibility for the study.

Types and Design Concerns

Researchers use multiple methods and approaches to conduct case studies.

Types of Case Studies

Under the more generalized category of case study exist several subdivisions, each of which is custom selected for use depending upon the goals and/or objectives of the investigator. These types of case study include the following:

Illustrative Case Studies These are primarily descriptive studies. They typically utilize one or two instances of an event to show what a situation is like. Illustrative case studies serve primarily to make the unfamiliar familiar and to give readers a common language about the topic in question.

Exploratory (or pilot) Case Studies These are condensed case studies performed before implementing a large scale investigation. Their basic function is to help identify questions and select types of measurement prior to the main investigation. The primary pitfall of this type of study is that initial findings may seem convincing enough to be released prematurely as conclusions.

Cumulative Case Studies These serve to aggregate information from several sites collected at different times. The idea behind these studies is the collection of past studies will allow for greater generalization without additional cost or time being expended on new, possibly repetitive studies.

Critical Instance Case Studies These examine one or more sites for either the purpose of examining a situation of unique interest with little to no interest in generalizability, or to call into question or challenge a highly generalized or universal assertion. This method is useful for answering cause and effect questions.

Identifying a Theoretical Perspective

Much of the case study's design is inherently determined for researchers, depending on the field from which they are working. In composition studies, researchers are typically working from a qualitative, descriptive standpoint. In contrast, physicists will approach their research from a more quantitative perspective. Still, in designing the study, researchers need to make explicit the questions to be explored and the theoretical perspective from which they will approach the case. The three most commonly adopted theories are listed below:

Individual Theories These focus primarily on the individual development, cognitive behavior, personality, learning and disability, and interpersonal interactions of a particular subject.

Organizational Theories These focus on bureaucracies, institutions, organizational structure and functions, or excellence in organizational performance.

Social Theories These focus on urban development, group behavior, cultural institutions, or marketplace functions.

Two examples of case studies are used consistently throughout this chapter. The first, a study produced by Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman (1988), looks at a first year graduate student's initiation into an academic writing program. The study uses participant-observer and linguistic data collecting techniques to assess the student's knowledge of appropriate discourse conventions. Using the pseudonym Nate to refer to the subject, the study sought to illuminate the particular experience rather than to generalize about the experience of fledgling academic writers collectively.

For example, in Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman's (1988) study we are told that the researchers are interested in disciplinary communities. In the first paragraph, they ask what constitutes membership in a disciplinary community and how achieving membership might affect a writer's understanding and production of texts. In the third paragraph they state that researchers must negotiate their claims "within the context of his sub specialty's accepted knowledge and methodology." In the next paragraph they ask, "How is literacy acquired? What is the process through which novices gain community membership? And what factors either aid or hinder students learning the requisite linguistic behaviors?" This introductory section ends with a paragraph in which the study's authors claim that during the course of the study, the subject, Nate, successfully makes the transition from "skilled novice" to become an initiated member of the academic discourse community and that his texts exhibit linguistic changes which indicate this transition. In the next section the authors make explicit the sociolinguistic theoretical and methodological assumptions on which the study is based (1988). Thus the reader has a good understanding of the authors' theoretical background and purpose in conducting the study even before it is explicitly stated on the fourth page of the study. "Our purpose was to examine the effects of the educational context on one graduate student's production of texts as he wrote in different courses and for different faculty members over the academic year 1984-85." The goal of the study then, was to explore the idea that writers must be initiated into a writing community, and that this initiation will change the way one writes.

The second example is Janet Emig's (1971) study of the composing process of a group of twelfth graders. In this study, Emig seeks to answer the question of what happens to the self as a result educational stimuli in terms of academic writing. The case study used methods such as protocol analysis, tape-recorded interviews, and discourse analysis.

In the case of Janet Emig's (1971) study of the composing process of eight twelfth graders, four specific hypotheses were made:

• Twelfth grade writers engage in two modes of composing: reflexive and extensive.
• These differences can be ascertained and characterized through having the writers compose aloud their composition process.
• A set of implied stylistic principles governs the writing process.
• For twelfth grade writers, extensive writing occurs chiefly as a school-sponsored activity, or reflexive, as a self-sponsored activity.

In this study, the chief distinction is between the two dominant modes of composing among older, secondary school students. The distinctions are:

• The reflexive mode, which focuses on the writer's thoughts and feelings.
• The extensive mode, which focuses on conveying a message.

Emig also outlines the specific questions which guided the research in the opening pages of her Review of Literature , preceding the report.

Designing a Case Study

After considering the different sub categories of case study and identifying a theoretical perspective, researchers can begin to design their study. Research design is the string of logic that ultimately links the data to be collected and the conclusions to be drawn to the initial questions of the study. Typically, research designs deal with at least four problems:

• What questions to study
• What data are relevant
• What data to collect
• How to analyze that data

In other words, a research design is basically a blueprint for getting from the beginning to the end of a study. The beginning is an initial set of questions to be answered, and the end is some set of conclusions about those questions.

Because case studies are conducted on topics as diverse as Anglo-Saxon Literature (Thrane 1986) and AIDS prevention (Van Vugt 1994), it is virtually impossible to outline any strict or universal method or design for conducting the case study. However, Robert K. Yin (1993) does offer five basic components of a research design:

• A study's questions.
• A study's propositions (if any).
• A study's units of analysis.
• The logic that links the data to the propositions.
• The criteria for interpreting the findings.

In addition to these five basic components, Yin also stresses the importance of clearly articulating one's theoretical perspective, determining the goals of the study, selecting one's subject(s), selecting the appropriate method(s) of collecting data, and providing some considerations to the composition of the final report.

Conducting Case Studies

To obtain as complete a picture of the participant as possible, case study researchers can employ a variety of approaches and methods. These approaches, methods, and related issues are discussed in depth in this section.

Method: Single or Multi-modal?

To obtain as complete a picture of the participant as possible, case study researchers can employ a variety of methods. Some common methods include interviews , protocol analyses, field studies, and participant-observations. Emig (1971) chose to use several methods of data collection. Her sources included conversations with the students, protocol analysis, discrete observations of actual composition, writing samples from each student, and school records (Lauer and Asher 1988).

Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman (1988) collected data by observing classrooms, conducting faculty and student interviews, collecting self reports from the subject, and by looking at the subject's written work.

A study that was criticized for using a single method model was done by Flower and Hayes (1984). In this study that explores the ways in which writers use different forms of knowing to create space, the authors used only protocol analysis to gather data. The study came under heavy fire because of their decision to use only one method.

Participant Selection

Case studies can use one participant, or a small group of participants. However, it is important that the participant pool remain relatively small. The participants can represent a diverse cross section of society, but this isn't necessary.

For example, the Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman (1988) study looked at just one participant, Nate. By contrast, in Janet Emig's (1971) study of the composition process of twelfth graders, eight participants were selected representing a diverse cross section of the community, with volunteers from an all-white upper-middle-class suburban school, an all-black inner-city school, a racially mixed lower-middle-class school, an economically and racially mixed school, and a university school.

Often, a brief "case history" is done on the participants of the study in order to provide researchers with a clearer understanding of their participants, as well as some insight as to how their own personal histories might affect the outcome of the study. For instance, in Emig's study, the investigator had access to the school records of five of the participants, and to standardized test scores for the remaining three. Also made available to the researcher was the information that three of the eight students were selected as NCTE Achievement Award winners. These personal histories can be useful in later stages of the study when data are being analyzed and conclusions drawn.

Data Collection

There are six types of data collected in case studies:

• Archival records.
• Interviews.
• Direct observation.
• Participant observation.

In the field of composition research, these six sources might be:

• A writer's drafts.
• School records of student writers.
• Transcripts of interviews with a writer.
• Transcripts of conversations between writers (and protocols).
• Videotapes and notes from direct field observations.
• Hard copies of a writer's work on computer.

Depending on whether researchers have chosen to use a single or multi-modal approach for the case study, they may choose to collect data from one or any combination of these sources.

Protocols, that is, transcriptions of participants talking aloud about what they are doing as they do it, have been particularly common in composition case studies. For example, in Emig's (1971) study, the students were asked, in four different sessions, to give oral autobiographies of their writing experiences and to compose aloud three themes in the presence of a tape recorder and the investigator.

In some studies, only one method of data collection is conducted. For example, the Flower and Hayes (1981) report on the cognitive process theory of writing depends on protocol analysis alone. However, using multiple sources of evidence to increase the reliability and validity of the data can be advantageous.

Case studies are likely to be much more convincing and accurate if they are based on several different sources of information, following a corroborating mode. This conclusion is echoed among many composition researchers. For example, in her study of predrafting processes of high and low-apprehensive writers, Cynthia Selfe (1985) argues that because "methods of indirect observation provide only an incomplete reflection of the complex set of processes involved in composing, a combination of several such methods should be used to gather data in any one study." Thus, in this study, Selfe collected her data from protocols, observations of students role playing their writing processes, audio taped interviews with the students, and videotaped observations of the students in the process of composing.

It can be said then, that cross checking data from multiple sources can help provide a multidimensional profile of composing activities in a particular setting. Sharan Merriam (1985) suggests "checking, verifying, testing, probing, and confirming collected data as you go, arguing that this process will follow in a funnel-like design resulting in less data gathering in later phases of the study along with a congruent increase in analysis checking, verifying, and confirming."

It is important to note that in case studies, as in any qualitative descriptive research, while researchers begin their studies with one or several questions driving the inquiry (which influence the key factors the researcher will be looking for during data collection), a researcher may find new key factors emerging during data collection. These might be unexpected patterns or linguistic features which become evident only during the course of the research. While not bearing directly on the researcher's guiding questions, these variables may become the basis for new questions asked at the end of the report, thus linking to the possibility of further research.

Data Analysis

As the information is collected, researchers strive to make sense of their data. Generally, researchers interpret their data in one of two ways: holistically or through coding. Holistic analysis does not attempt to break the evidence into parts, but rather to draw conclusions based on the text as a whole. Flower and Hayes (1981), for example, make inferences from entire sections of their students' protocols, rather than searching through the transcripts to look for isolatable characteristics.

However, composition researchers commonly interpret their data by coding, that is by systematically searching data to identify and/or categorize specific observable actions or characteristics. These observable actions then become the key variables in the study. Sharan Merriam (1988) suggests seven analytic frameworks for the organization and presentation of data:

• The role of participants.
• The network analysis of formal and informal exchanges among groups.
• Historical.
• Thematical.
• Ritual and symbolism.
• Critical incidents that challenge or reinforce fundamental beliefs, practices, and values.

There are two purposes of these frameworks: to look for patterns among the data and to look for patterns that give meaning to the case study.

As stated above, while most researchers begin their case studies expecting to look for particular observable characteristics, it is not unusual for key variables to emerge during data collection. Typical variables coded in case studies of writers include pauses writers make in the production of a text, the use of specific linguistic units (such as nouns or verbs), and writing processes (planning, drafting, revising, and editing). In the Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman (1988) study, for example, researchers coded the participant's texts for use of connectives, discourse demonstratives, average sentence length, off-register words, use of the first person pronoun, and the ratio of definite articles to indefinite articles.

Since coding is inherently subjective, more than one coder is usually employed. In the Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman (1988) study, for example, three rhetoricians were employed to code the participant's texts for off-register phrases. The researchers established the agreement among the coders before concluding that the participant used fewer off-register words as the graduate program progressed.

Composing the Case Study Report

In the many forms it can take, "a case study is generically a story; it presents the concrete narrative detail of actual, or at least realistic events, it has a plot, exposition, characters, and sometimes even dialogue" (Boehrer 1990). Generally, case study reports are extensively descriptive, with "the most problematic issue often referred to as being the determination of the right combination of description and analysis" (1990). Typically, authors address each step of the research process, and attempt to give the reader as much context as possible for the decisions made in the research design and for the conclusions drawn.

This contextualization usually includes a detailed explanation of the researchers' theoretical positions, of how those theories drove the inquiry or led to the guiding research questions, of the participants' backgrounds, of the processes of data collection, of the training and limitations of the coders, along with a strong attempt to make connections between the data and the conclusions evident.

Although the Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman (1988) study does not, case study reports often include the reactions of the participants to the study or to the researchers' conclusions. Because case studies tend to be exploratory, most end with implications for further study. Here researchers may identify significant variables that emerged during the research and suggest studies related to these, or the authors may suggest further general questions that their case study generated.

For example, Emig's (1971) study concludes with a section dedicated solely to the topic of implications for further research, in which she suggests several means by which this particular study could have been improved, as well as questions and ideas raised by this study which other researchers might like to address, such as: is there a correlation between a certain personality and a certain composing process profile (e.g. is there a positive correlation between ego strength and persistence in revising)?

Also included in Emig's study is a section dedicated to implications for teaching, which outlines the pedagogical ramifications of the study's findings for teachers currently involved in high school writing programs.

Sharan Merriam (1985) also offers several suggestions for alternative presentations of data:

• Prepare specialized condensations for appropriate groups.
• Replace narrative sections with a series of answers to open-ended questions.
• Present "skimmer's" summaries at beginning of each section.
• Incorporate headlines that encapsulate information from text.
• Prepare analytic summaries with supporting data appendixes.
• Present data in colorful and/or unique graphic representations.

Issues of Validity and Reliability

Once key variables have been identified, they can be analyzed. Reliability becomes a key concern at this stage, and many case study researchers go to great lengths to ensure that their interpretations of the data will be both reliable and valid. Because issues of validity and reliability are an important part of any study in the social sciences, it is important to identify some ways of dealing with results.

Multi-modal case study researchers often balance the results of their coding with data from interviews or writer's reflections upon their own work. Consequently, the researchers' conclusions become highly contextualized. For example, in a case study which looked at the time spent in different stages of the writing process, Berkenkotter concluded that her participant, Donald Murray, spent more time planning his essays than in other writing stages. The report of this case study is followed by Murray's reply, wherein he agrees with some of Berkenkotter's conclusions and disagrees with others.

As is the case with other research methodologies, issues of external validity, construct validity, and reliability need to be carefully considered.

Commentary on Case Studies

Researchers often debate the relative merits of particular methods, among them case study. In this section, we comment on two key issues. To read the commentaries, choose any of the items below:

Strengths and Weaknesses of Case Studies

Most case study advocates point out that case studies produce much more detailed information than what is available through a statistical analysis. Advocates will also hold that while statistical methods might be able to deal with situations where behavior is homogeneous and routine, case studies are needed to deal with creativity, innovation, and context. Detractors argue that case studies are difficult to generalize because of inherent subjectivity and because they are based on qualitative subjective data, generalizable only to a particular context.

Flexibility

The case study approach is a comparatively flexible method of scientific research. Because its project designs seem to emphasize exploration rather than prescription or prediction, researchers are comparatively freer to discover and address issues as they arise in their experiments. In addition, the looser format of case studies allows researchers to begin with broad questions and narrow their focus as their experiment progresses rather than attempt to predict every possible outcome before the experiment is conducted.

Emphasis on Context

By seeking to understand as much as possible about a single subject or small group of subjects, case studies specialize in "deep data," or "thick description"--information based on particular contexts that can give research results a more human face. This emphasis can help bridge the gap between abstract research and concrete practice by allowing researchers to compare their firsthand observations with the quantitative results obtained through other methods of research.

Inherent Subjectivity

"The case study has long been stereotyped as the weak sibling among social science methods," and is often criticized as being too subjective and even pseudo-scientific. Likewise, "investigators who do case studies are often regarded as having deviated from their academic disciplines, and their investigations as having insufficient precision (that is, quantification), objectivity and rigor" (Yin 1989). Opponents cite opportunities for subjectivity in the implementation, presentation, and evaluation of case study research. The approach relies on personal interpretation of data and inferences. Results may not be generalizable, are difficult to test for validity, and rarely offer a problem-solving prescription. Simply put, relying on one or a few subjects as a basis for cognitive extrapolations runs the risk of inferring too much from what might be circumstance.

High Investment

Case studies can involve learning more about the subjects being tested than most researchers would care to know--their educational background, emotional background, perceptions of themselves and their surroundings, their likes, dislikes, and so on. Because of its emphasis on "deep data," the case study is out of reach for many large-scale research projects which look at a subject pool in the tens of thousands. A budget request of $10,000 to examine 200 subjects sounds more efficient than a similar request to examine four subjects.

Ethical Considerations

Researchers conducting case studies should consider certain ethical issues. For example, many educational case studies are often financed by people who have, either directly or indirectly, power over both those being studied and those conducting the investigation (1985). This conflict of interests can hinder the credibility of the study.

The personal integrity, sensitivity, and possible prejudices and/or biases of the investigators need to be taken into consideration as well. Personal biases can creep into how the research is conducted, alternative research methods used, and the preparation of surveys and questionnaires.

A common complaint in case study research is that investigators change direction during the course of the study unaware that their original research design was inadequate for the revised investigation. Thus, the researchers leave unknown gaps and biases in the study. To avoid this, researchers should report preliminary findings so that the likelihood of bias will be reduced.

Concerns about Reliability, Validity, and Generalizability

Merriam (1985) offers several suggestions for how case study researchers might actively combat the popular attacks on the validity, reliability, and generalizability of case studies:

• Prolong the Processes of Data Gathering on Site: This will help to insure the accuracy of the findings by providing the researcher with more concrete information upon which to formulate interpretations.
• Employ the Process of "Triangulation": Use a variety of data sources as opposed to relying solely upon one avenue of observation. One example of such a data check would be what McClintock, Brannon, and Maynard (1985) refer to as a "case cluster method," that is, when a single unit within a larger case is randomly sampled, and that data treated quantitatively." For instance, in Emig's (1971) study, the case cluster method was employed, singling out the productivity of a single student named Lynn. This cluster profile included an advanced case history of the subject, specific examination and analysis of individual compositions and protocols, and extensive interview sessions. The seven remaining students were then compared with the case of Lynn, to ascertain if there are any shared, or unique dimensions to the composing process engaged in by these eight students.
• Conduct Member Checks: Initiate and maintain an active corroboration on the interpretation of data between the researcher and those who provided the data. In other words, talk to your subjects.
• Collect Referential Materials: Complement the file of materials from the actual site with additional document support. For example, Emig (1971) supports her initial propositions with historical accounts by writers such as T.S. Eliot, James Joyce, and D.H. Lawrence. Emig also cites examples of theoretical research done with regards to the creative process, as well as examples of empirical research dealing with the writing of adolescents. Specific attention is then given to the four stages description of the composing process delineated by Helmoltz, Wallas, and Cowley, as it serves as the focal point in this study.
• Engage in Peer Consultation: Prior to composing the final draft of the report, researchers should consult with colleagues in order to establish validity through pooled judgment.

Although little can be done to combat challenges concerning the generalizability of case studies, "most writers suggest that qualitative research should be judged as credible and confirmable as opposed to valid and reliable" (Merriam 1985). Likewise, it has been argued that "rather than transplanting statistical, quantitative notions of generalizability and thus finding qualitative research inadequate, it makes more sense to develop an understanding of generalization that is congruent with the basic characteristics of qualitative inquiry" (1985). After all, criticizing the case study method for being ungeneralizable is comparable to criticizing a washing machine for not being able to tell the correct time. In other words, it is unjust to criticize a method for not being able to do something which it was never originally designed to do in the first place.

Annotated Bibliography

Armisted, C. (1984). How Useful are Case Studies. Training and Development Journal, 38 (2), 75-77.

This article looks at eight types of case studies, offers pros and cons of using case studies in the classroom, and gives suggestions for successfully writing and using case studies.

Bardovi-Harlig, K. (1997). Beyond Methods: Components of Second Language Teacher Education . New York: McGraw-Hill.

A compilation of various research essays which address issues of language teacher education. Essays included are: "Non-native reading research and theory" by Lee, "The case for Psycholinguistics" by VanPatten, and "Assessment and Second Language Teaching" by Gradman and Reed.

Bartlett, L. (1989). A Question of Good Judgment; Interpretation Theory and Qualitative Enquiry Address. 70th Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association. San Francisco.

Bartlett selected "quasi-historical" methodology, which focuses on the "truth" found in case records, as one that will provide "good judgments" in educational inquiry. He argues that although the method is not comprehensive, it can try to connect theory with practice.

Baydere, S. et. al. (1993). Multimedia conferencing as a tool for collaborative writing: a case study in Computer Supported Collaborative Writing. New York: Springer-Verlag.

The case study by Baydere et. al. is just one of the many essays in this book found in the series "Computer Supported Cooperative Work." Denley, Witefield and May explore similar issues in their essay, "A case study in task analysis for the design of a collaborative document production system."

Berkenkotter, C., Huckin, T., N., & Ackerman J. (1988). Conventions, Conversations, and the Writer: Case Study of a Student in a Rhetoric Ph.D. Program. Research in the Teaching of English, 22, 9-44.

The authors focused on how the writing of their subject, Nate or Ackerman, changed as he became more acquainted or familiar with his field's discourse community.

Berninger, V., W., and Gans, B., M. (1986). Language Profiles in Nonspeaking Individuals of Normal Intelligence with Severe Cerebral Palsy. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 2, 45-50.

Argues that generalizations about language abilities in patients with severe cerebral palsy (CP) should be avoided. Standardized tests of different levels of processing oral language, of processing written language, and of producing written language were administered to 3 male participants (aged 9, 16, and 40 yrs).

Bockman, J., R., and Couture, B. (1984). The Case Method in Technical Communication: Theory and Models. Texas: Association of Teachers of Technical Writing.

Examines the study and teaching of technical writing, communication of technical information, and the case method in terms of those applications.

Boehrer, J. (1990). Teaching With Cases: Learning to Question. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 42 41-57.

This article discusses the origins of the case method, looks at the question of what is a case, gives ideas about learning in case teaching, the purposes it can serve in the classroom, the ground rules for the case discussion, including the role of the question, and new directions for case teaching.

Bowman, W. R. (1993). Evaluating JTPA Programs for Economically Disadvantaged Adults: A Case Study of Utah and General Findings . Washington: National Commission for Employment Policy.

"To encourage state-level evaluations of JTPA, the Commission and the State of Utah co-sponsored this report on the effectiveness of JTPA Title II programs for adults in Utah. The technique used is non-experimental and the comparison group was selected from registrants with Utah's Employment Security. In a step-by-step approach, the report documents how non-experimental techniques can be applied and several specific technical issues can be addressed."

Boyce, A. (1993) The Case Study Approach for Pedagogists. Annual Meeting of the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance. (Address). Washington DC.

This paper addresses how case studies 1) bridge the gap between teaching theory and application, 2) enable students to analyze problems and develop solutions for situations that will be encountered in the real world of teaching, and 3) helps students to evaluate the feasibility of alternatives and to understand the ramifications of a particular course of action.

Carson, J. (1993) The Case Study: Ideal Home of WAC Quantitative and Qualitative Data. Annual Meeting of the Conference on College Composition and Communication. (Address). San Diego.

"Increasingly, one of the most pressing questions for WAC advocates is how to keep [WAC] programs going in the face of numerous difficulties. Case histories offer the best chance for fashioning rhetorical arguments to keep WAC programs going because they offer the opportunity to provide a coherent narrative that contextualizes all documents and data, including what is generally considered scientific data. A case study of the WAC program, . . . at Robert Morris College in Pittsburgh demonstrates the advantages of this research method. Such studies are ideal homes for both naturalistic and positivistic data as well as both quantitative and qualitative information."

---. (1991). A Cognitive Process Theory of Writing. College Composition and Communication. 32. 365-87.

No abstract available.

Cromer, R. (1994) A Case Study of Dissociations Between Language and Cognition. Constraints on Language Acquisition: Studies of Atypical Children . Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 141-153.

Crossley, M. (1983) Case Study in Comparative and International Education: An Approach to Bridging the Theory-Practice Gap. Proceedings of the 11th Annual Conference of the Australian Comparative and International Education Society. Hamilton, NZ.

Case study research, as presented here, helps bridge the theory-practice gap in comparative and international research studies of education because it focuses on the practical, day-to-day context rather than on the national arena. The paper asserts that the case study method can be valuable at all levels of research, formation, and verification of theories in education.

Daillak, R., H., and Alkin, M., C. (1982). Qualitative Studies in Context: Reflections on the CSE Studies of Evaluation Use . California: EDRS

The report shows how the Center of the Study of Evaluation (CSE) applied qualitative techniques to a study of evaluation information use in local, Los Angeles schools. It critiques the effectiveness and the limitations of using case study, evaluation, field study, and user interview survey methodologies.

Davey, L. (1991). The Application of Case Study Evaluations. ERIC/TM Digest.

This article examines six types of case studies, the type of evaluation questions that can be answered, the functions served, some design features, and some pitfalls of the method.

Deutch, C. E. (1996). A course in research ethics for graduate students. College Teaching, 44, 2, 56-60.

This article describes a one-credit discussion course in research ethics for graduate students in biology. Case studies are focused on within the four parts of the course: 1) major issues, 2 )practical issues in scholarly work, 3) ownership of research results, and 4) training and personal decisions.

DeVoss, G. (1981). Ethics in Fieldwork Research. RIE 27p. (ERIC)

This article examines four of the ethical problems that can happen when conducting case study research: acquiring permission to do research, knowing when to stop digging, the pitfalls of doing collaborative research, and preserving the integrity of the participants.

Driscoll, A. (1985). Case Study of a Research Intervention: the University of Utah’s Collaborative Approach . San Francisco: Far West Library for Educational Research Development.

Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Association of Colleges of Teacher Education, Denver, CO, March 1985. Offers information of in-service training, specifically case studies application.

Ellram, L. M. (1996). The Use of the Case Study Method in Logistics Research. Journal of Business Logistics, 17, 2, 93.

This article discusses the increased use of case study in business research, and the lack of understanding of when and how to use case study methodology in business.

Emig, J. (1971) The Composing Processes of Twelfth Graders . Urbana: NTCE.

This case study uses observation, tape recordings, writing samples, and school records to show that writing in reflexive and extensive situations caused different lengths of discourse and different clusterings of the components of the writing process.

Feagin, J. R. (1991). A Case For the Case Study . Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press.

This book discusses the nature, characteristics, and basic methodological issues of the case study as a research method.

Feldman, H., Holland, A., & Keefe, K. (1989) Language Abilities after Left Hemisphere Brain Injury: A Case Study of Twins. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 9, 32-47.

"Describes the language abilities of 2 twin pairs in which 1 twin (the experimental) suffered brain injury to the left cerebral hemisphere around the time of birth and1 twin (the control) did not. One pair of twins was initially assessed at age 23 mo. and the other at about 30 mo.; they were subsequently evaluated in their homes 3 times at about 6-mo intervals."

Fidel, R. (1984). The Case Study Method: A Case Study. Library and Information Science Research, 6.

The article describes the use of case study methodology to systematically develop a model of online searching behavior in which study design is flexible, subject manner determines data gathering and analyses, and procedures adapt to the study's progressive change.

Flower, L., & Hayes, J. R. (1984). Images, Plans and Prose: The Representation of Meaning in Writing. Written Communication, 1, 120-160.

Explores the ways in which writers actually use different forms of knowing to create prose.

Frey, L. R. (1992). Interpreting Communication Research: A Case Study Approach Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall.

The book discusses research methodologies in the Communication field. It focuses on how case studies bridge the gap between communication research, theory, and practice.

Gilbert, V. K. (1981). The Case Study as a Research Methodology: Difficulties and Advantages of Integrating the Positivistic, Phenomenological and Grounded Theory Approaches . The Annual Meeting of the Canadian Association for the Study of Educational Administration. (Address) Halifax, NS, Can.

This study on an innovative secondary school in England shows how a "low-profile" participant-observer case study was crucial to the initial observation, the testing of hypotheses, the interpretive approach, and the grounded theory.

Gilgun, J. F. (1994). A Case for Case Studies in Social Work Research. Social Work, 39, 4, 371-381.

This article defines case study research, presents guidelines for evaluation of case studies, and shows the relevance of case studies to social work research. It also looks at issues such as evaluation and interpretations of case studies.

Glennan, S. L., Sharp-Bittner, M. A. & Tullos, D. C. (1991). Augmentative and Alternative Communication Training with a Nonspeaking Adult: Lessons from MH. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 7, 240-7.

"A response-guided case study documented changes in a nonspeaking 36-yr-old man's ability to communicate using 3 trained augmentative communication modes. . . . Data were collected in videotaped interaction sessions between the nonspeaking adult and a series of adult speaking."

Graves, D. (1981). An Examination of the Writing Processes of Seven Year Old Children. Research in the Teaching of English, 15, 113-134.

Hamel, J. (1993). Case Study Methods . Newbury Park: Sage. .

"In a most economical fashion, Hamel provides a practical guide for producing theoretically sharp and empirically sound sociological case studies. A central idea put forth by Hamel is that case studies must "locate the global in the local" thus making the careful selection of the research site the most critical decision in the analytic process."

Karthigesu, R. (1986, July). Television as a Tool for Nation-Building in the Third World: A Post-Colonial Pattern, Using Malaysia as a Case-Study. International Television Studies Conference. (Address). London, 10-12.

"The extent to which Television Malaysia, as a national mass media organization, has been able to play a role in nation building in the post-colonial period is . . . studied in two parts: how the choice of a model of nation building determines the character of the organization; and how the character of the organization influences the output of the organization."

Kenny, R. (1984). Making the Case for the Case Study. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 16, (1), 37-51.

The article looks at how and why the case study is justified as a viable and valuable approach to educational research and program evaluation.

Knirk, F. (1991). Case Materials: Research and Practice. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 4 (1 ), 73-81.

The article addresses the effectiveness of case studies, subject areas where case studies are commonly used, recent examples of their use, and case study design considerations.

Klos, D. (1976). Students as Case Writers. Teaching of Psychology, 3.2, 63-66.

This article reviews a course in which students gather data for an original case study of another person. The task requires the students to design the study, collect the data, write the narrative, and interpret the findings.

Leftwich, A. (1981). The Politics of Case Study: Problems of Innovation in University Education. Higher Education Review, 13.2, 38-64.

The article discusses the use of case studies as a teaching method. Emphasis is on the instructional materials, interdisciplinarity, and the complex relationships within the university that help or hinder the method.

Mabrito, M. (1991, Oct.). Electronic Mail as a Vehicle for Peer Response: Conversations of High and Low Apprehensive Writers. Written Communication, 509-32.

McCarthy, S., J. (1955). The Influence of Classroom Discourse on Student Texts: The Case of Ella . East Lansing: Institute for Research on Teaching.

A look at how students of color become marginalized within traditional classroom discourse. The essay follows the struggles of one black student: Ella.

Matsuhashi, A., ed. (1987). Writing in Real Time: Modeling Production Processes Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Corporation.

Investigates how writers plan to produce discourse for different purposes to report, to generalize, and to persuade, as well as how writers plan for sentence level units of language. To learn about planning, an observational measure of pause time was used" (ERIC).

Merriam, S. B. (1985). The Case Study in Educational Research: A Review of Selected Literature. Journal of Educational Thought, 19.3, 204-17.

The article examines the characteristics of, philosophical assumptions underlying the case study, the mechanics of conducting a case study, and the concerns about the reliability, validity, and generalizability of the method.

---. (1988). Case Study Research in Education: A Qualitative Approach San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

Merry, S. E., & Milner, N. eds. (1993). The Possibility of Popular Justice: A Case Study of Community Mediation in the United States . Ann Arbor: U of Michigan.

". . . this volume presents a case study of one experiment in popular justice, the San Francisco Community Boards. This program has made an explicit claim to create an alternative justice, or new justice, in the midst of a society ordered by state law. The contributors to this volume explore the history and experience of the program and compare it to other versions of popular justice in the United States, Europe, and the Third World."

Merseth, K. K. (1991). The Case for Cases in Teacher Education. RIE. 42p. (ERIC).

This monograph argues that the case method of instruction offers unique potential for revitalizing the field of teacher education.

Michaels, S. (1987). Text and Context: A New Approach to the Study of Classroom Writing. Discourse Processes, 10, 321-346.

"This paper argues for and illustrates an approach to the study of writing that integrates ethnographic analysis of classroom interaction with linguistic analysis of written texts and teacher/student conversational exchanges. The approach is illustrated through a case study of writing in a single sixth grade classroom during a single writing assignment."

Milburn, G. (1995). Deciphering a Code or Unraveling a Riddle: A Case Study in the Application of a Humanistic Metaphor to the Reporting of Social Studies Teaching. Theory and Research in Education, 13.

This citation serves as an example of how case studies document learning procedures in a senior-level economics course.

Milley, J. E. (1979). An Investigation of Case Study as an Approach to Program Evaluation. 19th Annual Forum of the Association for Institutional Research. (Address). San Diego.

The case study method merged a narrative report focusing on the evaluator as participant-observer with document review, interview, content analysis, attitude questionnaire survey, and sociogram analysis. Milley argues that case study program evaluation has great potential for widespread use.

Minnis, J. R. (1985, Sept.). Ethnography, Case Study, Grounded Theory, and Distance Education Research. Distance Education, 6.2.

This article describes and defines the strengths and weaknesses of ethnography, case study, and grounded theory.

Nunan, D. (1992). Collaborative language learning and teaching . New York: Cambridge University Press.

Included in this series of essays is Peter Sturman’s "Team Teaching: a case study from Japan" and David Nunan’s own "Toward a collaborative approach to curriculum development: a case study."

Nystrand, M., ed. (1982). What Writers Know: The Language, Process, and Structure of Written Discourse . New York: Academic Press.

Owenby, P. H. (1992). Making Case Studies Come Alive. Training, 29, (1), 43-46. (ERIC)

This article provides tips for writing more effective case studies.

---. (1981). Pausing and Planning: The Tempo of Writer Discourse Production. Research in the Teaching of English, 15 (2),113-34.

Perl, S. (1979). The Composing Processes of Unskilled College Writers. Research in the Teaching of English, 13, 317-336.

"Summarizes a study of five unskilled college writers, focusing especially on one of the five, and discusses the findings in light of current pedagogical practice and research design."

Pilcher J. and A. Coffey. eds. (1996). Gender and Qualitative Research . Brookfield: Aldershot, Hants, England.

This book provides a series of essays which look at gender identity research, qualitative research and applications of case study to questions of gendered pedagogy.

Pirie, B. S. (1993). The Case of Morty: A Four Year Study. Gifted Education International, 9 (2), 105-109.

This case study describes a boy from kindergarten through third grade with above average intelligence but difficulty in learning to read, write, and spell.

Popkewitz, T. (1993). Changing Patterns of Power: Social Regulation and Teacher Education Reform. Albany: SUNY Press.

Popkewitz edits this series of essays that address case studies on educational change and the training of teachers. The essays vary in terms of discipline and scope. Also, several authors include case studies of educational practices in countries other than the United States.

---. (1984). The Predrafting Processes of Four High- and Four Low Apprehensive Writers. Research in the Teaching of English, 18, (1), 45-64.

Rasmussen, P. (1985, March) A Case Study on the Evaluation of Research at the Technical University of Denmark. International Journal of Institutional Management in Higher Education, 9 (1).

This is an example of a case study methodology used to evaluate the chemistry and chemical engineering departments at the University of Denmark.

Roth, K. J. (1986). Curriculum Materials, Teacher Talk, and Student Learning: Case Studies in Fifth-Grade Science Teaching . East Lansing: Institute for Research on Teaching.

Roth offers case studies on elementary teachers, elementary school teaching, science studies and teaching, and verbal learning.

Selfe, C. L. (1985). An Apprehensive Writer Composes. When a Writer Can't Write: Studies in Writer's Block and Other Composing-Process Problems . (pp. 83-95). Ed. Mike Rose. NMY: Guilford.

Smith-Lewis, M., R. and Ford, A. (1987). A User's Perspective on Augmentative Communication. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 3, 12-7.

"During a series of in-depth interviews, a 25-yr-old woman with cerebral palsy who utilized augmentative communication reflected on the effectiveness of the devices designed for her during her school career."

St. Pierre, R., G. (1980, April). Follow Through: A Case Study in Metaevaluation Research . 64th Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association. (Address).

The three approaches to metaevaluation are evaluation of primary evaluations, integrative meta-analysis with combined primary evaluation results, and re-analysis of the raw data from a primary evaluation.

Stahler, T., M. (1996, Feb.) Early Field Experiences: A Model That Worked. ERIC.

"This case study of a field and theory class examines a model designed to provide meaningful field experiences for preservice teachers while remaining consistent with the instructor's beliefs about the role of teacher education in preparing teachers for the classroom."

Stake, R. E. (1995). The Art of Case Study Research. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

This book examines case study research in education and case study methodology.

Stiegelbauer, S. (1984) Community, Context, and Co-curriculum: Situational Factors Influencing School Improvements in a Study of High Schools. Presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, LA.

Discussion of several case studies: one looking at high school environments, another examining educational innovations.

Stolovitch, H. (1990). Case Study Method. Performance And Instruction, 29, (9), 35-37.

This article describes the case study method as a form of simulation and presents guidelines for their use in professional training situations.

Thaller, E. (1994). Bibliography for the Case Method: Using Case Studies in Teacher Education. RIE. 37 p.

This bibliography presents approximately 450 citations on the use of case studies in teacher education from 1921-1993.

Thrane, T. (1986). On Delimiting the Senses of Near-Synonyms in Historical Semantics: A Case Study of Adjectives of 'Moral Sufficiency' in the Old English Andreas. Linguistics Across Historical and Geographical Boundaries: In Honor of Jacek Fisiak on the Occasion of his Fiftieth Birthday . Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.

United Nations. (1975). Food and Agriculture Organization. Report on the FAO/UNFPA Seminar on Methodology, Research and Country: Case Studies on Population, Employment and Productivity . Rome: United Nations.

This example case study shows how the methodology can be used in a demographic and psychographic evaluation. At the same time, it discusses the formation and instigation of the case study methodology itself.

Van Vugt, J. P., ed. (1994). Aids Prevention and Services: Community Based Research . Westport: Bergin and Garvey.

"This volume has been five years in the making. In the process, some of the policy applications called for have met with limited success, such as free needle exchange programs in a limited number of American cities, providing condoms to prison inmates, and advertisements that depict same-sex couples. Rather than dating our chapters that deal with such subjects, such policy applications are verifications of the type of research demonstrated here. Furthermore, they indicate the critical need to continue community based research in the various communities threatened by acquired immuno-deficiency syndrome (AIDS) . . . "

Welch, W., ed. (1981, May). Case Study Methodology in Educational Evaluation. Proceedings of the Minnesota Evaluation Conference. Minnesota. (Address).

The four papers in these proceedings provide a comprehensive picture of the rationale, methodology, strengths, and limitations of case studies.

Williams, G. (1987). The Case Method: An Approach to Teaching and Learning in Educational Administration. RIE, 31p.

This paper examines the viability of the case method as a teaching and learning strategy in instructional systems geared toward the training of personnel of the administration of various aspects of educational systems.

Yin, R. K. (1993). Advancing Rigorous Methodologies: A Review of 'Towards Rigor in Reviews of Multivocal Literatures.' Review of Educational Research, 61, (3).

"R. T. Ogawa and B. Malen's article does not meet its own recommended standards for rigorous testing and presentation of its own conclusions. Use of the exploratory case study to analyze multivocal literatures is not supported, and the claim of grounded theory to analyze multivocal literatures may be stronger."

---. (1989). Case Study Research: Design and Methods. London: Sage Publications Inc.

This book discusses in great detail, the entire design process of the case study, including entire chapters on collecting evidence, analyzing evidence, composing the case study report, and designing single and multiple case studies.

Related Links

Consider the following list of related Web sites for more information on the topic of case study research. Note: although many of the links cover the general category of qualitative research, all have sections that address issues of case studies.

• Sage Publications on Qualitative Methodology: Search here for a comprehensive list of new books being published about "Qualitative Methodology" http://www.sagepub.co.uk/
• The International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education: An on-line journal "to enhance the theory and practice of qualitative research in education." On-line submissions are welcome. http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/tf/09518398.html
• Qualitative Research Resources on the Internet: From syllabi to home pages to bibliographies. All links relate somehow to qualitative research. http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/qualres.html

Becker, Bronwyn, Patrick Dawson, Karen Devine, Carla Hannum, Steve Hill, Jon Leydens, Debbie Matuskevich, Carol Traver, & Mike Palmquist. (2005). Case Studies. Writing@CSU . Colorado State University. https://writing.colostate.edu/guides/guide.cfm?guideid=60

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Assignments

• Annotated Bibliography
• Analyzing a Scholarly Journal Article
• Group Presentations
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• Types of Structured Group Activities
• Group Project Survival Skills
• Leading a Class Discussion
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Works
• Writing a Case Analysis Paper
• Writing a Case Study
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Reflective Paper
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Generative AI and Writing
• Acknowledgments

A case study research paper examines a person, place, event, condition, phenomenon, or other type of subject of analysis in order to extrapolate  key themes and results that help predict future trends, illuminate previously hidden issues that can be applied to practice, and/or provide a means for understanding an important research problem with greater clarity. A case study research paper usually examines a single subject of analysis, but case study papers can also be designed as a comparative investigation that shows relationships between two or more subjects. The methods used to study a case can rest within a quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method investigative paradigm.

Case Studies. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010 ; “What is a Case Study?” In Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London: SAGE, 2010.

How to Approach Writing a Case Study Research Paper

General information about how to choose a topic to investigate can be found under the " Choosing a Research Problem " tab in the Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper writing guide. Review this page because it may help you identify a subject of analysis that can be investigated using a case study design.

However, identifying a case to investigate involves more than choosing the research problem . A case study encompasses a problem contextualized around the application of in-depth analysis, interpretation, and discussion, often resulting in specific recommendations for action or for improving existing conditions. As Seawright and Gerring note, practical considerations such as time and access to information can influence case selection, but these issues should not be the sole factors used in describing the methodological justification for identifying a particular case to study. Given this, selecting a case includes considering the following:

• The case represents an unusual or atypical example of a research problem that requires more in-depth analysis? Cases often represent a topic that rests on the fringes of prior investigations because the case may provide new ways of understanding the research problem. For example, if the research problem is to identify strategies to improve policies that support girl's access to secondary education in predominantly Muslim nations, you could consider using Azerbaijan as a case study rather than selecting a more obvious nation in the Middle East. Doing so may reveal important new insights into recommending how governments in other predominantly Muslim nations can formulate policies that support improved access to education for girls.
• The case provides important insight or illuminate a previously hidden problem? In-depth analysis of a case can be based on the hypothesis that the case study will reveal trends or issues that have not been exposed in prior research or will reveal new and important implications for practice. For example, anecdotal evidence may suggest drug use among homeless veterans is related to their patterns of travel throughout the day. Assuming prior studies have not looked at individual travel choices as a way to study access to illicit drug use, a case study that observes a homeless veteran could reveal how issues of personal mobility choices facilitate regular access to illicit drugs. Note that it is important to conduct a thorough literature review to ensure that your assumption about the need to reveal new insights or previously hidden problems is valid and evidence-based.
• The case challenges and offers a counter-point to prevailing assumptions? Over time, research on any given topic can fall into a trap of developing assumptions based on outdated studies that are still applied to new or changing conditions or the idea that something should simply be accepted as "common sense," even though the issue has not been thoroughly tested in current practice. A case study analysis may offer an opportunity to gather evidence that challenges prevailing assumptions about a research problem and provide a new set of recommendations applied to practice that have not been tested previously. For example, perhaps there has been a long practice among scholars to apply a particular theory in explaining the relationship between two subjects of analysis. Your case could challenge this assumption by applying an innovative theoretical framework [perhaps borrowed from another discipline] to explore whether this approach offers new ways of understanding the research problem. Taking a contrarian stance is one of the most important ways that new knowledge and understanding develops from existing literature.
• The case provides an opportunity to pursue action leading to the resolution of a problem? Another way to think about choosing a case to study is to consider how the results from investigating a particular case may result in findings that reveal ways in which to resolve an existing or emerging problem. For example, studying the case of an unforeseen incident, such as a fatal accident at a railroad crossing, can reveal hidden issues that could be applied to preventative measures that contribute to reducing the chance of accidents in the future. In this example, a case study investigating the accident could lead to a better understanding of where to strategically locate additional signals at other railroad crossings so as to better warn drivers of an approaching train, particularly when visibility is hindered by heavy rain, fog, or at night.
• The case offers a new direction in future research? A case study can be used as a tool for an exploratory investigation that highlights the need for further research about the problem. A case can be used when there are few studies that help predict an outcome or that establish a clear understanding about how best to proceed in addressing a problem. For example, after conducting a thorough literature review [very important!], you discover that little research exists showing the ways in which women contribute to promoting water conservation in rural communities of east central Africa. A case study of how women contribute to saving water in a rural village of Uganda can lay the foundation for understanding the need for more thorough research that documents how women in their roles as cooks and family caregivers think about water as a valuable resource within their community. This example of a case study could also point to the need for scholars to build new theoretical frameworks around the topic [e.g., applying feminist theories of work and family to the issue of water conservation].

Eisenhardt, Kathleen M. “Building Theories from Case Study Research.” Academy of Management Review 14 (October 1989): 532-550; Emmel, Nick. Sampling and Choosing Cases in Qualitative Research: A Realist Approach . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2013; Gerring, John. “What Is a Case Study and What Is It Good for?” American Political Science Review 98 (May 2004): 341-354; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Seawright, Jason and John Gerring. "Case Selection Techniques in Case Study Research." Political Research Quarterly 61 (June 2008): 294-308.

Structure and Writing Style

The purpose of a paper in the social sciences designed around a case study is to thoroughly investigate a subject of analysis in order to reveal a new understanding about the research problem and, in so doing, contributing new knowledge to what is already known from previous studies. In applied social sciences disciplines [e.g., education, social work, public administration, etc.], case studies may also be used to reveal best practices, highlight key programs, or investigate interesting aspects of professional work.

In general, the structure of a case study research paper is not all that different from a standard college-level research paper. However, there are subtle differences you should be aware of. Here are the key elements to organizing and writing a case study research paper.

I.  Introduction

As with any research paper, your introduction should serve as a roadmap for your readers to ascertain the scope and purpose of your study . The introduction to a case study research paper, however, should not only describe the research problem and its significance, but you should also succinctly describe why the case is being used and how it relates to addressing the problem. The two elements should be linked. With this in mind, a good introduction answers these four questions:

• What is being studied? Describe the research problem and describe the subject of analysis [the case] you have chosen to address the problem. Explain how they are linked and what elements of the case will help to expand knowledge and understanding about the problem.
• Why is this topic important to investigate? Describe the significance of the research problem and state why a case study design and the subject of analysis that the paper is designed around is appropriate in addressing the problem.
• What did we know about this topic before I did this study? Provide background that helps lead the reader into the more in-depth literature review to follow. If applicable, summarize prior case study research applied to the research problem and why it fails to adequately address the problem. Describe why your case will be useful. If no prior case studies have been used to address the research problem, explain why you have selected this subject of analysis.
• How will this study advance new knowledge or new ways of understanding? Explain why your case study will be suitable in helping to expand knowledge and understanding about the research problem.

Each of these questions should be addressed in no more than a few paragraphs. Exceptions to this can be when you are addressing a complex research problem or subject of analysis that requires more in-depth background information.

II.  Literature Review

The literature review for a case study research paper is generally structured the same as it is for any college-level research paper. The difference, however, is that the literature review is focused on providing background information and  enabling historical interpretation of the subject of analysis in relation to the research problem the case is intended to address . This includes synthesizing studies that help to:

• Place relevant works in the context of their contribution to understanding the case study being investigated . This would involve summarizing studies that have used a similar subject of analysis to investigate the research problem. If there is literature using the same or a very similar case to study, you need to explain why duplicating past research is important [e.g., conditions have changed; prior studies were conducted long ago, etc.].
• Describe the relationship each work has to the others under consideration that informs the reader why this case is applicable . Your literature review should include a description of any works that support using the case to investigate the research problem and the underlying research questions.
• Identify new ways to interpret prior research using the case study . If applicable, review any research that has examined the research problem using a different research design. Explain how your use of a case study design may reveal new knowledge or a new perspective or that can redirect research in an important new direction.
• Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies . This refers to synthesizing any literature that points to unresolved issues of concern about the research problem and describing how the subject of analysis that forms the case study can help resolve these existing contradictions.
• Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research . Your review should examine any literature that lays a foundation for understanding why your case study design and the subject of analysis around which you have designed your study may reveal a new way of approaching the research problem or offer a perspective that points to the need for additional research.
• Expose any gaps that exist in the literature that the case study could help to fill . Summarize any literature that not only shows how your subject of analysis contributes to understanding the research problem, but how your case contributes to a new way of understanding the problem that prior research has failed to do.
• Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important!] . Collectively, your literature review should always place your case study within the larger domain of prior research about the problem. The overarching purpose of reviewing pertinent literature in a case study paper is to demonstrate that you have thoroughly identified and synthesized prior studies in relation to explaining the relevance of the case in addressing the research problem.

III.  Method

In this section, you explain why you selected a particular case [i.e., subject of analysis] and the strategy you used to identify and ultimately decide that your case was appropriate in addressing the research problem. The way you describe the methods used varies depending on the type of subject of analysis that constitutes your case study.

If your subject of analysis is an incident or event . In the social and behavioral sciences, the event or incident that represents the case to be studied is usually bounded by time and place, with a clear beginning and end and with an identifiable location or position relative to its surroundings. The subject of analysis can be a rare or critical event or it can focus on a typical or regular event. The purpose of studying a rare event is to illuminate new ways of thinking about the broader research problem or to test a hypothesis. Critical incident case studies must describe the method by which you identified the event and explain the process by which you determined the validity of this case to inform broader perspectives about the research problem or to reveal new findings. However, the event does not have to be a rare or uniquely significant to support new thinking about the research problem or to challenge an existing hypothesis. For example, Walo, Bull, and Breen conducted a case study to identify and evaluate the direct and indirect economic benefits and costs of a local sports event in the City of Lismore, New South Wales, Australia. The purpose of their study was to provide new insights from measuring the impact of a typical local sports event that prior studies could not measure well because they focused on large "mega-events." Whether the event is rare or not, the methods section should include an explanation of the following characteristics of the event: a) when did it take place; b) what were the underlying circumstances leading to the event; and, c) what were the consequences of the event in relation to the research problem.

If your subject of analysis is a person. Explain why you selected this particular individual to be studied and describe what experiences they have had that provide an opportunity to advance new understandings about the research problem. Mention any background about this person which might help the reader understand the significance of their experiences that make them worthy of study. This includes describing the relationships this person has had with other people, institutions, and/or events that support using them as the subject for a case study research paper. It is particularly important to differentiate the person as the subject of analysis from others and to succinctly explain how the person relates to examining the research problem [e.g., why is one politician in a particular local election used to show an increase in voter turnout from any other candidate running in the election]. Note that these issues apply to a specific group of people used as a case study unit of analysis [e.g., a classroom of students].

If your subject of analysis is a place. In general, a case study that investigates a place suggests a subject of analysis that is unique or special in some way and that this uniqueness can be used to build new understanding or knowledge about the research problem. A case study of a place must not only describe its various attributes relevant to the research problem [e.g., physical, social, historical, cultural, economic, political], but you must state the method by which you determined that this place will illuminate new understandings about the research problem. It is also important to articulate why a particular place as the case for study is being used if similar places also exist [i.e., if you are studying patterns of homeless encampments of veterans in open spaces, explain why you are studying Echo Park in Los Angeles rather than Griffith Park?]. If applicable, describe what type of human activity involving this place makes it a good choice to study [e.g., prior research suggests Echo Park has more homeless veterans].

If your subject of analysis is a phenomenon. A phenomenon refers to a fact, occurrence, or circumstance that can be studied or observed but with the cause or explanation to be in question. In this sense, a phenomenon that forms your subject of analysis can encompass anything that can be observed or presumed to exist but is not fully understood. In the social and behavioral sciences, the case usually focuses on human interaction within a complex physical, social, economic, cultural, or political system. For example, the phenomenon could be the observation that many vehicles used by ISIS fighters are small trucks with English language advertisements on them. The research problem could be that ISIS fighters are difficult to combat because they are highly mobile. The research questions could be how and by what means are these vehicles used by ISIS being supplied to the militants and how might supply lines to these vehicles be cut off? How might knowing the suppliers of these trucks reveal larger networks of collaborators and financial support? A case study of a phenomenon most often encompasses an in-depth analysis of a cause and effect that is grounded in an interactive relationship between people and their environment in some way.

NOTE:   The choice of the case or set of cases to study cannot appear random. Evidence that supports the method by which you identified and chose your subject of analysis should clearly support investigation of the research problem and linked to key findings from your literature review. Be sure to cite any studies that helped you determine that the case you chose was appropriate for examining the problem.

IV.  Discussion

The main elements of your discussion section are generally the same as any research paper, but centered around interpreting and drawing conclusions about the key findings from your analysis of the case study. Note that a general social sciences research paper may contain a separate section to report findings. However, in a paper designed around a case study, it is common to combine a description of the results with the discussion about their implications. The objectives of your discussion section should include the following:

Reiterate the Research Problem/State the Major Findings Briefly reiterate the research problem you are investigating and explain why the subject of analysis around which you designed the case study were used. You should then describe the findings revealed from your study of the case using direct, declarative, and succinct proclamation of the study results. Highlight any findings that were unexpected or especially profound.

Explain the Meaning of the Findings and Why They are Important Systematically explain the meaning of your case study findings and why you believe they are important. Begin this part of the section by repeating what you consider to be your most important or surprising finding first, then systematically review each finding. Be sure to thoroughly extrapolate what your analysis of the case can tell the reader about situations or conditions beyond the actual case that was studied while, at the same time, being careful not to misconstrue or conflate a finding that undermines the external validity of your conclusions.

Relate the Findings to Similar Studies No study in the social sciences is so novel or possesses such a restricted focus that it has absolutely no relation to previously published research. The discussion section should relate your case study results to those found in other studies, particularly if questions raised from prior studies served as the motivation for choosing your subject of analysis. This is important because comparing and contrasting the findings of other studies helps support the overall importance of your results and it highlights how and in what ways your case study design and the subject of analysis differs from prior research about the topic.

Consider Alternative Explanations of the Findings Remember that the purpose of social science research is to discover and not to prove. When writing the discussion section, you should carefully consider all possible explanations revealed by the case study results, rather than just those that fit your hypothesis or prior assumptions and biases. Be alert to what the in-depth analysis of the case may reveal about the research problem, including offering a contrarian perspective to what scholars have stated in prior research if that is how the findings can be interpreted from your case.

Acknowledge the Study's Limitations You can state the study's limitations in the conclusion section of your paper but describing the limitations of your subject of analysis in the discussion section provides an opportunity to identify the limitations and explain why they are not significant. This part of the discussion section should also note any unanswered questions or issues your case study could not address. More detailed information about how to document any limitations to your research can be found here .

Suggest Areas for Further Research Although your case study may offer important insights about the research problem, there are likely additional questions related to the problem that remain unanswered or findings that unexpectedly revealed themselves as a result of your in-depth analysis of the case. Be sure that the recommendations for further research are linked to the research problem and that you explain why your recommendations are valid in other contexts and based on the original assumptions of your study.

V.  Conclusion

As with any research paper, you should summarize your conclusion in clear, simple language; emphasize how the findings from your case study differs from or supports prior research and why. Do not simply reiterate the discussion section. Provide a synthesis of key findings presented in the paper to show how these converge to address the research problem. If you haven't already done so in the discussion section, be sure to document the limitations of your case study and any need for further research.

The function of your paper's conclusion is to: 1) reiterate the main argument supported by the findings from your case study; 2) state clearly the context, background, and necessity of pursuing the research problem using a case study design in relation to an issue, controversy, or a gap found from reviewing the literature; and, 3) provide a place to persuasively and succinctly restate the significance of your research problem, given that the reader has now been presented with in-depth information about the topic.

Consider the following points to help ensure your conclusion is appropriate:

• If the argument or purpose of your paper is complex, you may need to summarize these points for your reader.
• If prior to your conclusion, you have not yet explained the significance of your findings or if you are proceeding inductively, use the conclusion of your paper to describe your main points and explain their significance.
• Move from a detailed to a general level of consideration of the case study's findings that returns the topic to the context provided by the introduction or within a new context that emerges from your case study findings.

Note that, depending on the discipline you are writing in or the preferences of your professor, the concluding paragraph may contain your final reflections on the evidence presented as it applies to practice or on the essay's central research problem. However, the nature of being introspective about the subject of analysis you have investigated will depend on whether you are explicitly asked to express your observations in this way.

Problems to Avoid

Overgeneralization One of the goals of a case study is to lay a foundation for understanding broader trends and issues applied to similar circumstances. However, be careful when drawing conclusions from your case study. They must be evidence-based and grounded in the results of the study; otherwise, it is merely speculation. Looking at a prior example, it would be incorrect to state that a factor in improving girls access to education in Azerbaijan and the policy implications this may have for improving access in other Muslim nations is due to girls access to social media if there is no documentary evidence from your case study to indicate this. There may be anecdotal evidence that retention rates were better for girls who were engaged with social media, but this observation would only point to the need for further research and would not be a definitive finding if this was not a part of your original research agenda.

Failure to Document Limitations No case is going to reveal all that needs to be understood about a research problem. Therefore, just as you have to clearly state the limitations of a general research study , you must describe the specific limitations inherent in the subject of analysis. For example, the case of studying how women conceptualize the need for water conservation in a village in Uganda could have limited application in other cultural contexts or in areas where fresh water from rivers or lakes is plentiful and, therefore, conservation is understood more in terms of managing access rather than preserving access to a scarce resource.

Failure to Extrapolate All Possible Implications Just as you don't want to over-generalize from your case study findings, you also have to be thorough in the consideration of all possible outcomes or recommendations derived from your findings. If you do not, your reader may question the validity of your analysis, particularly if you failed to document an obvious outcome from your case study research. For example, in the case of studying the accident at the railroad crossing to evaluate where and what types of warning signals should be located, you failed to take into consideration speed limit signage as well as warning signals. When designing your case study, be sure you have thoroughly addressed all aspects of the problem and do not leave gaps in your analysis that leave the reader questioning the results.

Case Studies. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Gerring, John. Case Study Research: Principles and Practices . New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007; Merriam, Sharan B. Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education . Rev. ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1998; Miller, Lisa L. “The Use of Case Studies in Law and Social Science Research.” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 14 (2018): TBD; Mills, Albert J., Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Putney, LeAnn Grogan. "Case Study." In Encyclopedia of Research Design , Neil J. Salkind, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010), pp. 116-120; Simons, Helen. Case Study Research in Practice . London: SAGE Publications, 2009;  Kratochwill,  Thomas R. and Joel R. Levin, editors. Single-Case Research Design and Analysis: New Development for Psychology and Education .  Hilldsale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1992; Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London : SAGE, 2010; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . 6th edition. Los Angeles, CA, SAGE Publications, 2014; Walo, Maree, Adrian Bull, and Helen Breen. “Achieving Economic Benefits at Local Events: A Case Study of a Local Sports Event.” Festival Management and Event Tourism 4 (1996): 95-106.

Writing Tip

At Least Five Misconceptions about Case Study Research

Social science case studies are often perceived as limited in their ability to create new knowledge because they are not randomly selected and findings cannot be generalized to larger populations. Flyvbjerg examines five misunderstandings about case study research and systematically "corrects" each one. To quote, these are:

Misunderstanding 1 :  General, theoretical [context-independent] knowledge is more valuable than concrete, practical [context-dependent] knowledge. Misunderstanding 2 :  One cannot generalize on the basis of an individual case; therefore, the case study cannot contribute to scientific development. Misunderstanding 3 :  The case study is most useful for generating hypotheses; that is, in the first stage of a total research process, whereas other methods are more suitable for hypotheses testing and theory building. Misunderstanding 4 :  The case study contains a bias toward verification, that is, a tendency to confirm the researcher’s preconceived notions. Misunderstanding 5 :  It is often difficult to summarize and develop general propositions and theories on the basis of specific case studies [p. 221].

While writing your paper, think introspectively about how you addressed these misconceptions because to do so can help you strengthen the validity and reliability of your research by clarifying issues of case selection, the testing and challenging of existing assumptions, the interpretation of key findings, and the summation of case outcomes. Think of a case study research paper as a complete, in-depth narrative about the specific properties and key characteristics of your subject of analysis applied to the research problem.

Flyvbjerg, Bent. “Five Misunderstandings About Case-Study Research.” Qualitative Inquiry 12 (April 2006): 219-245.

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• Look around on the home page. Does anything seem interesting to you?
• How would you go about finding a place to eat near you in Downtown Oakland? You want something kind of quick, open late, not too expensive, and with a good rating.
• What do the reviews say about the restaurant you've chosen?
• What was the most important factor for you in choosing this spot?
• You're currently close to the 19th St Bart station, and it's 9PM. How would you get to this restaurant? Do you think you'll be able to make it before closing time?
• Your friend recommended you to check out a place called Belly while you're in Oakland. Try to find where it is, when it's open, and what kind of food options they have.
• Now go to any restaurant's page and try to leave a review (don't actually submit it).

What was the worst thing about your experience?

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What other aspects of the experience could be improved?

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The flow was good, lots of bright photos

What other comments do you have for the owner of the website?

I like that you can sort by what you are looking for and i like the idea of collections

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• Please begin by downloading the app to your device.
• Choose Italian and get started with the first lesson (stop once you reach the first question).
• Now go all the way through the rest of the first lesson, describing your thoughts as you go.
• Get your profile set up, then view your account page. What information and options are there? Do you feel that these are useful? Why or why not?
• After a week in Italy, you're going to spend a few days in Austria. How would you take German lessons on Duolingo?
• What other languages does the app offer? Do any of them interest you?

I felt like there could have been a little more of an instructional component to the lesson.

It would be cool if there were some feature that could allow two learners studying the same language to take lessons together. I imagine that their screens would be synced and they could go through lessons together and chat along the way.

Overall, the app was very intuitive to use and visually appealing. I also liked the option to connect with others.

Overall, the app seemed very helpful and easy to use. I feel like it makes learning a new language fun and almost like a game. It would be nice, however, if it contained more of an instructional portion.

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What is a Case Study? Definition, Research Methods, Sampling and Examples

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What is a Case Study?

A case study is defined as an in-depth analysis of a particular subject, often a real-world situation, individual, group, or organization. 

It is a research method that involves the comprehensive examination of a specific instance to gain a better understanding of its complexities, dynamics, and context. 

Case studies are commonly used in various fields such as business, psychology, medicine, and education to explore and illustrate phenomena, theories, or practical applications.

In a typical case study, researchers collect and analyze a rich array of qualitative and/or quantitative data, including interviews, observations, documents, and other relevant sources. The goal is to provide a nuanced and holistic perspective on the subject under investigation.

The information gathered here is used to generate insights, draw conclusions, and often to inform broader theories or practices within the respective field.

Case studies offer a valuable method for researchers to explore real-world phenomena in their natural settings, providing an opportunity to delve deeply into the intricacies of a particular case. They are particularly useful when studying complex, multifaceted situations where various factors interact. 

Additionally, case studies can be instrumental in generating hypotheses, testing theories, and offering practical insights that can be applied to similar situations. Overall, the comprehensive nature of case studies makes them a powerful tool for gaining a thorough understanding of specific instances within the broader context of academic and professional inquiry.

Key Characteristics of Case Study

Case studies are characterized by several key features that distinguish them from other research methods. Here are some essential characteristics of case studies:

• In-depth Exploration: Case studies involve a thorough and detailed examination of a specific case or instance. Researchers aim to explore the complexities and nuances of the subject under investigation, often using multiple data sources and methods to gather comprehensive information.
• Contextual Analysis: Case studies emphasize the importance of understanding the context in which the case unfolds. Researchers seek to examine the unique circumstances, background, and environmental factors that contribute to the dynamics of the case. Contextual analysis is crucial for drawing meaningful conclusions and generalizing findings to similar situations.
• Holistic Perspective: Rather than focusing on isolated variables, case studies take a holistic approach to studying a phenomenon. Researchers consider a wide range of factors and their interrelationships, aiming to capture the richness and complexity of the case. This holistic perspective helps in providing a more complete understanding of the subject.
• Qualitative and/or Quantitative Data: Case studies can incorporate both qualitative and quantitative data, depending on the research question and objectives. Qualitative data often include interviews, observations, and document analysis, while quantitative data may involve statistical measures or numerical information. The combination of these data types enhances the depth and validity of the study.
• Longitudinal or Retrospective Design: Case studies can be designed as longitudinal studies, where the researcher follows the case over an extended period, or retrospective studies, where the focus is on examining past events. This temporal dimension allows researchers to capture changes and developments within the case.
• Unique and Unpredictable Nature: Each case study is unique, and the findings may not be easily generalized to other situations. The unpredictable nature of real-world cases adds a layer of authenticity to the study, making it an effective method for exploring complex and dynamic phenomena.
• Theory Building or Testing: Case studies can serve different purposes, including theory building or theory testing. In some cases, researchers use case studies to develop new theories or refine existing ones. In others, they may test existing theories by applying them to real-world situations and assessing their explanatory power.

Understanding these key characteristics is essential for researchers and practitioners using case studies as a methodological approach, as it helps guide the design, implementation, and analysis of the study.

Key Components of a Case Study

A well-constructed case study typically consists of several key components that collectively provide a comprehensive understanding of the subject under investigation. Here are the key components of a case study:

• Provide an overview of the context and background information relevant to the case. This may include the history, industry, or setting in which the case is situated.
• Clearly state the purpose and objectives of the case study. Define what the study aims to achieve and the questions it seeks to answer.
• Clearly identify the subject of the case study. This could be an individual, a group, an organization, or a specific event.
• Define the boundaries and scope of the case study. Specify what aspects will be included and excluded from the investigation.
• Provide a brief review of relevant theories or concepts that will guide the analysis. This helps place the case study within the broader theoretical context.
• Summarize existing literature related to the subject, highlighting key findings and gaps in knowledge. This establishes the context for the current case study.
• Describe the research design chosen for the case study (e.g., exploratory, explanatory, descriptive). Justify why this design is appropriate for the research objectives.
• Specify the methods used to gather data, whether through interviews, observations, document analysis, surveys, or a combination of these. Detail the procedures followed to ensure data validity and reliability.
• Explain the criteria for selecting the case and any sampling considerations. Discuss why the chosen case is representative or relevant to the research questions.
• Describe how the collected data will be coded and categorized. Discuss the analytical framework or approach used to identify patterns, themes, or trends.
• If multiple data sources or methods are used, explain how they complement each other to enhance the credibility and validity of the findings.
• Present the key findings in a clear and organized manner. Use tables, charts, or quotes from participants to illustrate the results.
• Interpret the results in the context of the research objectives and theoretical framework. Discuss any unexpected findings and their implications.
• Provide a thorough interpretation of the results, connecting them to the research questions and relevant literature.
• Acknowledge the limitations of the study, such as constraints in data collection, sample size, or generalizability.
• Highlight the contributions of the case study to the existing body of knowledge and identify potential avenues for future research.
• Summarize the key findings and their significance in relation to the research objectives.
• Conclude with a concise summary of the case study, its implications, and potential practical applications.
• Provide a complete list of all the sources cited in the case study, following a consistent citation style.
• Include any additional materials or supplementary information, such as interview transcripts, survey instruments, or supporting documents.

By including these key components, a case study becomes a comprehensive and well-rounded exploration of a specific subject, offering valuable insights and contributing to the body of knowledge in the respective field.

Sampling in a Case Study Research

Sampling in case study research involves selecting a subset of cases or individuals from a larger population to study in depth. Unlike quantitative research where random sampling is often employed, case study sampling is typically purposeful and driven by the specific objectives of the study. Here are some key considerations for sampling in case study research:

• Criterion Sampling: Cases are selected based on specific criteria relevant to the research questions. For example, if studying successful business strategies, cases may be selected based on their demonstrated success.
• Maximum Variation Sampling: Cases are chosen to represent a broad range of variations related to key characteristics. This approach helps capture diversity within the sample.
• Selecting Cases with Rich Information: Researchers aim to choose cases that are information-rich and provide insights into the phenomenon under investigation. These cases should offer a depth of detail and variation relevant to the research objectives.
• Single Case vs. Multiple Cases: Decide whether the study will focus on a single case (single-case study) or multiple cases (multiple-case study). The choice depends on the research objectives, the complexity of the phenomenon, and the depth of understanding required.
• Emergent Nature of Sampling: In some case studies, the sampling strategy may evolve as the study progresses. This is known as theoretical sampling, where new cases are selected based on emerging findings and theoretical insights from earlier analysis.
• Data Saturation: Sampling may continue until data saturation is achieved, meaning that collecting additional cases or data does not yield new insights or information. Saturation indicates that the researcher has adequately explored the phenomenon.
• Defining Case Boundaries: Clearly define the boundaries of the case to ensure consistency and avoid ambiguity. Consider what is included and excluded from the case study, and justify these decisions.
• Practical Considerations: Assess the feasibility of accessing the selected cases. Consider factors such as availability, willingness to participate, and the practicality of data collection methods.
• Informed Consent: Obtain informed consent from participants, ensuring that they understand the purpose of the study and the ways in which their information will be used. Protect the confidentiality and anonymity of participants as needed.
• Pilot Testing the Sampling Strategy: Before conducting the full study, consider pilot testing the sampling strategy to identify potential challenges and refine the approach. This can help ensure the effectiveness of the sampling method.
• Transparent Reporting: Clearly document the sampling process in the research methodology section. Provide a rationale for the chosen sampling strategy and discuss any adjustments made during the study.

Sampling in case study research is a critical step that influences the depth and richness of the study’s findings. By carefully selecting cases based on specific criteria and considering the unique characteristics of the phenomenon under investigation, researchers can enhance the relevance and validity of their case study.

Case Study Research Methods With Examples

• Interviews:
• Interviews involve engaging with participants to gather detailed information, opinions, and insights. In a case study, interviews are often semi-structured, allowing flexibility in questioning.
• Example: A case study on workplace culture might involve conducting interviews with employees at different levels to understand their perceptions, experiences, and attitudes.
• Observations:
• Observations entail direct examination and recording of behavior, activities, or events in their natural setting. This method is valuable for understanding behaviors in context.
• Example: A case study investigating customer interactions at a retail store may involve observing and documenting customer behavior, staff interactions, and overall dynamics.
• Document Analysis:
• Document analysis involves reviewing and interpreting written or recorded materials, such as reports, memos, emails, and other relevant documents.
• Example: In a case study on organizational change, researchers may analyze internal documents, such as communication memos or strategic plans, to trace the evolution of the change process.
• Surveys and Questionnaires:
• Surveys and questionnaires collect structured data from a sample of participants. While less common in case studies, they can be used to supplement other methods.
• Example: A case study on the impact of a health intervention might include a survey to gather quantitative data on participants’ health outcomes.
• Focus Groups:
• Focus groups involve a facilitated discussion among a group of participants to explore their perceptions, attitudes, and experiences.
• Example: In a case study on community development, a focus group might be conducted with residents to discuss their views on recent initiatives and their impact.
• Archival Research:
• Archival research involves examining existing records, historical documents, or artifacts to gain insights into a particular phenomenon.
• Example: A case study on the history of a landmark building may involve archival research, exploring construction records, historical photos, and maintenance logs.
• Longitudinal Studies:
• Longitudinal studies involve the collection of data over an extended period to observe changes and developments.
• Example: A case study tracking the career progression of employees in a company may involve longitudinal interviews and document analysis over several years.
• Cross-Case Analysis:
• Cross-case analysis compares and contrasts multiple cases to identify patterns, similarities, and differences.
• Example: A comparative case study of different educational institutions may involve analyzing common challenges and successful strategies across various cases.
• Ethnography:
• Ethnography involves immersive, in-depth exploration within a cultural or social setting to understand the behaviors and perspectives of participants.
• Example: A case study using ethnographic methods might involve spending an extended period within a community to understand its social dynamics and cultural practices.
• Experimental Designs (Rare):
• While less common, experimental designs involve manipulating variables to observe their effects. In case studies, this might be applied in specific contexts.
• Example: A case study exploring the impact of a new teaching method might involve implementing the method in one classroom while comparing it to a traditional method in another.

These case study research methods offer a versatile toolkit for researchers to investigate and gain insights into complex phenomena across various disciplines. The choice of methods depends on the research questions, the nature of the case, and the desired depth of understanding.

Best Practices for a Case Study in 2024

Creating a high-quality case study involves adhering to best practices that ensure rigor, relevance, and credibility. Here are some key best practices for conducting and presenting a case study:

• Clearly articulate the purpose and objectives of the case study. Define the research questions or problems you aim to address, ensuring a focused and purposeful approach.
• Choose a case that aligns with the research objectives and provides the depth and richness needed for the study. Consider the uniqueness of the case and its relevance to the research questions.
• Develop a robust research design that aligns with the nature of the case study (single-case or multiple-case) and integrates appropriate research methods. Ensure the chosen design is suitable for exploring the complexities of the phenomenon.
• Use a variety of data sources to enhance the validity and reliability of the study. Combine methods such as interviews, observations, document analysis, and surveys to provide a comprehensive understanding of the case.
• Clearly document and describe the procedures for data collection to enhance transparency. Include details on participant selection, sampling strategy, and data collection methods to facilitate replication and evaluation.
• Implement measures to ensure the validity and reliability of the data. Triangulate information from different sources to cross-verify findings and strengthen the credibility of the study.
• Clearly define the boundaries of the case to avoid scope creep and maintain focus. Specify what is included and excluded from the study, providing a clear framework for analysis.
• Include perspectives from various stakeholders within the case to capture a holistic view. This might involve interviewing individuals at different organizational levels, customers, or community members, depending on the context.
• Adhere to ethical principles in research, including obtaining informed consent from participants, ensuring confidentiality, and addressing any potential conflicts of interest.
• Conduct a rigorous analysis of the data, using appropriate analytical techniques. Interpret the findings in the context of the research questions, theoretical framework, and relevant literature.
• Offer detailed and rich descriptions of the case, including the context, key events, and participant perspectives. This helps readers understand the intricacies of the case and supports the generalization of findings.
• Communicate findings in a clear and accessible manner. Avoid jargon and technical language that may hinder understanding. Use visuals, such as charts or graphs, to enhance clarity.
• Seek feedback from colleagues or experts in the field through peer review. This helps ensure the rigor and credibility of the case study and provides valuable insights for improvement.
• Connect the case study findings to existing theories or concepts, contributing to the theoretical understanding of the phenomenon. Discuss practical implications and potential applications in relevant contexts.
• Recognize that case study research is often an iterative process. Be open to revisiting and refining research questions, methods, or analysis as the study progresses. Practice reflexivity by acknowledging and addressing potential biases or preconceptions.

By incorporating these best practices, researchers can enhance the quality and impact of their case studies, making valuable contributions to the academic and practical understanding of complex phenomena.

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What to Include in a Case Study: Layout, Content & Visuals

Learn what info to include in a business case study and how to structure it for maximum conversion, and see real-life examples and templates.

Dominika Krukowska

9 minute read

Short answer

What to include in a case study?

A successful case study should include the following elements:

• Introduction (what was the problem and how it was solved in 1-2 sentences)
• Client overview
• The problem or challenge
• How they solved their problem (with your solution)
• Customer quotes and testimonials

For a case study to work all critical components must be in place.

Case studies can be gold mines for conversions, but extracting that gold isn't as straightforward as it seems.

What goes into a case study that tells a compelling story and draws your prospects down the conversion funnel?

There are some critical elements that you must include in your case study if you hope to generate conversions.

Yes, you read that right— making a partial case study could very well mean leaving money on the table.

In this post, I’ll share with you the secrets to creating a case study that’ll turn it from ‘blah’ to ‘bingo’.

You’ll learn what you must include in your case study to convert readers into buyers.

Let’s go!

What to include in your case study structure?

Crafting your case study is like writing a gripping novel, filled with characters, conflicts, and resolutions. Each component of your case study serves a unique purpose in narrating the story of how your product or service helps your clients conquer their challenges.

Here are the main chapters of your case study structure:

1. Introduction

Think of the introduction as your story's opening scene. It's your first impression, your initial hook, the gateway to the world you're about to unfold. Here, you aim to spark curiosity and give your reader a taste of the journey ahead.

How to create an introduction slide:

Include a video —this will get 32% more people to interact with your case study .

Create an opening line that instantly hooks your reader —think surprising statistics, bold statements, or intriguing questions.

Introduce the central theme of your case study —what's the big challenge or opportunity at play?

Connect with the reader's pain points to foster engagement right from the start.

Here’s an example of an introduction slide that hooks attention:

2. Company overview

Here, you introduce your main hero—your client. You want to provide a clear and relatable backdrop that helps your audience understand who your client is, what they do, and what stakes are at play for them.

How to create a company overview slide:

Offer key details about the client's business —what's their industry? What's their market position?

Highlight the client's aspirations and values —this helps to humanize the company and build emotional connection.

Make sure to relate the company's context back to your reader. How does this company's situation reflect the challenges or opportunities your reader might face?

Here’s an example of a company overview slide:

3. The problem or challenge

This is the conflict that propels your story. It's the mountain your client needs to climb, the dragon they must slay. Without a significant problem or challenge, there's no tension, and without tension, there's no story and no engagement.

How to create a problem slide:

Clearly articulate the problem or challenge. Make it tangible and relatable.

Explore the implications of this problem. What's at stake for the client if it goes unresolved?

Aim to evoke emotion here. The more your reader feels the weight of the problem, the more invested they'll be in the solution.

Here’s an example of a problem slide:

4. Your solution

Enter the trusted guide and confidant—your product or service. This is the pivotal moment where your client's fortunes begin to turn. Show how your offering comes into play, lighting the way toward resolution.

How to create a solution slide:

Detail how your solution addresses the client's problem. Show how the features of your product or service connect to the challenges at hand.

Walk your reader through the implementation process. Offer insights into the collaborative efforts and innovative approaches that made the difference.

Don’t shy away from any obstacles or setbacks that occurred during the solution phase. Showing how you overcame these can actually make your story more credible and relatable.

Here’s an example of a solution slide:

This is the climax of your story, where all the tension that's been built up finally gets released. You need to demonstrate the transformation that occurred as a result of your solution.

How to create a results slide:

Show, don't tell. Use numbers, stats, and graphs to make your results concrete and impactful.

Discuss not just quantitative, but also qualitative results. How did your solution affect the client's morale, their customer satisfaction, their market reputation? Give detailed examples set in short anecdotes as experienced by a person (not an organization).

A side-by-side comparison of the 'before' and 'after' can be a powerful visual aid to highlight your impact.

Here’s an example of a results slide:

6. Customer quotes/testimonials

Nothing reinforces a story better than having the hero vouch for its authenticity. Direct quotes from your client add depth, credibility, and emotional resonance to your case study.

How to create a testimonials slide:

Select quotes that reinforce the narrative of your case study.

The more genuine and heartfelt, the better. Authenticity speaks volumes.

Consider sprinkling testimonials throughout the case study rather than bunching them together to keep the reader engaged.

Here’s an example of a testimonials slide:

7. Next steps

Your story doesn’t end when the problem is solved. This is where you guide your reader toward the future, inspiring them to take action based on the journey they've just been through.

How to create a next steps slide:

Provide clear and compelling calls-to-action. What do you want the reader to do next? Download a whitepaper? Request a demo? Sign up and try your solution? Make it a small concession, not a big ask. The next reasonable action they can take to establish the relationship a tiny bit further.

Make it simple for readers to take the next step. Include links, contact information, or even embed your calendar into the case study.

Here’s an example of a next steps slide:

What storytelling elements to include in a case study?

Compelling storytelling is an art, and when applied to business case studies, it can turn a rather dry piece of data into a riveting tale of success.

It's a chance to illustrate your value proposition in the real world, giving prospective clients a peek at what they could experience when they choose to work with you.

Here are some storytelling elements to include in your case study:

1. A clear storyline

Start with the basics: Who is your customer? What was their challenge? How did your product or service solve their problem? And, what was the outcome?

This forms the narrative arc of your case study, providing a backbone for your story. Ensure it’s a seamless narrative, taking the reader along a journey of transformation.

Here’s our recommended presentation storyline:

2. Concrete outcomes

Data provides the meat of your case study. Numbers, percentages, and concrete results serve as proof that your solution works.

It's one thing to claim that your product or service is effective, but showcasing the results achieved by a real customer through hard data adds credence to your assertions.

3. Visuals that support and expand on the text

Just as a picture is worth a thousand words, well-placed visuals in your case study can make the message clearer and more compelling.

Graphs, charts, and infographics can help break down complex data, making it easier for the audience to digest. Furthermore, they break up long blocks of text, making your case study more engaging.

4. Interactive elements

In a world where scrolling has become second nature, your case study needs to be more than a static document.

Incorporating interactive elements like tabs to click through benefits, live data calculators, or sliders with case studies and customer testimonials invites your audience to engage with your content actively.

Our research showed that decks with interactive elements got scrolled to the bottom 41% more often and had a 21% longer average reading time than non-interactive ones.

Making interactive case studies sounds complicated but it’s actually very easy if you do it with our AI case study creator . You can send it to prospects directly from Storydoc or embed it as part of your website.

By making your reader an active participant in the story, you boost their engagement and increase the chances of them reading your content through to the end.

Benefits of including interactive elements in your case study presentation

More decks read in full

Longer average reading time

5. Testimonials and quotes directly from customers

Customer testimonials and direct quotes inject a sense of authenticity and credibility into your case study.

They bring a human touch to your narrative and foster trust in potential clients.

It's no longer just your voice touting the effectiveness of your solution; it's the voice of a satisfied customer who has personally experienced the benefits of your product or service.

6. Clear call to action

Finally, after painting a vivid picture of your product or service in action, you need to tell your audience what to do next.

A clear CTA—whether it’s to learn more, book a demo, or sign up—makes the next step evident for your audience.

Our data reveals that decks with a clear next step had a conversion rate 27% higher than those that ended with a generic "thank you."

Make the next step simple, straightforward, and compelling, so your reader knows precisely what to do to start their own success story with you.

What not to include in your case study?

While we've covered the essentials to include in your case study, it's equally important to identify elements that could distract from your message, decrease trust, or even confuse your audience.

Here's what you should avoid including in your case study:

1. Unverified claims / data

Every claim you make and every piece of data you share in your case study must be true and easy to check.

Trust is crucial in a case study, and even one bit of wrong information can damage trust and hurt your image.

So, make sure all your facts, figures, and results are correct, and always get the right permissions to share them.

2. Confidential or sensitive information

When writing a case study, it's crucial to remember that privacy matters. Even though it's exciting to share all the details, you need to protect your client's private information.

Always get clear permission before using any client data and remember to hide any information that could identify specific individuals.

This careful approach shows your respect for privacy and builds trust with your audience, making your case study not just engaging, but also responsible and professional.

3. Technical jargon

A case study should be easy for everyone to understand, so avoid using industry-specific language. Even if you know the jargon, your audience might not.

Keeping your language simple and clear will help more people understand your case study. Too much technical language can confuse readers and distract from the story you're trying to tell.

4. Salesy language

While a case study is designed to show prospective clients how valuable your offer is, it's important not to sound too pushy.

A case study should tell a story, not sound like a sales pitch. Keep your language helpful and interesting. The success story should be enough to sell itself.

Create your best case study yet from ready-made templates

Now that you're equipped with all the essentials of crafting a compelling case study, it's time to bring your narrative to life.

Don’t work hard if you can work easy and get better results.

Interactive case study templates are your shortcut to creating engaging and informative case studies. They provide a clear path for your narrative, intuitive ways to present your data, and an engaging space for sharing customer testimonials.

Grab a template, and let your story do the talking!

Hi, I'm Dominika, Content Specialist at Storydoc. As a creative professional with experience in fashion, I'm here to show you how to amplify your brand message through the power of storytelling and eye-catching visuals.

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Continuing to enhance the quality of case study methodology in health services research

Shannon l. sibbald.

1 Faculty of Health Sciences, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada.

2 Department of Family Medicine, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada.

3 The Schulich Interfaculty Program in Public Health, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada.

Stefan Paciocco

Meghan fournie, rachelle van asseldonk, tiffany scurr.

Case study methodology has grown in popularity within Health Services Research (HSR). However, its use and merit as a methodology are frequently criticized due to its flexible approach and inconsistent application. Nevertheless, case study methodology is well suited to HSR because it can track and examine complex relationships, contexts, and systems as they evolve. Applied appropriately, it can help generate information on how multiple forms of knowledge come together to inform decision-making within healthcare contexts. In this article, we aim to demystify case study methodology by outlining its philosophical underpinnings and three foundational approaches. We provide literature-based guidance to decision-makers, policy-makers, and health leaders on how to engage in and critically appraise case study design. We advocate that researchers work in collaboration with health leaders to detail their research process with an aim of strengthening the validity and integrity of case study for its continued and advanced use in HSR.

Introduction

The popularity of case study research methodology in Health Services Research (HSR) has grown over the past 40 years. 1 This may be attributed to a shift towards the use of implementation research and a newfound appreciation of contextual factors affecting the uptake of evidence-based interventions within diverse settings. 2 Incorporating context-specific information on the delivery and implementation of programs can increase the likelihood of success. 3 , 4 Case study methodology is particularly well suited for implementation research in health services because it can provide insight into the nuances of diverse contexts. 5 , 6 In 1999, Yin 7 published a paper on how to enhance the quality of case study in HSR, which was foundational for the emergence of case study in this field. Yin 7 maintains case study is an appropriate methodology in HSR because health systems are constantly evolving, and the multiple affiliations and diverse motivations are difficult to track and understand with traditional linear methodologies.

Despite its increased popularity, there is debate whether a case study is a methodology (ie, a principle or process that guides research) or a method (ie, a tool to answer research questions). Some criticize case study for its high level of flexibility, perceiving it as less rigorous, and maintain that it generates inadequate results. 8 Others have noted issues with quality and consistency in how case studies are conducted and reported. 9 Reporting is often varied and inconsistent, using a mix of approaches such as case reports, case findings, and/or case study. Authors sometimes use incongruent methods of data collection and analysis or use the case study as a default when other methodologies do not fit. 9 , 10 Despite these criticisms, case study methodology is becoming more common as a viable approach for HSR. 11 An abundance of articles and textbooks are available to guide researchers through case study research, including field-specific resources for business, 12 , 13 nursing, 14 and family medicine. 15 However, there remains confusion and a lack of clarity on the key tenets of case study methodology.

Several common philosophical underpinnings have contributed to the development of case study research 1 which has led to different approaches to planning, data collection, and analysis. This presents challenges in assessing quality and rigour for researchers conducting case studies and stakeholders reading results.

This article discusses the various approaches and philosophical underpinnings to case study methodology. Our goal is to explain it in a way that provides guidance for decision-makers, policy-makers, and health leaders on how to understand, critically appraise, and engage in case study research and design, as such guidance is largely absent in the literature. This article is by no means exhaustive or authoritative. Instead, we aim to provide guidance and encourage dialogue around case study methodology, facilitating critical thinking around the variety of approaches and ways quality and rigour can be bolstered for its use within HSR.

Purpose of case study methodology

Case study methodology is often used to develop an in-depth, holistic understanding of a specific phenomenon within a specified context. 11 It focuses on studying one or multiple cases over time and uses an in-depth analysis of multiple information sources. 16 , 17 It is ideal for situations including, but not limited to, exploring under-researched and real-life phenomena, 18 especially when the contexts are complex and the researcher has little control over the phenomena. 19 , 20 Case studies can be useful when researchers want to understand how interventions are implemented in different contexts, and how context shapes the phenomenon of interest.

In addition to demonstrating coherency with the type of questions case study is suited to answer, there are four key tenets to case study methodologies: (1) be transparent in the paradigmatic and theoretical perspectives influencing study design; (2) clearly define the case and phenomenon of interest; (3) clearly define and justify the type of case study design; and (4) use multiple data collection sources and analysis methods to present the findings in ways that are consistent with the methodology and the study’s paradigmatic base. 9 , 16 The goal is to appropriately match the methods to empirical questions and issues and not to universally advocate any single approach for all problems. 21

Approaches to case study methodology

Three authors propose distinct foundational approaches to case study methodology positioned within different paradigms: Yin, 19 , 22 Stake, 5 , 23 and Merriam 24 , 25 ( Table 1 ). Yin is strongly post-positivist whereas Stake and Merriam are grounded in a constructivist paradigm. Researchers should locate their research within a paradigm that explains the philosophies guiding their research 26 and adhere to the underlying paradigmatic assumptions and key tenets of the appropriate author’s methodology. This will enhance the consistency and coherency of the methods and findings. However, researchers often do not report their paradigmatic position, nor do they adhere to one approach. 9 Although deliberately blending methodologies may be defensible and methodologically appropriate, more often it is done in an ad hoc and haphazard way, without consideration for limitations.

Cross-analysis of three case study approaches, adapted from Yazan 2015

The post-positive paradigm postulates there is one reality that can be objectively described and understood by “bracketing” oneself from the research to remove prejudice or bias. 27 Yin focuses on general explanation and prediction, emphasizing the formulation of propositions, akin to hypothesis testing. This approach is best suited for structured and objective data collection 9 , 11 and is often used for mixed-method studies.

Constructivism assumes that the phenomenon of interest is constructed and influenced by local contexts, including the interaction between researchers, individuals, and their environment. 27 It acknowledges multiple interpretations of reality 24 constructed within the context by the researcher and participants which are unlikely to be replicated, should either change. 5 , 20 Stake and Merriam’s constructivist approaches emphasize a story-like rendering of a problem and an iterative process of constructing the case study. 7 This stance values researcher reflexivity and transparency, 28 acknowledging how researchers’ experiences and disciplinary lenses influence their assumptions and beliefs about the nature of the phenomenon and development of the findings.

Defining a case

A key tenet of case study methodology often underemphasized in literature is the importance of defining the case and phenomenon. Researches should clearly describe the case with sufficient detail to allow readers to fully understand the setting and context and determine applicability. Trying to answer a question that is too broad often leads to an unclear definition of the case and phenomenon. 20 Cases should therefore be bound by time and place to ensure rigor and feasibility. 6

Yin 22 defines a case as “a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context,” (p13) which may contain a single unit of analysis, including individuals, programs, corporations, or clinics 29 (holistic), or be broken into sub-units of analysis, such as projects, meetings, roles, or locations within the case (embedded). 30 Merriam 24 and Stake 5 similarly define a case as a single unit studied within a bounded system. Stake 5 , 23 suggests bounding cases by contexts and experiences where the phenomenon of interest can be a program, process, or experience. However, the line between the case and phenomenon can become muddy. For guidance, Stake 5 , 23 describes the case as the noun or entity and the phenomenon of interest as the verb, functioning, or activity of the case.

Designing the case study approach

Yin’s approach to a case study is rooted in a formal proposition or theory which guides the case and is used to test the outcome. 1 Stake 5 advocates for a flexible design and explicitly states that data collection and analysis may commence at any point. Merriam’s 24 approach blends both Yin and Stake’s, allowing the necessary flexibility in data collection and analysis to meet the needs.

Yin 30 proposed three types of case study approaches—descriptive, explanatory, and exploratory. Each can be designed around single or multiple cases, creating six basic case study methodologies. Descriptive studies provide a rich description of the phenomenon within its context, which can be helpful in developing theories. To test a theory or determine cause and effect relationships, researchers can use an explanatory design. An exploratory model is typically used in the pilot-test phase to develop propositions (eg, Sibbald et al. 31 used this approach to explore interprofessional network complexity). Despite having distinct characteristics, the boundaries between case study types are flexible with significant overlap. 30 Each has five key components: (1) research question; (2) proposition; (3) unit of analysis; (4) logical linking that connects the theory with proposition; and (5) criteria for analyzing findings.

Contrary to Yin, Stake 5 believes the research process cannot be planned in its entirety because research evolves as it is performed. Consequently, researchers can adjust the design of their methods even after data collection has begun. Stake 5 classifies case studies into three categories: intrinsic, instrumental, and collective/multiple. Intrinsic case studies focus on gaining a better understanding of the case. These are often undertaken when the researcher has an interest in a specific case. Instrumental case study is used when the case itself is not of the utmost importance, and the issue or phenomenon (ie, the research question) being explored becomes the focus instead (eg, Paciocco 32 used an instrumental case study to evaluate the implementation of a chronic disease management program). 5 Collective designs are rooted in an instrumental case study and include multiple cases to gain an in-depth understanding of the complexity and particularity of a phenomenon across diverse contexts. 5 , 23 In collective designs, studying similarities and differences between the cases allows the phenomenon to be understood more intimately (for examples of this in the field, see van Zelm et al. 33 and Burrows et al. 34 In addition, Sibbald et al. 35 present an example where a cross-case analysis method is used to compare instrumental cases).

Merriam’s approach is flexible (similar to Stake) as well as stepwise and linear (similar to Yin). She advocates for conducting a literature review before designing the study to better understand the theoretical underpinnings. 24 , 25 Unlike Stake or Yin, Merriam proposes a step-by-step guide for researchers to design a case study. These steps include performing a literature review, creating a theoretical framework, identifying the problem, creating and refining the research question(s), and selecting a study sample that fits the question(s). 24 , 25 , 36

Data collection and analysis

Using multiple data collection methods is a key characteristic of all case study methodology; it enhances the credibility of the findings by allowing different facets and views of the phenomenon to be explored. 23 Common methods include interviews, focus groups, observation, and document analysis. 5 , 37 By seeking patterns within and across data sources, a thick description of the case can be generated to support a greater understanding and interpretation of the whole phenomenon. 5 , 17 , 20 , 23 This technique is called triangulation and is used to explore cases with greater accuracy. 5 Although Stake 5 maintains case study is most often used in qualitative research, Yin 17 supports a mix of both quantitative and qualitative methods to triangulate data. This deliberate convergence of data sources (or mixed methods) allows researchers to find greater depth in their analysis and develop converging lines of inquiry. For example, case studies evaluating interventions commonly use qualitative interviews to describe the implementation process, barriers, and facilitators paired with a quantitative survey of comparative outcomes and effectiveness. 33 , 38 , 39

Yin 30 describes analysis as dependent on the chosen approach, whether it be (1) deductive and rely on theoretical propositions; (2) inductive and analyze data from the “ground up”; (3) organized to create a case description; or (4) used to examine plausible rival explanations. According to Yin’s 40 approach to descriptive case studies, carefully considering theory development is an important part of study design. “Theory” refers to field-relevant propositions, commonly agreed upon assumptions, or fully developed theories. 40 Stake 5 advocates for using the researcher’s intuition and impression to guide analysis through a categorical aggregation and direct interpretation. Merriam 24 uses six different methods to guide the “process of making meaning” (p178) : (1) ethnographic analysis; (2) narrative analysis; (3) phenomenological analysis; (4) constant comparative method; (5) content analysis; and (6) analytic induction.

Drawing upon a theoretical or conceptual framework to inform analysis improves the quality of case study and avoids the risk of description without meaning. 18 Using Stake’s 5 approach, researchers rely on protocols and previous knowledge to help make sense of new ideas; theory can guide the research and assist researchers in understanding how new information fits into existing knowledge.

Practical applications of case study research

Columbia University has recently demonstrated how case studies can help train future health leaders. 41 Case studies encompass components of systems thinking—considering connections and interactions between components of a system, alongside the implications and consequences of those relationships—to equip health leaders with tools to tackle global health issues. 41 Greenwood 42 evaluated Indigenous peoples’ relationship with the healthcare system in British Columbia and used a case study to challenge and educate health leaders across the country to enhance culturally sensitive health service environments.

An important but often omitted step in case study research is an assessment of quality and rigour. We recommend using a framework or set of criteria to assess the rigour of the qualitative research. Suitable resources include Caelli et al., 43 Houghten et al., 44 Ravenek and Rudman, 45 and Tracy. 46

New directions in case study

Although “pragmatic” case studies (ie, utilizing practical and applicable methods) have existed within psychotherapy for some time, 47 , 48 only recently has the applicability of pragmatism as an underlying paradigmatic perspective been considered in HSR. 49 This is marked by uptake of pragmatism in Randomized Control Trials, recognizing that “gold standard” testing conditions do not reflect the reality of clinical settings 50 , 51 nor do a handful of epistemologically guided methodologies suit every research inquiry.

Pragmatism positions the research question as the basis for methodological choices, rather than a theory or epistemology, allowing researchers to pursue the most practical approach to understanding a problem or discovering an actionable solution. 52 Mixed methods are commonly used to create a deeper understanding of the case through converging qualitative and quantitative data. 52 Pragmatic case study is suited to HSR because its flexibility throughout the research process accommodates complexity, ever-changing systems, and disruptions to research plans. 49 , 50 Much like case study, pragmatism has been criticized for its flexibility and use when other approaches are seemingly ill-fit. 53 , 54 Similarly, authors argue that this results from a lack of investigation and proper application rather than a reflection of validity, legitimizing the need for more exploration and conversation among researchers and practitioners. 55

Although occasionally misunderstood as a less rigourous research methodology, 8 case study research is highly flexible and allows for contextual nuances. 5 , 6 Its use is valuable when the researcher desires a thorough understanding of a phenomenon or case bound by context. 11 If needed, multiple similar cases can be studied simultaneously, or one case within another. 16 , 17 There are currently three main approaches to case study, 5 , 17 , 24 each with their own definitions of a case, ontological and epistemological paradigms, methodologies, and data collection and analysis procedures. 37

Individuals’ experiences within health systems are influenced heavily by contextual factors, participant experience, and intricate relationships between different organizations and actors. 55 Case study research is well suited for HSR because it can track and examine these complex relationships and systems as they evolve over time. 6 , 7 It is important that researchers and health leaders using this methodology understand its key tenets and how to conduct a proper case study. Although there are many examples of case study in action, they are often under-reported and, when reported, not rigorously conducted. 9 Thus, decision-makers and health leaders should use these examples with caution. The proper reporting of case studies is necessary to bolster their credibility in HSR literature and provide readers sufficient information to critically assess the methodology. We also call on health leaders who frequently use case studies 56 – 58 to report them in the primary research literature.

The purpose of this article is to advocate for the continued and advanced use of case study in HSR and to provide literature-based guidance for decision-makers, policy-makers, and health leaders on how to engage in, read, and interpret findings from case study research. As health systems progress and evolve, the application of case study research will continue to increase as researchers and health leaders aim to capture the inherent complexities, nuances, and contextual factors. 7

Case Study Research Method in Psychology

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

Case studies are in-depth investigations of a person, group, event, or community. Typically, data is gathered from various sources using several methods (e.g., observations & interviews).

The case study research method originated in clinical medicine (the case history, i.e., the patient’s personal history). In psychology, case studies are often confined to the study of a particular individual.

The information is mainly biographical and relates to events in the individual’s past (i.e., retrospective), as well as to significant events that are currently occurring in his or her everyday life.

The case study is not a research method, but researchers select methods of data collection and analysis that will generate material suitable for case studies.

Freud (1909a, 1909b) conducted very detailed investigations into the private lives of his patients in an attempt to both understand and help them overcome their illnesses.

This makes it clear that the case study is a method that should only be used by a psychologist, therapist, or psychiatrist, i.e., someone with a professional qualification.

There is an ethical issue of competence. Only someone qualified to diagnose and treat a person can conduct a formal case study relating to atypical (i.e., abnormal) behavior or atypical development.

 Famous Case Studies

• Anna O – One of the most famous case studies, documenting psychoanalyst Josef Breuer’s treatment of “Anna O” (real name Bertha Pappenheim) for hysteria in the late 1800s using early psychoanalytic theory.
• Little Hans – A child psychoanalysis case study published by Sigmund Freud in 1909 analyzing his five-year-old patient Herbert Graf’s house phobia as related to the Oedipus complex.
• Bruce/Brenda – Gender identity case of the boy (Bruce) whose botched circumcision led psychologist John Money to advise gender reassignment and raise him as a girl (Brenda) in the 1960s.
• Genie Wiley – Linguistics/psychological development case of the victim of extreme isolation abuse who was studied in 1970s California for effects of early language deprivation on acquiring speech later in life.
• Phineas Gage – One of the most famous neuropsychology case studies analyzes personality changes in railroad worker Phineas Gage after an 1848 brain injury involving a tamping iron piercing his skull.

Clinical Case Studies

• Studying the effectiveness of psychotherapy approaches with an individual patient
• Assessing and treating mental illnesses like depression, anxiety disorders, PTSD
• Neuropsychological cases investigating brain injuries or disorders

Child Psychology Case Studies

• Studying psychological development from birth through adolescence
• Cases of learning disabilities, autism spectrum disorders, ADHD
• Effects of trauma, abuse, deprivation on development

Types of Case Studies

• Explanatory case studies : Used to explore causation in order to find underlying principles. Helpful for doing qualitative analysis to explain presumed causal links.
• Exploratory case studies : Used to explore situations where an intervention being evaluated has no clear set of outcomes. It helps define questions and hypotheses for future research.
• Descriptive case studies : Describe an intervention or phenomenon and the real-life context in which it occurred. It is helpful for illustrating certain topics within an evaluation.
• Multiple-case studies : Used to explore differences between cases and replicate findings across cases. Helpful for comparing and contrasting specific cases.
• Intrinsic : Used to gain a better understanding of a particular case. Helpful for capturing the complexity of a single case.
• Collective : Used to explore a general phenomenon using multiple case studies. Helpful for jointly studying a group of cases in order to inquire into the phenomenon.

Where Do You Find Data for a Case Study?

There are several places to find data for a case study. The key is to gather data from multiple sources to get a complete picture of the case and corroborate facts or findings through triangulation of evidence. Most of this information is likely qualitative (i.e., verbal description rather than measurement), but the psychologist might also collect numerical data.

1. Primary sources

• Interviews – Interviewing key people related to the case to get their perspectives and insights. The interview is an extremely effective procedure for obtaining information about an individual, and it may be used to collect comments from the person’s friends, parents, employer, workmates, and others who have a good knowledge of the person, as well as to obtain facts from the person him or herself.
• Observations – Observing behaviors, interactions, processes, etc., related to the case as they unfold in real-time.
• Documents & Records – Reviewing private documents, diaries, public records, correspondence, meeting minutes, etc., relevant to the case.

2. Secondary sources

• News/Media – News coverage of events related to the case study.
• Academic articles – Journal articles, dissertations etc. that discuss the case.
• Government reports – Official data and records related to the case context.
• Books/films – Books, documentaries or films discussing the case.

3. Archival records

Searching historical archives, museum collections and databases to find relevant documents, visual/audio records related to the case history and context.

Public archives like newspapers, organizational records, photographic collections could all include potentially relevant pieces of information to shed light on attitudes, cultural perspectives, common practices and historical contexts related to psychology.

4. Organizational records

Organizational records offer the advantage of often having large datasets collected over time that can reveal or confirm psychological insights.

Of course, privacy and ethical concerns regarding confidential data must be navigated carefully.

However, with proper protocols, organizational records can provide invaluable context and empirical depth to qualitative case studies exploring the intersection of psychology and organizations.

• Organizational/industrial psychology research : Organizational records like employee surveys, turnover/retention data, policies, incident reports etc. may provide insight into topics like job satisfaction, workplace culture and dynamics, leadership issues, employee behaviors etc.
• Clinical psychology : Therapists/hospitals may grant access to anonymized medical records to study aspects like assessments, diagnoses, treatment plans etc. This could shed light on clinical practices.
• School psychology : Studies could utilize anonymized student records like test scores, grades, disciplinary issues, and counseling referrals to study child development, learning barriers, effectiveness of support programs, and more.

How do I Write a Case Study in Psychology?

Follow specified case study guidelines provided by a journal or your psychology tutor. General components of clinical case studies include: background, symptoms, assessments, diagnosis, treatment, and outcomes. Interpreting the information means the researcher decides what to include or leave out. A good case study should always clarify which information is the factual description and which is an inference or the researcher’s opinion.

1. Introduction

• Provide background on the case context and why it is of interest, presenting background information like demographics, relevant history, and presenting problem.
• Compare briefly to similar published cases if applicable. Clearly state the focus/importance of the case.

2. Case Presentation

• Describe the presenting problem in detail, including symptoms, duration,and impact on daily life.
• Include client demographics like age and gender, information about social relationships, and mental health history.
• Describe all physical, emotional, and/or sensory symptoms reported by the client.
• Use patient quotes to describe the initial complaint verbatim. Follow with full-sentence summaries of relevant history details gathered, including key components that led to a working diagnosis.
• Summarize clinical exam results, namely orthopedic/neurological tests, imaging, lab tests, etc. Note actual results rather than subjective conclusions. Provide images if clearly reproducible/anonymized.
• Clearly state the working diagnosis or clinical impression before transitioning to management.

3. Management and Outcome

• Indicate the total duration of care and number of treatments given over what timeframe. Use specific names/descriptions for any therapies/interventions applied.
• Present the results of the intervention,including any quantitative or qualitative data collected.
• For outcomes, utilize visual analog scales for pain, medication usage logs, etc., if possible. Include patient self-reports of improvement/worsening of symptoms. Note the reason for discharge/end of care.

4. Discussion

• Analyze the case, exploring contributing factors, limitations of the study, and connections to existing research.
• Analyze the effectiveness of the intervention,considering factors like participant adherence, limitations of the study, and potential alternative explanations for the results.
• Identify any questions raised in the case analysis and relate insights to established theories and current research if applicable. Avoid definitive claims about physiological explanations.
• Offer clinical implications, and suggest future research directions.

5. Additional Items

• Thank specific assistants for writing support only. No patient acknowledgments.
• References should directly support any key claims or quotes included.
• Use tables/figures/images only if substantially informative. Include permissions and legends/explanatory notes.
• Provides detailed (rich qualitative) information.
• Provides insight for further research.
• Permitting investigation of otherwise impractical (or unethical) situations.

Case studies allow a researcher to investigate a topic in far more detail than might be possible if they were trying to deal with a large number of research participants (nomothetic approach) with the aim of ‘averaging’.

Because of their in-depth, multi-sided approach, case studies often shed light on aspects of human thinking and behavior that would be unethical or impractical to study in other ways.

Research that only looks into the measurable aspects of human behavior is not likely to give us insights into the subjective dimension of experience, which is important to psychoanalytic and humanistic psychologists.

Case studies are often used in exploratory research. They can help us generate new ideas (that might be tested by other methods). They are an important way of illustrating theories and can help show how different aspects of a person’s life are related to each other.

The method is, therefore, important for psychologists who adopt a holistic point of view (i.e., humanistic psychologists ).

Limitations

• Lacking scientific rigor and providing little basis for generalization of results to the wider population.
• Researchers’ own subjective feelings may influence the case study (researcher bias).
• Difficult to replicate.
• Time-consuming and expensive.
• The volume of data, together with the time restrictions in place, impacted the depth of analysis that was possible within the available resources.

Because a case study deals with only one person/event/group, we can never be sure if the case study investigated is representative of the wider body of “similar” instances. This means the conclusions drawn from a particular case may not be transferable to other settings.

Because case studies are based on the analysis of qualitative (i.e., descriptive) data , a lot depends on the psychologist’s interpretation of the information she has acquired.

This means that there is a lot of scope for Anna O , and it could be that the subjective opinions of the psychologist intrude in the assessment of what the data means.

For example, Freud has been criticized for producing case studies in which the information was sometimes distorted to fit particular behavioral theories (e.g., Little Hans ).

This is also true of Money’s interpretation of the Bruce/Brenda case study (Diamond, 1997) when he ignored evidence that went against his theory.

Breuer, J., & Freud, S. (1895).  Studies on hysteria . Standard Edition 2: London.

Curtiss, S. (1981). Genie: The case of a modern wild child .

Diamond, M., & Sigmundson, K. (1997). Sex Reassignment at Birth: Long-term Review and Clinical Implications. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine , 151(3), 298-304

Freud, S. (1909a). Analysis of a phobia of a five year old boy. In The Pelican Freud Library (1977), Vol 8, Case Histories 1, pages 169-306

Freud, S. (1909b). Bemerkungen über einen Fall von Zwangsneurose (Der “Rattenmann”). Jb. psychoanal. psychopathol. Forsch ., I, p. 357-421; GW, VII, p. 379-463; Notes upon a case of obsessional neurosis, SE , 10: 151-318.

Harlow J. M. (1848). Passage of an iron rod through the head.  Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, 39 , 389–393.

Harlow, J. M. (1868).  Recovery from the Passage of an Iron Bar through the Head .  Publications of the Massachusetts Medical Society. 2  (3), 327-347.

Money, J., & Ehrhardt, A. A. (1972).  Man & Woman, Boy & Girl : The Differentiation and Dimorphism of Gender Identity from Conception to Maturity. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Money, J., & Tucker, P. (1975). Sexual signatures: On being a man or a woman.

Further Information

• Case Study Approach
• Case Study Method
• Enhancing the Quality of Case Studies in Health Services Research
• “We do things together” A case study of “couplehood” in dementia
• Using mixed methods for evaluating an integrative approach to cancer care: a case study

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The 7 Essential Elements of a Great Case Study

March 24, 2023

By Mike Wolfe

Research shows that 93 percent of consumers say online reviews will affect shopping choices . Online reviews certainly help tell a part of your organization’s story, but when you want to offer a bigger picture and really show off what you can do, there’s nothing like a case study. 

A great case study can help assure your audience that you’re more than capable of helping them with their problems because you’ve been there and done that for similar organizations. Ever looked at an organization’s website and checked out their case studies or testimonials before filling out a form or giving them a call?

These are great pieces of collateral that can have an immediate impact on the audience you connect with and can be used in a number of ways throughout the course of your marketing and sales efforts.

When you are looking to put together your next case study (or revamp some of your older ones), take these essential elements into consideration.

1. Common Problem or Challenge

Start with clearly defined issues..

When your audience takes the time to read your case study, they likely do so because they want to see that you resolved a problem or challenge they’re facing. Before writing a case study, consider some common problems or challenges your personas are experiencing and start there. 

2. Explanation of Resolution

Describe the problems, but really showcase your solutions..

Your customer came to you with a problem or need for you to solve—and you knocked it out of the park! Don’t sell yourself short when it comes to describing how you resolved the customer’s problems. Highlight the ways your product or service was the perfect fit for your customer so potential customers can start connecting the dots on how you can help them too.

3. Compelling Story

Tell the story of your customers’ experience..

Problems and solutions are important to cover, but don’t forget to make your case study relatable to your audience. Telling the story from the perspective of the customer and describing how they felt and what they experienced throughout the process helps your audience put themselves in your customer’s shoes. 

4. Customer Quotes

Give your customer a voice..

Take your storytelling to the next level by using real customer quotes that support your case study. The best quotes will draw a clear connection between the customer’s good experience and your product or service, offering an intimate look at how your business helped them succeed. Be sure to choose quotes that perfectly illustrate the results you achieved for your customer, and make sure they accurately reflect the customer’s opinion.

5. Successful Outcome

Let’s see some results.

You’ve got the beginning of the story (why you and the customer met) and the middle of the story (how you worked to help them). Now, in order for this to have a happy ending for both your customers and your audience, you need the results to bring it home.

The key here is to be as specific as possible with your outcomes. Let those results shine and give your audience a glimpse into what they can potentially see from partnering with your organization.

6. Visual Aids

Engage readers visually..

Visual aids help bring a tangible element to the case study, making it more memorable and engaging for readers. Case studies that include visual elements such as photos, diagrams, infographics, or videos can often be more persuasive and effective than those that don’t. Visual aids can also help make complex topics more easily understandable, and they often create a stronger emotional connection with potential customers.

7. Descriptive Name

Cap it off with a great title..

When writing a marketing case study, it is important to include an effective title that accurately describes the content. A catchy and well-crafted title can help draw readers in and entice them to learn more about the journey your customer went through. Good titles are concise yet descriptive, so readers can quickly understand what the case study is about and why it is important. 

Ready to Write Your Amazing New Case Study? 

Here are a few quick tips to get you started:

• Interview your customer about their experience. Ask questions that will help you tell the full story from their point of view, such as:
• What was the customer looking to solve when partnering with you?
• What did the customer need that you were able to provide?
• What has their experience been with your product or service?
• Show their results and give a brief overview of how your tools, strategies, and/or recommendations were impactful.
• Use bullet points to emphasize key findings within the story and grab some quotes from your conversation with the customer to highlight.
• Create some calls to action for the sidebars or footers of your related blog content.

Once created, there are many great places to showcase your next case study. Link to it from your sales collateral or event materials (including your booths and product sheets). Have the resources to use video in your customer conversations? Send these videos out through your social channels to help your audience put a face and a voice to the results you can bring them.

One final piece of advice: Look at metrics about how your audience is primarily viewing content, and capitalize on those options for your next great case study. Best of luck!

This post was originally published in May 2016 and has been updated since.

Easily craft compelling customer interviews & provide leads with the information they need to make an informed decision.

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About the author

Mike Wolfe is an Inbound Marketing Strategist at SmartBug Media helping clients find success through inbound marketing. Read more articles by Mike Wolfe .

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9 Components of a Case Study You Absolutely Need to Include

Updated July 2024: SaaS case studies are essential for demonstrating the value of your products and showcasing the success your customers have experienced. To streamline the creation of these case studies, adhering to a specific format is vital. In this post, discover the 9 key components of a case study that you need to include.

This is the first post in a 9-part series on how to write a B2B case study .

Components of a case study : must-have elements for success

1. an engaging executive summary.

One of the most crucial components of a case study is a compelling executive summary . It tells your potential customer what to expect and how they might be able to relate to the information provided. Begin by introducing your customer and their challenges. Then, emphasize how your B2B SaaS company helped deliver the right solution. Finally, include a preview of the outcomes your customer achieved with your products.

2. Outline your customer’s challenges

Illustrating the obstacles your customer faced that prompted them to seek out a B2B SaaS solution is one of the most crucial components of a case study. For example, maybe previous solution was a drain on time, resources or budgets.

This section is an ideal spot to use a customer quote and let them share their story in their words. Remember to paint your customer in a positive light. Focus on how they wanted to improve their business and avoid overly negative language.

Source: monday.com

3. Lead your reader along your customer’s journey

Help your reader picture themselves in your customer’s shoes. Lay out the steps your customer took to try to solve their problem, including an overview of the other products they investigated before they decided on yours. But be mindful not to toot your own horn—you’re simply recapping the facts.

Source: Envysion

4. The moment of discovery

The core components of a case study wouldn’t be complete without a section on how your customer decided on your specific B2B SaaS solution. First, provide insight into which of their business requirements it met. Then include any other reasons the partnership was a good fit—perhaps your companies shared similar organizational values.

This is an area where case study testimonials make for powerful storytelling . They allow you to set your case study up to dive into how you and your product solved your customer’s challenges.

Source: LeanData

5. Spend some time on the solution

In the “solution” component of your case study, you get to pitch your products without the fear of sounding like a used car salesman. Remember, you didn’t rush in and save the day—this is about your customer’s goals and how your solution helped them reach their objectives. As a result, you simply need to outline the products your customer purchased and the benefits they provided.

6. Walk your reader through the implementation

Change can be daunting, especially when it comes to the unknown, so it’s crucial that you give your reader a clear sense of how the implementation process went for your customer. For example, if problems arose, don’t be afraid to be transparent about them, but tie the storyline back to how you and your customer overcame the challenges. This is one of the most important components of a case study, and is an opportunity to let your customer service shine.

Source: Sage

7. Celebrate your customer’s results

77% of SaaS companies include metrics in at least 50% of their case studies . Metrics are where you can show off the data—hard numbers like revenue gains and time saved that illustrate the return on investment your customer gained from your solution. Showcase how well your products solved the customer’s problems. Find out what to do if you don’t have case study metrics to work with.

8. Close the loop with a call to action

Using the right components of a case study so far has helped keep your reader’s attention until the end of the piece, creating an important opportunity for you to guide them to the next step you want them to take. You can accomplish this by including a clear call to action (CTA) that speaks directly to them at the end of your B2B SaaS case study. See these case study CTA examples to learn how to make your calls to action stand out.

9. Don’t get too caught up in using the perfect format

A lot of experts will tell you that your content needs to include all of the components of a case study and follow a structured formula. But don’t stress over this.

A creative story doesn’t lock itself into anything too prescriptive. And you don’t have to chunk your content into specific modules like some ’90s business plan. The most interesting and compelling stories take a creative approach to case study layout , and they play with perspective.

9 components of a case study: did you include them all?

Now that you know the 9 parts of a case study, take a look back through your own case studies. Have you included each of the components?

And last, but certainly not least, have you squeezed every last ounce of value from your case studies? Here are 13 ways to repurpose your case studies for maximum results.

Get help writing your case studies

Partnering with a SaaS content marketing agency like Uplift Content allows you to produce a consistent flow of high-quality marketing and sales collateral that generates and nurtures leads—and closes sales faster. Check out our case study writing services .

As the founder of Uplift Content, Emily leads her team in creating done-for-you case studies, ebooks and blog posts for high-growth SaaS companies like ClickUp, Calendly and WalkMe. Connect with Emily on Linkedin

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Study Design 101

• Helpful formulas
• Finding specific study types

Case Report

• Meta- Analysis
• Systematic Review
• Practice Guideline
• Randomized Controlled Trial
• Cohort Study
• Case Control Study
• Case Reports

An article that describes and interprets an individual case, often written in the form of a detailed story. Case reports often describe:

• Unique cases that cannot be explained by known diseases or syndromes
• Cases that show an important variation of a disease or condition
• Cases that show unexpected events that may yield new or useful information
• Cases in which one patient has two or more unexpected diseases or disorders

Case reports are considered the lowest level of evidence, but they are also the first line of evidence, because they are where new issues and ideas emerge. This is why they form the base of our pyramid. A good case report will be clear about the importance of the observation being reported.

If multiple case reports show something similar, the next step might be a case-control study to determine if there is a relationship between the relevant variables.

• Can help in the identification of new trends or diseases
• Can help detect new drug side effects and potential uses (adverse or beneficial)
• Educational – a way of sharing lessons learned
• Identifies rare manifestations of a disease

Disadvantages

• Cases may not be generalizable
• Not based on systematic studies
• Causes or associations may have other explanations
• Can be seen as emphasizing the bizarre or focusing on misleading elements

Design pitfalls to look out for

The patient should be described in detail, allowing others to identify patients with similar characteristics.

Does the case report provide information about the patient's age, sex, ethnicity, race, employment status, social situation, medical history, diagnosis, prognosis, previous treatments, past and current diagnostic test results, medications, psychological tests, clinical and functional assessments, and current intervention?

Case reports should include carefully recorded, unbiased observations.

Does the case report include measurements and/or recorded observations of the case? Does it show a bias?

Case reports should explore and infer, not confirm, deduce, or prove. They cannot demonstrate causality or argue for the adoption of a new treatment approach.

Does the case report present a hypothesis that can be confirmed by another type of study?

Fictitious Example

A physician treated a young and otherwise healthy patient who came to her office reporting numbness all over her body. The physician could not determine any reason for this numbness and had never seen anything like it. After taking an extensive history the physician discovered that the patient had recently been to the beach for a vacation and had used a very new type of spray sunscreen. The patient had stored the sunscreen in her cooler at the beach because she liked the feel of the cool spray in the hot sun. The physician suspected that the spray sunscreen had undergone a chemical reaction from the coldness which caused the numbness. She also suspected that because this is a new type of sunscreen other physicians may soon be seeing patients with this numbness.

The physician wrote up a case report describing how the numbness presented, how and why she concluded it was the spray sunscreen, and how she treated the patient. Later, when other doctors began seeing patients with this numbness, they found this case report helpful as a starting point in treating their patients.

Real-life Examples

Hymes KB. Cheung T. Greene JB. Prose NS. Marcus A. Ballard H. William DC. Laubenstein LJ. (1981). Kaposi's sarcoma in homosexual men-a report of eight cases. Lancet. 2(8247), 598-600.

This case report was published by eight physicians in New York city who had unexpectedly seen eight male patients with Kaposi’s sarcoma (KS). Prior to this, KS was very rare in the U.S. and occurred primarily in the lower extremities of older patients. These cases were decades younger, had generalized KS, and a much lower rate of survival. This was before the discovery of HIV or the use of the term AIDS and this case report was one of the first published items about AIDS patients.

Wu, E. B., & Sung, J. J. Y. (2003). Haemorrhagic-fever-like changes and normal chest radiograph in a doctor with SARS. Lancet, 361(9368), 1520-1521.

This case report is written by the patient, a physician who contracted SARS, and his colleague who treated him, during the 2003 outbreak of SARS in Hong Kong. They describe how the disease progressed in Dr. Wu and based on Dr. Wu’s case, advised that a chest CT showed hidden pneumonic changes and facilitate a rapid diagnosis.

Related Terms

Case Series

A report about a small group of similar cases.

Preplanned Case-Observation

A case in which symptoms are elicited to study disease mechanisms. (Ex. Having a patient sleep in a lab to do brain imaging for a sleep disorder).

Now test yourself!

1. Case studies are not considered evidence-based even though the authors have studied the case in great depth.

a) True b) False

2. When are Case reports most useful?

a) When you encounter common cases and need more information b) When new symptoms or outcomes are unidentified c) When developing practice guidelines d) When the population being studied is very large

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How to Use a Design System – A Practical Case Study

Design systems are structured collections of reusable components that help teams build digital products in a consistent, efficient way. But what exactly are they and how do you use them? In this comprehensive guide, we’ll walk through a practical case study on implementing a design system from start to finish.

What is a Design System?

A design system is a set of documented standards and modular, reusable components used to create digital products. It typically includes:

• Style guide: Color palettes, typography, iconography, spacing/layout rules
• Components library: Buttons, inputs, navigation, modal windows, etc.
• Code framework: HTML/CSS frameworks, React components, code documentation
• Voice and tone guidelines: Rules for writing interface copy and content
• Accessibility guidelines: Standards for accessible, inclusive design

Design systems help teams build consistent, high-quality user experiences across platforms. They boost productivity by eliminating redundant work and fostering collaboration between designers and developers using a shared set of tools.

Benefits of Using a Design System

Some key benefits of using a design system include:

• Consistency: Creates a familiar interface for users across platforms
• Efficiency: Greatly reduces design and development work
• Collaboration: Aligns teams to a single source of truth
• Maintainability: Easier to update styles and features
• Scalability: Supports growth into new platforms and products

Established companies like IBM, Shopify, and Apple have published their design systems to promote consistency and unity across their massive product ecosystems. But even smaller teams can benefit greatly from the modular approach enabled by design systems.

Next, let’s walk through a hands-on example of building a marketing website design with an open-source design system.

Case Study: Implementing the Material Design System

To see how design systems work in practice, we’ll work through a real-life example: Using Google’s Material Design System to build the homepage design for a fictional startup app called Novus .

Google‘s Material Design system has 1000+ premade components

Step 1: Select a Design System

Hundreds of free and paid design systems exist to choose from. Popular options include:

• Material Design (Google)
• Fluent UI (Microsoft)
• Carbon Design System (IBM)
• Atlassian Design System

We’ll use Material Design because it’s mature, well-documented, and provides a wide selection of components suitable for marketing site designs.

After browsing the Material homepage and documentation, we gain familiarity with:

• Design principles and goals
• Layout grid recommendations
• Hundreds of premade components like buttons, cards, icons, etc.
• Code frameworks (React, Angular, Vue) for implementation

Now we understand Material’s capabilities. Next we’ll plan the site design using its lego-like building blocks.

Material Design offers premade user interface components

Step 2: Map Site Sections to Components

Based on initial Planning&Discovery Documents for Novus, we know the homepage design requires:

• Hero section – Eye-catching header with branding, tagline and call to action
• Features section – Showcase key app capabilities with icons
• Reviews section – Show ratings, testimonials, or awards
• Pricing section – Compare pricing tiers at-a-glance
• Contact section – Email signup and social media links

We analyze these sections and make initial component selections from the Material library:

This equips us with specific Material building blocks tailored for the project needs. Next we’ll wireframe the layout.

Component mapping complete

Step 3: Construct Layout and Wireframes

Now we sketch rough wireframes for our mobile and desktop homepage layouts using Material’s 8-point grid system for guidance.

We arrange shapes representing our planned components onto artboard canvases. This visualizes information hierarchy and positioning on the page.

Early mobile homepage wireframe draft

Through quick iteration, we decide on an initial responsive layout showcasing key homepage sections.

Satisfied with the wireframes for now, we proceed to open Figma to build an interactive high-fidelity prototype.

Step 4: Build Mobile Screens

Inside Figma, we create 1440px wide artboards for desktop and 375px wide iPhone mobile frames.

Following our wireframes, we reconstruct the mobile homepage layout using Material components.

We drag, drop and edit elements from the Figma Material UI Kit like cards, icons, buttons and hero banners onto our canvas. Customizing colors, text and assets along the way.

Building mobile screens with Material Design components

Within a couple hours, we transform wireframes into high-fidelity interactive prototypes for mobile.

Completed mobile homepage prototype

Step 5: Build Desktop Screens

Next we tackle the desktop layout, duplicating mobile frames as starting points. We stretch components wider and rearrange elements to match desktop wireframe plans.

More time is invested detailing data tables, creating coupon code chips, exposing menu navigation and adding hovers to buttons.

Building the desktop homepage prototype

After several hours of polish, visual hierarchy improves and desktop screens take shape.

Finished desktop homepage prototype

Step 6: Connect Prototype Screens

To demonstrate how users will navigate the experience, we add clickable links between artboards. Homepage buttons now navigate to interior pages.

Together the artboards form a clickable prototype that simulates real app usage flows. This sell the experience to stakeholders for feedback.

Linking multiple screens into a prototype

Step 7: Export and Share Deliverables

Finally, we export production-ready deliverables to share with developers:

• Interactive prototype – for simulating app flows
• Component library – Isolated resuable elements
• UI Kit – Contains layouts, color variables, text styles
• Image asset folder – Logos, custom graphics

These handoff assets empower developers to efficiently code the frontend. They also serve as lasting team resources for current and future projects.

Pro Tip: For extra polish, record a Prototype Demo Video to share with stakeholders!

Exported deliverables help kickstart development

Key Takeaways and Next Steps

And with that, we‘ve created a prototype for Novus‘ marketing site design leveraging Google‘s Material design system as reusable building blocks.

This exercise demonstrates how design systems enable consistency and efficiency designing digital experiences. Let‘s recap learnings:

Benefits realized:

• Professional branding and visuals
• 5x faster design process
• Pixel perfect measurements and correct spacing
• Clickable prototype to demonstrate interactions
• Exportable component library and UI kit as development accelerators
• Promotes consistency across current and future projects

Next step is developers will code the site using exported HTML/CSS frameworks and component libraries as reference. Changes are simplified by tweaking existing styles and elements.

Design systems boost team velocity, allowing us to invest more time innovating rather than executing repetitive tasks. They are clearly integral for crafting exceptional products at scale.

Adopting design systems yields tremendous dividends for organizations over the long run. Hopefully this tutorial provided valuable perspective into leveraging them effectively!

Dr. Alex Mitchell is a dedicated coding instructor with a deep passion for teaching and a wealth of experience in computer science education. As a university professor, Dr. Mitchell has played a pivotal role in shaping the coding skills of countless students, helping them navigate the intricate world of programming languages and software development.

Beyond the classroom, Dr. Mitchell is an active contributor to the freeCodeCamp community, where he regularly shares his expertise through tutorials, code examples, and practical insights. His teaching repertoire includes a wide range of languages and frameworks, such as Python, JavaScript, Next.js, and React, which he presents in an accessible and engaging manner.

Dr. Mitchell’s approach to teaching blends academic rigor with real-world applications, ensuring that his students not only understand the theory but also how to apply it effectively. His commitment to education and his ability to simplify complex topics have made him a respected figure in both the university and online learning communities.

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To manage the challenges associated with increasing costs and demand for healthcare, administrators often propose a re-structure of the workforce to gain more efficiencies. However, this can have detrimental impacts on professions such as allied health if the uniqueness of this workforce is not taken into consideration before, during and after re-structuring. In the dynamic setting of public hospital bed-based services, allied health is highly complex, consisting of diverse professionals (e.g., audiology, physiotherapy, occupational therapy, podiatry, pharmacy, dietetics, social work, and speech pathology), each requiring different technical expertise, training pathways, professional governance, and accountability. This case study evaluates the outcomes of a re-structure of allied health professionals working in bed-based services who transitioned from a matrix to a centralized structure of service delivery. Qualitative data were collected in a survey across three years to gain the perceptions from allied health staff about the impacts of the new structure. The results demonstrated that a centralized profession-based structure with single points of accountability was superior to a matrix structure in this context. The benefits identified included improved governance, administration efficiencies and cost-savings gained by having the budget and professional management aligned. This resulted in improved workforce planning and flexibility that delivered care to patients based on clinical priority. Further benefits included professional skills training pathways and succession planning across clinical specialties which enhanced career opportunities, all of which improved wellbeing and morale. These findings add to the sparse research pertaining to the components (structural, human and systems) to consider when incorporating allied health professionals in a proposed organizational design and the contingencies they require to operate successfully within certain contexts.

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Introduction

To manage challenges associated with increasing costs and demand for healthcare, administrators have been looking for more efficient approaches in delivering quality care and enhancing performance. A common approach aimed at improving overall performance in many large organizations such as public hospitals has been to re-structure. However, past evidence has suggested that implementing structural change without due consideration of the unique requirements of health professionals such as allied health employees can have negative implications (Braithwaite et al. 2006 ; Law and Boyce 2003 ; Mickan et al. 2019 ). A review of allied health professionals (AHPs) working in Victoria, Australia concluded that there is no one best structural model for AHPs as they are a support workforce that connects and contributes to local priority requirements and systems (Buchan and Law 2016 ). Consequently, avoiding the ‘one size fits all’ approach is critical when an organization proposes a new structure that involves AHPs (Braithwaite et al. 2006 ; Law and Boyce 2003 ). This is the basic premise of organizational design theory which recognizes that there is not just one most suitable solution for organizing and that different organizations are not equally effective or efficient (Galbraith 1973 ; Burton and Obel 2018 ).

Organizational theory is defined by Jones ( 2013 ) as the “study of how organizations function and how they affect and are affected by the environment in which they operate” (pp. 30). The focus of organizational theory is to understand how to organize people and resources in order to achieve the organizations objectives (Greenwood and Miller 2020 ). Hence, in order to achieve its goals, the organization needs to focus on both structure and culture. Additionally, organizational design is about how and why various functions are chosen and puts pressure on individuals and work groups to behave in certain ways. Therefore, if the proper balance is not achieved, this can have significant impact on the organization’s performance (Jones 2013 ).

The multi-contingency theory of organizational design developed by Burton and Obel ( 2004 ) explains this further, by relating variations in organizational design to variations in the situation of the organization (i.e., its contingencies), which they conclude should be chosen based on the particular context. Furthermore, the description of the context should be multi-dimensional, including structural components (i.e., goals, strategy, structure, and tasks), human components (i.e., leadership, work processes, and people) and coordination (i.e., control systems, decision systems, information systems, and incentive mechanisms).

In this view, organizational design is more a process than a structure that is constantly adapting and evolving and planning for contingencies that may arise (Burton and Obel 2004 ). Further, the design of an organization shapes the flow of information, resources, and support, which effectively determines the powerholders (Myers 1996 ). Allied health employees are a good example of when the power imbalance in large healthcare organizations can create perceptions of inequitable treatment and lead to workers feeling disenfranchised. Even though AHPs constitute the second largest workforce within the health industry in Australia and make a significant contribution to health improvements, this contribution remains under recognized due to much of the health policy and funding focused predominantly on medicine and nursing (Buchan and Law 2016 ). Subsequently, AHPs are often not visible enough on the health policy agenda and there is little evidence available regarding their cost benefit and value. Consequently, there has been a relative lack of examination of the allied health workforce and how they contribute and influence in healthcare organizations. This has resulted in organizational designs that have minimal consideration given to AHPs and the contingencies that may impact their performance and wellbeing, which has ultimately resulted in unfavorable outcomes (Boyce 2006 ; Robinson and Compton 1996 ; Turato et al. 2023 ).

While there is some debate on the correct definition of this workforce (Turnbull et al. 2009 ), according to the Allied Health Professions Australia (AHPA, 2022), they are considered as health professionals that are separate to medicine, dental and nursing and provide specialized support across a variety of health services. Typically, these include audiology, dietetics, exercise physiology, occupational therapy, pharmacy, physiotherapy, podiatry, psychology, radiography, social work, and speech pathology. They usually operate autonomously and practice in an evidence-based paradigm, using an internationally recognized body of knowledge to provide optimal patient outcomes (AHPA, 2022).

The focus of AHPs in public hospital bed-based services is to work within a multidisciplinary team that delivers a coordinated approach to patient care (AHPA, 2022). This fast-paced context requires AHPs to make rapid clinical decisions frequently and be adaptable and flexible across clinical areas when under pressure to meet clinical demands (Philip 2015 ). They require highly technical knowledge and skills to deliver care in this setting (e.g., social worker organizing crisis accommodation, physiotherapist managing a severe respiratory condition to avoid an admission to the intensive care unit, occupational therapist fabricating a complex hand splint following trauma surgery, pharmacist assisting the medical team with medication management and dosage for acutely unwell patients). These types of pressures distinguish a public hospital bed-based setting from a community or primary care setting, in which the client group is not in the acute stages of treatment or requiring highly technical expertise from AHPs (Philip 2015 ). The relatively limited evidence suggests that for AHPs to function optimally in public hospital bed-based services requires an efficient and effective organizational design that takes into consideration both the multi-faceted nature of the allied health workforce and the layers of professional and clinical governance required to manage them effectively.

Given the specific needs of AHPs working in this sector of the hospital, this case study provides distinctive insights from AHPs, to better understand their operating requirements. This is important for hospital systems to understand if they are proposing to re-structure with the aim of delivering more efficient, sustainable, and effective services. Not taking into consideration the unique requirements of AHPs to function optimally and treating them the same as nursing and medicine is likely to result in poorer outcomes and impact performance (Turato et al. 2023 ). One of the key differences of AHPs when compared to nursing and medicine is the need for each individual allied health professional to navigate multiple identities with respect to their profession, the overarching allied health structure and alignment, and their inter-professional teams (Porter and Wilton 2020 ). The diversity of AHPs, each with different technical expertise, training pathways, sectors of practice and professional governance, makes AHPs working in hospital bed-based services highly complex. Therefore, as healthcare becomes increasingly complex, requiring seamless interdisciplinary teamwork and maximal return on investments in the health workforce, it is critical that the organizations in which AHPs work have considered the structural, human and system components of their design so that the widespread potential AHPs represent is fully realized (Australian Health Workforce Advisory Committee 2006 ).

In this study, the insights and experiences of hospital bed-based AHPs who were involved in a transition from a matrix to a centralized allied health structure were explored. The focus of the research was a large multi-site Australian public hospital and health service with five clinical orientated groupings (i.e., medical, surgical, women’s and children’s, community, and mental health). In 2017, the organization expanded to tertiary level services with the addition of a new hospital. In preparation for this, AHPs were dispersed into each of the five clinical groups under the management of a medical and nursing director. However, the matrix structure did not deliver upon the anticipated outcomes for AHPs working in the medical and surgical clinical groups with a range of unfavorable concerns reported (e.g., ambiguity, reduced workforce flexibility, increased cost, and low morale). Following consultation with key stakeholders and AHPs, a centralized allied health structure was implemented for AHPs working in the medical and surgical clinical units. To measure the outcomes, qualitative data were collected through an online survey in June 2020, 2021 and 2022 through open-ended questions and confirmatory meetings to verify generated themes.

This paper presents the findings of this iterative process and highlights the importance of implementing the ‘right structure’ which has the appropriate governance and support systems for AHPs working within hospital bed-based services. Further, it demonstrates the importance of healthcare administrators needing to be well informed about the complexities of AHPs before they consider embarking on structural change that incorporates AHPs in this context. This research contributes to relevant theory and practice by providing a deeper understanding of the type of structure and functions that may enhance AHPs experience of working in hospital bed-based services. Furthermore, the paper emphasizes that the unique contextual nuances of the work of AHPs are often overlooked during a re-structure, and this can have detrimental outcomes (Turato et al. 2023 ). Given there is limited empirical research about AHPs re-structuring in public hospital bed base services, understanding the experiences and insights of AHPs going through structural change, adds to the evidence that may enhance future structural re-organizations pertaining to this workforce and further maximize their potential and productivity in public hospital settings.

Background/theory

Organizational theory.

Organizational theory has developed over three eras’, with early organizational theorists classifying organizational structures as either mechanistic or organic (Anand and Daft 2007 ). The first era predominantly adopted mechanistic structures during the mid-1800s to the late 1970s and were designed for stable and simple organizational environments with low to moderate uncertainty. They were described as self-contained, top-down pyramids containing internal organizational processes that took in raw materials, transformed them into products which were then distributed to customers (Anand and Daft 2007 ). The second era included organic organizational structures and systems which were designed for unstable, complex, and changing environments, which mechanistic structures could not manage. This era gained momentum in the 1980s and extended through the mid-1990s and incorporated horizontal organic organizational designs with a flattened hierarchical, hybrid structure and cross-functional teams (Daft 2016 ).

A third era formed in the mid-1990s and extends to the present day, being driven by factors, such as the internet, global competition with low-cost labor; automation of supply chains and outsourcing of expertise to speed up production and delivery of products and services. During this period, structures evolved, including the functional, divisional, matrix, global geographic, modular, team-based, and virtual (Daft 2016 ). Given this case study focuses on the centralized divisional and matrix structures, a brief outline of each will be covered next.

The divisional structure incorporates several functional departments grouped under a division head. Each functional group in a division has its own marketing, sales, accounting, manufacturing, and production team. The advantages include, each specialty area can be more focused on the business and budget; employees understand their responsibilities; improved efficiencies of services; and easier coordination due to all the functions being accessible. The disadvantages of this structure include divisions becoming isolated and insular from one another and different systems, such as accounting, finance, and sales, may suffer from poor and infrequent communication and coordination of the organizations mission, direction, and values (Daft 2016 ).

The matrix structure is an organic structure aimed at responding to environmental uncertainty, complexity, and instability (Burton et al. 2015 ; Daft 2016 ). The matrix structure originated at a time in the 1960s when the United States aerospace firms contracted with the government. Since that time, this structure has been imitated and used by other industries and companies since it provides flexibility and helps integrate decision-making in functionally organized companies. The matrix design has formal authority along two dimensions: employees report to a functional, departmental boss and simultaneously to a product or project team boss. This dual reporting has been described as one of the significant weaknesses of matrix structures due to the confusion and conflicts employees experience in reporting to two bosses. Hence, a detailed design of the decision-making process at each junction point is required for a successful matrix organization (Burton et al. 2015 ; Daft 2016 ). Further, to be successful a matrix structure requires important contingencies, such as climate, leadership, knowledge sharing, information technology and incentives that are correctly designed and aligned with one another (Burton et al. 2015 ). The next section will briefly outline specific allied health structural approaches and summarize the implications for the provision of care by AHPs reported in literature.

Allied health models

During the mid-1990s, AHPs were commonly incorporated into the emerging organizational structures in healthcare, with a growing body of research being published about the impacts on AHPs (Law and Boyce 2003 ). It is generally recognized that allied health structures can be classified into four types: (1) the traditional medical model, (2) division of allied health, (3) clinical matrix and (4) integrated decentralization model (Boyce 1991 ). The traditional medical model is where individual profession-based departments report to a medical director (Boyce 1991 ; Law and Boyce 2003 ). This model is common practice in many smaller hospitals in which there are small numbers of AHPs. However, the model is rare in larger hospital settings in Australia where there are high employee numbers within each profession requiring professional governance and oversight (Boyce 2006 ).

In the allied health division model (i.e., centralized profession-based structure), a director of allied health is a member of the executive leadership group and AHPs are centralized into one division (Boyce 2001 ; Law and Boyce 2003 ). The main advantages of this model are argued to be improved communication flow between senior management and departmental managers, and it positions allied health as having more status and a collective identity (Boyce 2001 ). Disadvantages purported are the concentration of power in management, competition between the professions and less identification with a whole of organization view (Boyce 2001 ).

In healthcare organizations implementing the matrix structure involved giving financial control to clinical units and services being organized around patients rather than providers (Braithewaite et al. 2006 ; Law & Boyce 2003 ). This resulted in dispersing individual AHPs into clinical units with a dual authority relationship between professional and operational reporting lines (Boyce 2006 ). Often, an allied health advisor position at the executive level is appointed to address allied health issues occurring within the clinical sub-units (Boyce 2001 ). In the public hospital setting, literature suggests that a matrix structure delivers multiple benefits, such as reduced hospitalization time and costs, better accessibility for patients, and improved coordination of care (Braithwaite et al. 2006 ; Burton et al. 2015 ; Callan et al. 2007 ; Mueller and Neads 2005 ). The aim of including AHPs was to encourage better collaboration and cooperation across the multidisciplinary team (Porter and Wilton 2020 ). However, the growing evidence available reports many negative outcomes, including operational inefficiencies, loss of professional identity, ambiguity over dual reporting lines, low morale, poor job satisfaction and negative impacts to service delivery (Braithwaite et al. 2006 ; Callan et al. 2007 ; Porter and Wilton 2020 ; Robinson and Compton 1996 ; Turato et al. 2023 ).

The hybrid model classified as the integrated decentralization model is a combination of the allied health division and matrix structure (Boyce 1991 ). In this structure, allied health budgets remain under the control of allied health; however, clear documentation of how AHPs will provide care to each of the clinic units is often required. In this model, it is suggested that collaboration brings benefits of transparent operational and strategic planning, including the ability to implement research, clinical education, individual staff development and professional specific quality clinical services (Mueller and Neads 2005 ). However, this model requires good relationships between key stakeholders to ensure its viability.

The allied health models described above provide a brief overview of each with some demonstrating more potential advantages for AHPs. While the insights available on the impacts of structural change on AHPs is growing there is still limited research about the impacts for AHPs going through such change. In this study, the perceptions and experiences of AHPs who have transitioned from a matrix to a centralized allied health structure within public hospital bed-based services are explored. The aims of the study being to first add to the current gap in knowledge about factors that may mitigate negative experiences of AHPs when hospital administrators are considering a re-structure in this setting. Second, what structures and/or supporting strategies are required to meet the complex needs of AHPs working in this dynamic context. Hence, this case study addresses the following research question:

RQ1: What are the insights and experiences of AHPs transitioning from a matrix to a centralized profession-based structure within public hospital bed-based services?

Research context and case background

The region in Australia in which the study took place is described as peri-urban with an estimated population of 400,000 people in 2022. It is the fifth most populated area in Queensland and has grown steadily at an average annual rate of 2.4% year-on-year since 2018. It is a center for tourism, attracting more than 3.2 million visitors each year. The economy has outpaced most other regional economies in Australia in terms of growth over the last 15 years across several key sectors including healthcare, education, finance, and professional business services (Connection Australia 2023 ). The case study research occurred at a multi-campus hospital and health service, with a new tertiary facility opening in 2017. This facility provides tertiary level services to the community and the clinical capability to care for highly complex inpatient and ambulatory care services. The health service is an independent statutory body governed by a Board under the Hospital and Health Boards Act 2011. The health service operates according to a service agreement which identifies the services to be provided, funding arrangements, performance indicators and targets to ensure the expected health outcomes for the community are achieved.

To prepare for this expansion, the allied health workforce (approximately 600 staff) was integrated into the broader organization’s matrix structure in 2014. The organization believed this would support a multidisciplinary culture that was collaborative, reduce service gaps and improve consistency of allied health services. This in turn would involve AHPs in clinical directorate operational planning and improve the reporting of AHPs performance. The individual AHPs were assigned to one of five clinical orientated service groupings. These five groups were medical, surgical, women’s and families, mental health, and community. Medical imaging and pharmacy remained as standalone groups that reported operationally and professionally to a director of those professions. Each director subsequently reported to the service director in the medical group. The new tertiary facility provided the hospital and health service with a total bed count of approximately 884 beds in 2018, which increased to 1032 beds by 2022. The staffing grew from approximately 4500 full time (FTE) equivalent employees to 6500 in 2022 with an operating budget in the 2021–22 annual report of 1.45 billion dollars.

A consequence of the matrix structure was that the allied health executive lead and professional director roles were abolished. Figure  1 illustrates that these roles were replaced by allied health operational manager roles for each service group that were part of the multidisciplinary service group leadership team and a clinical director of allied health role which provided overall professional leadership for allied health.

Allied Health organizational chart following alignment to the matrix-oriented clinical directorate structure

The AHPs in the matrix structure reported operationally to an allied health manager and professionally to a professional leader role (i.e., horizontal gray line in Fig.  1 ) that did not have operational or budgetary responsibility. This resulted in many AHPs having dual reporting responsibilities to either an allied health manager or lead for operational requirements and a professional lead for professional governance (Turato et al. 2023 ).

The structural change to a matrix alignment was met with a range of negative consequences particularly within the medical and surgical groups (Turato et al. 2023 ). Some of these included confusion over reporting lines with multiple conversations needed to resolve workforce matters. Another included increased costs and inefficiencies due to more administration (e.g., several AHPs were aggregate employees with more than one position number for each clinical unit they were working for, with some staff having up to four position numbers). The increase in position numbers multiplied the paperwork involved to manage the employee, hence increasing the cost, time, potential errors, and re-work required. This led to limited opportunities for staff rotations and career opportunities due to the administration needed to manage this. Others included limited growth in staffing levels due to the budget being owned by each clinical unit and often allied health staffing was not advocated for or understood by the clinical unit (e.g., decisions about increasing allied health FTE and in which profession often had no robust planning or reasoning). A further concern raised by AHPs was the overall voice of allied health in the organization was minimized due to the matrix structure, which resulted in AHPs reporting a perceived lower status within the organization. All these factors ultimately led to lowered morale and wellbeing being reported (i.e., public sector employee opinion survey results from 2017 to 2019).

The negative impacts reported led to a strategic decision to implement a centralized allied health structure by amalgamating AHPs in the medical and surgical groups. The posited aims of the shift back to a centralized structure included:

Reduce patient risk through an enhanced discipline lens.

Decrease confusion over reporting lines and improved communication.

Decrease duplication of tasks for AHPs within each service group.

Improve flexibility to mobilize AHPs based on clinical priority.

Improve governance and accountability for AHPs.

Decrease administration time and structural inefficiencies.

Improve support to the facilities outside of the tertiary facility.

Improve the ability to implement new models of care, innovation, and research.

The centralized allied health structure commenced in January 2020 and re-introduced what had been dismantled in 2014. The structure abolished the professional lead and allied health manager roles and created professional director roles that were responsible for both operational and professional requirements. The clinical director allied health role was re-aligned to an executive director allied health role which reported to the chief executive. Figure  2 illustrates the organizational chart for the centralized allied health structure.

Allied Health Centralized Structure

Study design

This research presents qualitative data that were collected through an open-ended questionnaire using an online survey. The questions focused on why and/or how AHPs perceived the new centralized structure and was repeated annually for 3 years (i.e., 2020, 2021 and 2022). Follow-up confirmatory meetings with each profession were also conducted to confirm the themes derived from the survey feedback.

The survey asked participants to consent for their data to be used for research. Participants who did not provide consent were removed from the final research analysis. The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Ethics Committee of The Prince Charles Hospital, Queensland Health Human Research Committee (HREC 18/QPCH/238 on 30/08/2021).

Participants/data collection

Table 1 provides the types of professions and number of staff who consented to participate in the study. The new allied health structure incorporated hospital bed-based services within the Medical and Surgical groups with a total FTE of approximately 400 by 2022. During the planning phase of the study, staff expressed concern over being identifiable if they participated in a survey. For example, the professions with small numbers of staff (i.e., audiology, podiatry, psychology) perceived they could be identifiable if they were asked to disclose gender, age range, years in the profession / organization, level of education etc. Therefore, to encourage increased participation, demographic data were kept to a minimum, with the focus of the survey being on gaining qualitative feedback on the structural change.

This sector of the workforce is typically made up of a range of staffing levels from assistants, new graduates, base grade, senior, advanced and management levels. The staff who took part within each profession are typically representative of the professional roles that work in this sector. Not surprisingly, the professions of physiotherapy, occupational therapy and social work have higher numbers of clinicians working within bed-based services and hence have higher representation in the survey results. Additionally, the total number of employees who participated in the survey by profession is indicated in brackets in Table  1 to demonstrate how representative the sample is of the total population for that profession.

The profession of pharmacy was initially not included in the new centralized structure. This profession was incorporated into the new structure in 2021, but after the 2021 survey was administered. This would explain the no response rate from this profession in 2020 and 2021, but a higher completion rate in 2022. Medical imaging was not incorporated within the new allied health centralized structure and did not participate in the survey.

The response rate ranged from 25% (2020), 23% (2021) and 24% (2022) across the three years. This is a comparable response rate to a similar study published by Porter & Wilton ( 2020 ) on professional identity, in which they collected data following an organizational re-structuring in which AHPs were integrated into a matrix structure, within a large multi-site health network in Victoria, Australia. The survey response rate for each survey conducted pre and post was 23.4% and 20.8%.

The survey asked two open-ended questions about what AHPs perceived to be the barriers or issues regarding the centralized structure and what they believed were the enablers or suggestions to improve the implementation. In addition, participants were asked to provide feedback on the structural change against the aims and reasons for implementing the change (see Appendix 1 for a copy of the survey).

Data analysis

To analyze the narrative data, a manual thematic analysis was completed using a six-phase thematic analysis methodology developed by Braun and Clarke, ( 2006 ). The data analysis method contains a rigorous coding and categorizing methodology that is driven by the data collected during the evaluation process, rather than any analytic preconceptions (Nowell et al. 2017 ). The analysis involved an inductive approach that first identifies themes, which are analyzed initially in a descriptive form before progressing to an interpretive form. The interpretive form attempts to look beyond the surface of the data where the broader meaning and ultimate implications of the themes/patterns are deduced via engagement with the literature (Braun and Clarke 2006 ).

To extrapolate the underlying themes, the first phase involved migrating the raw narrative data from the surveys to column A in a Microsoft Excel worksheet (one sheet per survey question 3, 4 and 5). The primary researcher spent time reading and re-reading the raw data for each of these questions, noting down initial ideas, thoughts, and potential codes/themes (in column B). The primary researcher used this part of the process as a key phase of data analysis—in other words, as an interpretive act (Lapadat and Lindsay 1999 ) in which the primary researcher looked for meaning in the data.

The second phase included generating a single column of all comments per question 3, 4 and 5. The single column of data per question was sorted and reviewed to remove any duplicate entries. The next step was the coding process to determine the potential themes emerging from the data. There were no pre-determined thematic areas in place before the coding process was initiated. For the coding process, each individual cell (participant comment) from the single column of data per question 3, 4, and 5 was reviewed and assigned a potential thematic area, to which a cell color code was applied (yellow, blue, orange, gray etc.).

This data-driven, inductive approach ultimately led to the identification of initial thematic areas, each labeled with a different color. The types of themes that came out of the data were based on similarities of words to create the theme. For example, for the barriers/issues question 4, many participants talked about the problems related to arduous administration tasks. These types of comments were then coded to capture the essence of what the participants were expressing e.g., inefficient, and arduous administration. The codes were then assigned to potential themes for question 4 of which one included “inefficient administration.” In contrast, for question 3 pertaining to whether the aims were being met, many perceived significant improvement and efficiencies with administration, with the code phrased as, “improved administration.” The codes from question 3 were then placed against potential themes with those related to better administration coming under the theme of “ improved systems / processes ” for further analysis and discussion. If some points fell under two themes, the worksheet cell with the raw data was duplicated and each cell color-coded appropriately to ensure everything was recorded. Using the Excel sorting tool, the data was sorted by the color assigned to each cell, and therefore by thematic area. This sorting and collation approach brought together all the key points on each theme which determined the frequency of a theme raised by participants, which in turn assisted the researchers in determining the prominence of a theme (e.g., for the aims question, the frequency of respondents perceiving whether they believed all the aims were being met, versus whether they thought one or more were not being met was carefully considered in the analysis). After sorting and combining similar statements, the initial color-coded data analysis resulted in a list of comments sorted against potential codes/themes by each of the selected questions.

In phase three, the researchers analyzed and interpreted the data to make overall sense of it, rather than just paraphrasing or describing the data. Following the initial coding exercise, the data was copied for each question to a second Excel worksheet. This step involved a “first pass” over the data and involved grouping similar comments to consolidate the data. Every time the pass was performed for each thematic area per question, the data was moved to a new excel worksheet. The reason for the multiple worksheets was that the researchers could go back a step to the previous unconsolidated data set if needed.

To limit researcher bias and ensure the data was credible and accurate, phase four involved a two-researcher confirmation approach, in which each stage of the data analysis was reviewed. The first level involved reviewing at the level of the coded data extracts to determine if they formed a coherent pattern. If this was the case, the researcher then moved onto the second level of this phase to determine the validity of individual themes in relation to the data set. The primary researcher completed a re-read of the entire data set to firstly ascertain whether the themes worked in relation to the data set and secondly to code any additional data within the themes that had been missed in earlier coding stages. The data pass steps were repeated five times (constant comparative analysis) to finally generate the most prominent themes. This process generated a thematic map of the analysis to ensure the analysis and data matched each other. The primary researcher stopped this process once the refinements of the data did not add anything substantial and used two ways to arrange and analyze the data. The first being most prevalent theme to the least prevalent related to the frequency of the information being raised by participants. The second included the Rashomon effect whereby the same event is described from the perspective of more than one participant (Sandelowski 1998 ).

Phase five defined and named the themes, which started once both researchers were satisfied with the thematic map of the data. This involved the researchers defining and further refining the themes to identify the essence of what each theme was about and determining what aspect of the data each theme captured. This phase included reporting of the themes and presenting these to AHPs who had the opportunity to complete the anonymous survey and who volunteered to attend one of a series of confirmation meetings. These meetings clarified and corroborated the generated themes, which confirmed the final set of emergent themes. It is important to note that the aims, barriers, and solutions will be discussed next under four key themes in a combined approach due to many of the solutions being similar to the aims of the new structure and a reverse of the barriers. This avoided duplicating information throughout the results/discussion section.

Results and discussion

Theme 1: systems and processes.

The most prominent theme across the three years was that the centralized structure had greatly improved the systems and processes necessary for AHPs to operate their essential functions within hospital bed-based services. The findings about improvement in systems and processes are similar to the studies outlined in the literature that describe comparable benefits of a centralized allied health profession-based structure in public hospital settings (Law and Boyce 2003 ; Mickan et al 2019 ; Robinson and Compton 1996 ). The following comment sums up the general sentiment of the participants across the three years, “I think overall things are going really well for allied health and the new structure is delivering on the aims it set out to achieve, there is a real sense of hope for the future” (occupational therapist). The survey data indicated a high proportion of AHPs perceived the posited aims of the new structure were being achieved and that a centralized structure in bed-based services for AHPs worked well. This was also confirmed at the confirmatory meetings; however, it was highlighted at these meetings that each profession needed a governance structure that could accommodate their diverse professional requirements.

Thus, a prominent and positive structural feature highlighted by participants was the single point of accountability for each profession, which they believed improved processes by decreasing ambiguity and improving communication (Mickan et al 2019 ). Comments highlighting this included, “ the clear reporting lines and channels of communication improves the speed of response to service needs” (physiotherapist) and “ the new structure is a positive change with less confusion around reporting lines” (speech pathologist). Furthermore, one reporting line decreased the duplication of tasks and subsequently streamlined payroll and administration duties. This resulted in significantly less employees with multiple position numbers, reducing the time required to perform many related administrative tasks, which resulted in improved efficiencies. The following comments reinforced this view point, “the reporting lines are easier to navigate for operational and clinical needs” (social worker) and “ direct reporting lines via each profession means that administrative tasks are more streamlined” (psychologist) and “communication and the ability to implement new models of care appear to be more streamlined and better supported” (physiotherapist) and “the new structure is much more efficient from an admin and payroll perspective, I don’t need to spend hours correcting payroll errors, thank you” (administration staff member). These benefits had substantial implications for not only the AHPs but also the organization due to more streamlined and efficient processes. For example, the grouping of each profession enabled the director of each professional area to complete and approve actions more promptly, reducing duplication of resources and costly administration errors.

Another prominent benefit of single lines of accountability included each director’s ability to flexibly mobilize their staff more seamlessly. This created better delivery of prioritized clinical services due to less arduous negotiations with medical and nursing administrators. It also significantly improved the governance and accountability of staff within each profession. Moreover, the feedback from the participants suggested they believed this reduced patient risk by having an enhanced professional lens through high standards of professional supervision, skills training and support. The following comments sums up the general sentiment, “there is a sense of team, improved accountability and enhanced professional support and career opportunities with the new structure, as well as improved staff mobilization to cover emergent leave” (speech pathologist). Participants reported satisfaction with being able to rotate between clinical specialties which enhanced their career opportunities and succession planning.

One of the few related examples in the literature included research by Robinson and Compton ( 1996 ) which provided practical learnings from their re-structuring from a matrix to a centralized model for physiotherapy staff. Similar to the findings in this case study, they demonstrated for the physiotherapy profession multiple benefits of a centralized model in hospital bed-based services when compared to a matrix model in a very short period. One prominent similarity found not only for physiotherapy, but for all the professions included the operating improvements such as maintenance of staffing levels due to being able to have control of the budget. This resulted in savings being made very quickly due to streamlining processes, such as recruitment, rostering, backfill, ordering non-labor stock, etc. The following comment highlights this, “ we can take a whole of profession approach to movement of staffing into areas of higher need which is appreciated and effective especially throughout times of significant unplanned leave due to COVID and needing to isolate” (occupational therapist).

Many of the system and process efficiencies gained from each profession having control of budget was due to the in-depth understanding and knowledge the directors had about their profession and how best to govern, roster and manage the workforce seamlessly when compared to the previous structure in which the operational manager was not of the same profession, which often resulted in arduous communications between multiple stakeholders to manage clinical demand across the clinical units.

Theme 2: professional identity

The second prominent theme demonstrated that the identity of each profession developed very quickly within the centralized structure and the participants generally expressed they felt more supported and comfortable within their own profession. The data analyzed from the survey results (and confirmed at profession meetings) reported that many respondents perceived that returning to a profession-based structure was positive. A high proportion of participants indicated that operating as professional groups and being in an allied health centralized structure was a better person-environment fit in comparison to the change associated with working in a matrix structure. For many of the AHPs, they perceived a strong sense of familiarity and belonging to their profession and to allied health when compared to their sense of belonging to their clinical unit and the organization. The following comment supports the general sentiment, “ profession specific led teams is proven to work, and this is how other tertiary facilities in Queensland run. Having a different profession govern a discipline they know very little about is a recipe for disaster which we have proven in our previous structure” (dietitian).

This aligns to findings in research which has previously identified the importance of professional identity among AHPs (Braithwaite et al. 2006 ; Porter andWilton 2020 ). This is consistent with the multitude of comments from participants that the new structure was providing strong governance and accountability for each profession. The following comment highlights the general perception from participants, “ the centralized structure provides stronger accountability across the organization and uniform governance and consistency for allied health staff” (psychologist). This is particularly important in hospital bed-based services given the highly specialized skills required to work competently in this setting. In contrast, there was a small number of respondents that identified more positively with the matrix structure, describing a strong allegiance with their multidisciplinary team and/or clinical unit. Therefore, the findings reinforce the importance of managing professional identity of AHPs during structural change, given their experiences of the structural alignment can be perceived differently (Beasley et al. 2020 ; Porter andWilton 2020 ).

This can be explained through Social Identity Theory in which an individual identifies with social groups partly to enhance self-esteem, which is probably why, in this case some of the AHPs did not adjust well to the new structure, even though transitioning to being a member of their own professional group would have been familiar to them (Ashforth and Mael 1989 ). Some AHPs felt a sense of loss for their multidisciplinary leader who provided them with positive reinforcement. The following comment highlights this, “I am concerned that the profession specific model loses the importance of multidisciplinary care and fails to acknowledge how this profession-based change impacts service delivery. I think we need to have the multidisciplinary allied health lead in each clinical unit like before we re-structured to ensure we don’t silo into professions when delivering care to patients” (Physiotherapist).

This case study highlights that any type of structural change in healthcare is likely to impact professional identity in allied health due to the diversity of professions and that this needs to be managed accordingly. Beasley et al. ( 2020 ) recommended organizations recognize that AHPs are autonomous clinicians, who are members of several groups (i.e., own profession, healthcare teams and the organization), with all of these diverse roles influencing both their response and adaption to change. They stated that clear communication and affording opportunities to make decisions and provide feedback can improve employees’ perceptions of change and positively impact their wellbeing (Beasley et al. 2020 ; Byers 2017 ). Furthermore, Braithewaite et al. ( 2005 ) recommended organizations concurrently consider both the previous and the new identities throughout a re-structure by explaining the change initiative and supporting employees to transition from the old to the new identity. This approach can help to ensure security for employees, whose group status is threatened by the change process, as well as broaden perceptions of the ingroup, thereby assisting their acceptance of the new, post-change structure. This point flows into the third prominent theme pertaining to staff morale and wellbeing.

Theme 3: morale and wellbeing

Although the written responses analyzed from the survey questions indicated that a high proportion of participants believed the centralized allied health structure was a positive change, the findings also demonstrated that staff perceived morale and wellbeing to be an issue and was negatively impacted across the time the matrix structure was in place. This case study found low morale and wellbeing before re-structuring AHPs working in hospital bed-based services into a centralized allied health structure. This was suggested to be more inherent in broader change that was occurring and associated with several years of ongoing budget cuts and organizational change in adjusting to a new tertiary facility. While there were many supporting statements the following comment expresses the general perception, “there has been many years of incessant change and a lack of support and resourcing for clinical practitioners, with an expectation to just keep doing more with less due to the ongoing issues with the organizations budget” (social worker).

Another influencing factor that occurred a few months following the re-structure was the COVID-19 pandemic, which participants perceived impacted morale and wellbeing. Literature describes the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, which overwhelmed and stretched healthcare systems past their limits in terms of capacity and resources, while striving to continue to deliver quality care (Søvold et al. 2021 ). This resulted in significant impacts on the mental health and psychosocial wellbeing of frontline healthcare workers (including AHPs) and increased risk of depression and burnout (Søvold et al. 2021 ; Willis et al. 2021 ). The following comment supports this view, “the workloads are unrelenting and leading to both overt and silent burnout. Increasing patient complexity and volume is beyond that which allied health staff can meet discharge planning and patient care demands” (occupational therapist).

Within the narrative feedback, many comments were made that staff were thankful of being in a profession-based structure at the time the pandemic started. Participants believed the one line of accountability and professional expertise allowed immediate decision-making such as being able to mobilize staff quickly to the areas of most need. The following comment highlights this point, “the new structure brought each profession together as a cohesive team which was invaluable during the pandemic where we needed the support from colleagues in our profession to cope and meet the demands” (physiotherapist). During the pandemic, it became very clear that having a flexible and adaptable workforce and an overall professional director that understood the complexities and skill sets of their professional group was extremely important due to managing higher numbers of emergent sick leave.

The negative impact of the pandemic on staff morale and wellbeing was a prominent theme in both the 2021 and 2022 survey results due to workforce shortages and staff feeling significant pressure to do more with less with comments like, “ although overall I agree the new allied health structure has improved a number of parameters, the projected benefits have been clouded by other variables notably budget constraints and ongoing emergent leave due to the pandemic impacting resources” (social worker). Even though the structure was considered positive, the pandemic added another layer of complexity that impacted staff morale negatively within the new structure. The pandemic placed added strain on staffing levels across allied health, nursing, medicine, operational and administration. The staff shortages impacted the organization’s budget as shifts needed to be replaced or staff paid overtime to ensure there were adequate levels of staffing on the inpatient units. Many staff commented, “staff morale could have been much worse in allied health if the matrix structure had still been in place as we would not have been able to be so adaptable and flexible within in our professions” (speech pathologist). Therefore, even with the pressures described, the perception from AHPs was that morale had improved because of the new structure due to increased collaboration and support within each profession. Even though improvement in morale was evident within the allied health workforce, many of the participants perceived low morale was still an issue that required a targeted approach by the allied health leaders, which is discussed next.

Theme 4: Leadership training and resources to support the change

The final prominent theme from the data analysis was extrapolated from the open-ended question pertaining to the enablers that could improve the re-structure. The most prominent were resources and leadership, with many respondents reporting a perceived lack of project support in implementing the new structure. Even though many of the respondents believed the new structure had improved the operating systems, they perceived there was not enough resourcing to support the leaders to implement the change effectively with comments like, “the structure is much better from an operating perspective, however more project resources are needed to help the leaders embed the new structure, particularly business, administration and human resource support for team building and helping staff to accept the change” (physiotherapist). Across the three years, the feedback continued to have a strong theme around lack of resourcing and the need to provide a dedicated project or workforce development officer role(s) so the professional directors could meet all the requirements to implement the change. There was the perception from participants that the under resourcing may have impacted the potential benefits of the re-structure.

Furthermore, the participants described concerns over the professional directors being reactive and that there was a lack of consistency between professions that was reinforcing the perception by participants that the professions were siloing and doing their own thing. The following comment sums up the general sentiment of the survey feedback, “ the professional directors need to establish consistency across the professions in relation to portfolios, expectations, accountability and workloads” (psychologist).

A related theme raised by some participants was the lack of perceived capability and competence pertaining to management and leadership. The director roles were new positions created as part of the re-structure, with some being new incumbents to the organization. It was suggested the directors were not provided with the training they needed to lead and manage complex change. Many participants reinforced this point by providing feedback that for the allied health culture to improve more training was required for some of the professional directors to gain the necessary skills to do this effectively. Comments that reinforce this include, “strong directorship is required to ensure a positive culture, and to support staff to provide safe clinical care, managers need to be empathetic, visible and connect with their staff” (physiotherapist) and “leadership and management training for some professional directors on how to effectively conduct strategic planning, communicate change, lead teams etc. is needed” (social worker).

Mickan et al. ( 2019 ) supported these findings, concluding from their study of allied health managers and employees that for a structure to be successful credible, skilled, and respected allied health leaders were required to enact the systems and processes between AHPs and clinical service managers to ensure the necessary integration within clinical teams. Turato et al. ( 2022 ) findings emphasized the importance of allied health leaders developing the necessary skills in human resource management in hospitals to effectively manage relationships among people. They concluded this would improve morale and wellbeing as allied health managers and leaders would be better equipped to manage incivility through complex change. The following comments emphasize this theme, “ the professional directors should be trained in advanced communication and management skills and they must have a sense of empathy which is almost always overlooked when appointing someone into a management position however, I believe it is a key attribute in managing a large team” (dietitian) and “the allied health leaders need to better understand the needs of clinical practitioners and make an effort to plan collaboratively, in a way that supports direct clinical care” (occupational therapist) .

Conclusions

This study reports on the perceptions, thoughts, and insights of AHPs working in hospital bed-based services that have re-structured from a matrix to a centralized allied health profession-based structure and the consequential impacts on the workforce. The results from the experiences and insights of participants in this case study demonstrated that within public hospital bed-based services, a centralized allied health structure was considered superior to a matrix structure (Boyce 2001 , 2006 ; Mickan et al. 2019 ; Robinson and Compton 1996 ).

The reasons why the centralized structure was superior for AHPs working in bed-based services can be explained through the theory of organizational design, which not only highlights the importance of context, but also in taking a systematic approach to aligning structures, processes, leadership, culture, people, practices, and metrics to enable optimal performance (Burton and Obel 2018 ). Ultimately, the centralized allied health structure was a better person-context fit than the matrix structure. The main reasons being that the centralized structure supported AHPs to operate both administration and clinical practices efficiently through single lines of accountability that could effectively govern and support each profession, all of which improved the culture and morale of AHPs in bed-based services.

In contrast, the previous matrix structure was described by AHPs in this context as complex and confusing, which is reinforced by past research regarding the tell-tale signs of when a matrix structure is failing. The signs included the operational managers not having the necessary knowledge to effectively solve problems being raised by the professional managers. The operations were not coordinated, resource utilization was inefficient and costly, the clinical units were spending excessive time trying to coordinate and negotiate with each other, all of which resulted in staff feeling unhappy and confused (Burton and Obel 2018 ). Further issues described in literature and found in this case study were loss of professional identity, ambiguity, inconsistency, and frequent disagreements which further contributed to lower staff morale among AHPs (Robinson and Compton 1996 ; Turato et al 2023 ).

Hence, this case study demonstrates that an acute and sub-acute bed-based setting is different to other environments in which AHPs work, such as community and primary care settings, outside of the hospital context. In community and primary care settings, staff work autonomously as case managers with a caseload of predominantly medically stable patients that are managed by their local doctor. The pace is slower with minimal pressure to discharge patients quickly from doctors, nurses and administrators that need access to inpatient beds. Therefore, the systems, processes and people can be managed more effectively to cope with sudden changes such as emergent leave, etc. Furthermore, staff who work in these contexts are often more senior AHPs who require less supervision, training, and governance due to having years of experience and expertise. Hence, the structural issues experienced in a fast-paced dynamic hospital setting do not appear to have the same impacts in settings where AHPs work as case managers.

In this case study, the matrix structure did not deliver on the anticipated outcomes for AHPs because the systems, processes and lines of authority required for AHPs to work effectively in this context were not appropriately executed and maintained. Moreover, the climate, leadership, knowledge sharing and decision-making processes at each junction point were not clearly defined or performing (Burton and Obel 2018 ). Further, the findings demonstrate for a matrix structure to work effectively, highly competent allied health managers who have good interpersonal communication, conflict management, negotiation, and political skills to manage up and down the organization is essential (Burton and Obel 2018 ).

This is also true for the centralized structure, even with single lines of accountability, the findings highlighted that leadership/management preparation and training for each professional manager is crucial before, during and after implementation to embed the new structure, manage complex change and ensure efficient performance. The findings demonstrated that this could have done better, including the provision of skilled project resources to support the professional managers to embed the new structure. Finally, the change in professional identity for AHPs is important to consider and manage to ensure consistency within and across professions, particularly in relation to the multidisciplinary team (i.e., individual professional identity versus the overall allied health identities at the clinical unit and management level). Even though the AHPs were returning to a familiar professional identity, it became clear that this needed to be more clearly defined, particularly for those clinicians who had an overall allied health leadership role within the multidisciplinary team.

This case study provides learnings that would be worth further investigation. The first being the importance of considering the evidence and theory of organizational design during the planning phase of a new structure so that all contingencies are considered in relation to AHPs working in contexts such as bed-based services. A number of factors may have contributed to this not being done in this case study, one of which included AHPs not having an allied health role on executive that could inform and provide counsel to administrators about the potential negative outcomes of the matrix structure for AHPs working in bed-based services. Another included the transitioning from regional to tertiary level services and the commissioning team not having a good understanding of what AHPs required to function, but rather taking a global organizational design perspective (i.e., one size fits all approach), which did not consider the specific needs of each professional group and what would be required for a matrix structure to be successful.

The findings in this case study add to the literature and emphasize that the context of public hospital bed-based services is not the same as other contexts and that the way AHPs are structured does have significant impact on their functioning. AHPs in this fast-paced setting need highly specialized skills and clearly defined operational and professional governance structures, systems, and processes in place to function optimally. Furthermore, competent profession-based management and leadership is required to ensure the unique and diverse requirements of each profession is being governed appropriately so AHPs can deliver high quality and prioritized clinical care. Additionally, both executive and professional director organizational representation and advocacy for AHPs in this context is vital so AHPs can contribute positively to the organization’s objectives and performance. In conclusion, there is a need for further research that investigates and reports upon AHPs unique and dynamic professional contexts in which they operate, their position in the healthcare system and the ways in which they respond and adapt to change during organizational re-structures, including the external impacts imposed upon them (Boyce 2001 ; Callan et al. 2007 ; Porter and Wilton 2020 ; Turato et al. 2023 ). Specifically, further research regarding hospital system organizational design components pertaining to AHPs is encouraged, such as resource availability, training, staff turnover, morale, creation of a shared identity, representation, and system efficiencies, such as cost reduction.

Practical implications

This case study warns against organizations re-structuring AHPs in hospital bed-based services without considering the diverse requirements for AHPs to operate successfully in this context. Lack of due diligence in the planning phases of a new or modified organizational design can have substantial detrimental impacts on professional identity, morale and wellbeing and productivity, all of which can lead to poor or delayed outcomes for professional groups such as allied health. Furthermore, Braithewaite (2005) suggests allied health service restructurings would benefit from a combination of process and outcome evaluation measures (e.g., professional identity, retention, staff satisfaction and clinical outcomes). Hence, the findings highlight the importance of considering an evidence-based approach when proposing a new structure in healthcare organizations so critical discussions about how organizational designs can be utilized to enhance service provision by AHPs within particular contexts are prominent. This approach would provide comprehensive evidence for healthcare administrators and commissioning teams to consider before they embark on widespread organizational change (Braithwaite et al. 2005 ; Turato et al. 2023 ).

Data availability

All data have been de-identified and is stored in a workplace drive that is protected by username and password, which can be made available upon request.

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Acknowledgements

The first author would like to acknowledge the support given by the Sunshine Coast Hospital and Health Service with administrative and in-kind provisions.

Institutional review board statement

The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Ethics Committee of The Prince Charles Hospital, Queensland Health Human Research (HREC 18/QPCH/238 on 5 July 2018 with an additional approval letter received by TPCH HREC to complete a follow-up survey on 30/08/2021).

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G.T. designed the study and drafted the initial manuscript, which was reviewed and edited by J.W. & R.O. All the authors were equally involved in the analysis of the results and the discussions that led to G.T. finalising the manuscript, which J.W. and R.O reviewed / edited before G.T. submitted to the journal.

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Allied health survey

The new centralized allied health structure for hospital bed-based services went live on 28 January 2020. It was decided the best way to gain feedback about how the new structure is progressing was by an annual confidential survey and follow-up meetings with each profession. We are now asking for your feedback as your opinion is highly valued and very important. The survey will take about 15–20 min to complete; thank you very much for taking the time to answer the following questions:

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What is your discipline?

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Allied Health Assistant.

Nutrition & Dietetics.

Occupational Therapy.

Physiotherapy.

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Speech Pathology.

Below are the aims and reasons for implementing the change. Please provide your feedback on which of the aims you believe the new structure is achieving and which require more work. Please be specific and provide as much detail as you can about why an aim is being achieved or not achieved.

Reduced patient risk through an enhanced discipline lens

Decreased confusion over reporting lines and improved communication to allied health staff

Decreased duplication of tasks for allied health staff within each service group, e.g., quality, education and training programs, supervision, rostering, mandatory training, and workforce planning tasks such as leave management

Improved flexibility to mobilize the allied health workforce based on clinical priority

Improved governance and accountability of allied health staff

Decreased administration time required to maintain the centralized allied health structure when comparted to the previous matrix (dispersed) structure: i.e., payroll tasks, maintaining rosters, workforce planning

Improved support to the facilities outside of the tertiary facility

Improved ability to implement new models of care, innovation, and research

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Turato, G., Whiteoak, J. & Oprescu, F. The insights of allied health professionals transitioning from a matrix structure to a centralized profession-based structure within a public hospital setting. J Org Design (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41469-024-00178-w

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Title: legacy learning using few-shot font generation models for automatic text design in metaverse content: cases studies in korean and chinese.

Abstract: Generally, the components constituting a metaverse are classified into hardware, software, and content categories. As a content component, text design is known to positively affect user immersion and usability. Unlike English, where designing texts involves only 26 letters, designing texts in Korean and Chinese requires creating 11,172 and over 60,000 individual glyphs, respectively, owing to the nature of the languages. Consequently, applying new text designs to enhance user immersion within the metaverse can be tedious and expensive, particularly for certain languages. Recently, efforts have been devoted toward addressing this issue using generative artificial intelligence (AI). However, challenges remain in creating new text designs for the metaverse owing to inaccurate character structures. This study proposes a new AI learning method known as Legacy Learning, which enables high-quality text design at a lower cost. Legacy Learning involves recombining existing text designs and intentionally introducing variations to produce fonts that are distinct from the originals while maintaining high quality. To demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed method in generating text designs for the metaverse, we performed evaluations from the following three aspects: 1) Quantitative performance evaluation 2) Qualitative evaluationand 3) User usability evaluation. The quantitative and qualitative performance results indicated that the generated text designs differed from the existing ones by an average of over 30% while still maintaining high visual quality. Additionally, the SUS test performed with metaverse content designers achieved a score of 95.8, indicating high usability.

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• Step 1: Selecting a Bridge
• Superstructure, which includes bearings, bridge deck, cast-in-place slab, and girders.
• Substructure, which includes the abutment, wing and return walls, piers, pier cap, and foundation.
• Non-structure, which includes parapets, joints, and drainage systems.
• How long is the bridge out-of-service? The protocol assesses the duration of the bridge being out-of-service, setting a cut-off time of 10 days. In determining the impact of service disruption, it is important to identify the categorization of a bridge to the community the bridge services. Experts would assess if the specific bridge was categorized as “critical” or “non-critical”. Critical bridges, such as those connecting major transportation corridors or servicing remote communities, will require a shorter service interruption, while non-critical bridges can withstand a longer period of service interruption. Therefore, the threshold may vary depending on the specific criticality of the bridge function. It is important to recognize that there are no universal, one-size-fits-all standards for determining the threshold on bridge out-of-service duration. The protocol suggests a 10-day cutoff as a starting point in the absence of a categorization of a specific bridge.
• What is the magnitude of the damage to the surrounding ecosystem? The methodology evaluates the magnitude of damage to the surrounding ecosystem and identifies whether the damage is permanent or not. Understanding the ecological impact of the bridge failure is critical in determining the overall severity of the impact.
• What is the magnitude of damage to the bridge structure? The protocol considers the magnitude of the damage to the bridge structure and determines the impact of damage for rebuilding, repairing, or managing through regular maintenance and repair programs.

3.1. Step 1: Bridge Selection

• Age: Originally constructed in 1959.
• Span: A 28.8 m single-span rigid frame bridge.
• Construction: Three variable-depth reinforced concrete box girders; abutments situated adjacent to highway shoulders.
• Operation: Structure carried two lanes of Westminster Drive over four lanes of Highway 401.
• Age: The bridge was replaced after the decision of the Ontario Ministry of Transportation (MTO) in 2014.
• Span: Two-span continuous integral abutment bridge, 29.8 m each.
• Construction: GiGo (get in get out) bridge construction concept, pier situated in the median.

3.2. Step 2: Identifying and Analyzing Each Component for Impact Assessment

3.3. step 3: calculation of utilization factor for design temperature and projected temperature, 3.4. step 4: severity evaluation, 3.5. step 5: determination of overall risk rating.

• Utilization factor risk rating = 3 (High). As demonstrated in Table 9 , the risk rating was determined to be 3.
• Socioeconomic factor risk rating = 2 (Medium). As demonstrated in Table 10 , the risk rating was evaluated to be 2.
• Occurrence rating = 3 (High). As demonstrated in Table 5 , and inputting other factors into Table 5 , the occurrence rating was determined to be 3.

4. Discussion

5. conclusions and future work, author contributions, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Altamimi, S.; Amleh, L.; Fang, L. Risk Assessment Protocol for Existing Bridge Infrastructure Considering Climate Change. Climate 2024 , 12 , 132. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli12090132

Altamimi S, Amleh L, Fang L. Risk Assessment Protocol for Existing Bridge Infrastructure Considering Climate Change. Climate . 2024; 12(9):132. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli12090132

Altamimi, Shereen, Lamya Amleh, and Liping Fang. 2024. "Risk Assessment Protocol for Existing Bridge Infrastructure Considering Climate Change" Climate 12, no. 9: 132. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli12090132

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